OSI and TCP/IP Data Models

Reference Models
TCP/IP
An architectural model is a common frame of reference for explaining Internet communications and developing
communication protocols. It separates the functions of protocols into manageable layers. Each layer performs a specific
function in the process of communicating over a network.

The TCP/IP model was created by researchers in the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD). The TCP/IP suite of protocols
is the dominant standard for transporting data across networks and the Internet. It consists of layers that perform
functions necessary to prepare data for transmission over a network. The chart shows the four layers of the TCP/IP
model.

A message begins at the top application layer and moves down the TCP/IP layers to the bottom network access layer.
Header information is added to the message as it moves down through each layer and is then transmitted. After
reaching the destination, the message travels back up through each layer. The header information that was added to the
message is stripped away as the message moves up through the layers toward its destination.

Application Layer Protocols

Application layer protocols provide network services to user applications, such as web browsers and email programs.
Common protocols that operate at the application layer include HTTP, Telnet, FTP, SMTP, DNS, and HTML.

Transport Layer Protocols

Transport layer protocols provide end-to-end management of the data. One of the functions of these protocols is to
divide the data into manageable segments for easier transport across the network. Common protocols that operate at the
transport layer include TCP and UDP.

Internet Layer Protocols

Internet layer protocols provide connectivity between hosts in the network. Common protocols that operate at the
Internet layer include IP and ICMP.

Network Access Layer Protocols

Network access layer protocols describe the standards that hosts use to access the physical media. The IEEE 802.3
Ethernet standards and technologies, such as CSMA/CD and 10BASE-T, are defined in this layer.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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OSI
In the early 1980s, the International Standards Organization (ISO) developed the Open Systems Interconnect (OSI)
reference model to standardize the way devices communicate on a network. This model was a major step toward
ensuring interoperability between network devices.

The OSI model divides network communications into seven distinct layers. Although other models exist, most network
vendors today build their products using this framework.

A system that implements protocol behavior consisting of a series of these layers is known as a protocol stack. Protocol
stacks can be implemented either in hardware or software, or a combination of both. Typically, only the lower layers
are implemented in hardware, and the higher layers are implemented in software. Each layer is responsible for part of
the processing to prepare data for transmission on the network. The chart shows what each layer of the OSI model does.

In the OSI model, when data is transferred, it is said to virtually travel down the OSI model layers of the sending
computer and up the OSI model layers of the receiving computer.

When a user sends data, such as an email, the encapsulation process starts at the application layer. The application layer
provides network access to applications. Information flows through the top three layers and is considered to be data
when it gets down to the transport layer.

At the transport layer, the data is broken down into more manageable segments, called protocol data units (PDUs), for
orderly transport across the network. A PDU describes data as it moves from one layer of the OSI model to another.
The transport layer PDU also contains information used for reliable data transport, such as port numbers, sequence
numbers, and acknowledgement numbers.

At the network layer, each segment from the transport layer becomes a packet. The packet contains logical addressing
and other Layer 3 control information.

At the data link layer, each packet from the network layer becomes a frame. The frame contains physical address and
error
correction
information.

At the physical
layer, the
frame becomes
bits. These bits
are transmitted
one at a time
across the
network
medium.

At the
receiving
computer, the
de-
encapsulation
process
reverses the
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process of encapsulation. The bits arrive at the physical layer of the OSI model of the receiving computer. The process
of traveling up the OSI model of the receiving computer brings the data to the application layer, where an email
program displays the email.

NOTE: Mnemonics can help you remember the seven layers of the OSI. Some examples include “All People Seem To
Need Data Processing” and “Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away”.

Comparing the OSI

and TCP/IP Models
The OSI model and the TCP/IP
model are both reference models
used to describe the data
communication process. The TCP/IP
model is used specifically for the
TCP/IP suite of protocols, and the
OSI model is used for the
development of standard
communication for equipment and
applications from different vendors.

The TCP/IP model performs the

same process as the OSI model, but
uses four layers instead of seven.
The chart shows how the layers of
the two models compare.

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