Unit 1 – Talking about yourself

1. USES OF HAVE AND GET

1.1 USES OF HAVE

Uses of have Auxiliary Verb Main Verb

Present/Past Perfect
Experiences I have never been to England.
He had seen the fil before.
Have got To have
Possession I have got three brothers. I have three brothers

Have got to Have to

Obligation I have got to wear a uniform I have to wear a uniform

Have + (dinner, a shower…)

Dynamic I always have lunch alone

1.2 USES OF GET

Phrasal Verb Get up/ Get by

Get + Noun Get home/ Get to bed

Get + Adjective Get tired

Get + Past Participle Get married

2. PHRASAL VERBS

2.1 HOW TO LEARN PHRASAL VERBS

❖ Learn them in context (topics)

Example: telephone phrasal verbs (cut off, get through, hang on, hold on…)

❖ Groping the same verb with different particles

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Example: the verb look (look up, look forward to, look round, look back…)

❖ Grouping different verbs but using the same particle with different meaning.
❖ Example: the particle up (dress up, bring up, catch up, call up, eat up…)

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2.2 TYPES OF PHRASAL VERBS

❖ Intransitive phrasal verbs (non-separable)

Example: go off, get up, hurry up, go up…

❖ Transitive phrasal verbs (separable), you can separate them and introduce a
word in the middle.
Example: turn up/down, put on, pick up, look up…

❖ Transitive phrasal verbs (non-separable)

Example: look for, get in, take after…

❖ Phrasal verbs with two particles (non-separable)

Example: look up to, look forward to…

GRAMMAR

Present simple, continuous, present perfect simple and continuous

3.1 PRESENT SIMPLE

We use the present simple:

• For facts: Water boils at 100º and freezes at 0º. Cows don’t eat meat.
• For permanent situations: I don’t live in the city. He works on an oil rig,
• To describe opinions and ideas: I think New York is exciting. You don’t
understand.
• To describe likes and dislikes: My grandfather likes the countryside. I prefer the
city.

REGULAR ACTIONS, HABITS AND ROUTINES

We use the present simple for things that are often repeated, or that happen regularly:
He works there once a month. Do the children go out in the evenings? No, they watch
TV.

To say how often the action happens, we use

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• Adverbs of frequency (e.g. always, often) after be or before a main verb: Angelo
is often late for work. He always climbs to the top. Do you drive for work? Not
really, we usually use public transport. We rarely drive.

• Other time expressions. They usually go at the end of the sentence: Do you come
to the studio every day? I go on holiday once a year. We go to our

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grandparents’ for lunch on Sunday.

These can also go at the beginning, for more emphasis: Every morning, I start work at
8:30.

DESCRIBING FILMS, PLAYS AND BOOKS

We usually use the present simple when we describe what happens in a film, play or
book:

The story takes place in the United States. The main character works on a farm.

When a sports game is described live on TV, the present simple is often used for quick
actions:

Giggs passes to Rooney. Rooney shoots – he scores!

PRESENT CONTINUOUS

FORM

POSITIVE I’m having lunch. He’s watching TV. They’re running away.
NEGATIVE I’m not watching TV. She isn’t having lunch. We aren’t staying there.
QUESTIONS Are you watching TV? (No, I’m not) Is she running away? (Yes, she is)
What are they having for lunch?

ACTIONS HAPPENING NOW OR AROUND NOW

We use the present continuous for

• Actions happening while we are speaking: Hurry up. The taxi’s waiting. Are you
watching TV? No. I’m doing my homework.

• Actions happening around the time of speaking: Trudi’s studying animal

behaviour.

• Temporary situations: We’re staying at my mother’s while the builders are

repairing the roof of our house.

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 With this uses of the present continuous, we often use time expressions like now, at the
moment, today, this week, etc: I can’t talk for long because I’m cooking at the moment.
Joe isn’t working at home this week – he’s at a conference in Germany.

We sometimes use the present continuous with always to criticize another person’s
actions. In speech we stress always strongly in this type of sentence: Yolanda’s always
calling me late at night. I’m getting really fed up with it.

I’ve lost my keys. Can you come home and let me in? you’re always losing your keys!

CHANGES AND TRENDS

We use the present continuous to talk about things that are changing as we speak:
Harry’s been really ill but he’s getting better now. Prices are going up again. More
people are taking their pets to the vet with behaviour problems these days.

DESCRIBING PICTURES

We use the present continuous to describe what is happening in pictures and photos: In
the photo on page 81, the scientists are tasting food. The woman in the middle is
holding a cup…

PRESENT SIMPLE OR PRESENT CONTINUOUS

Present Simple Present Continuous

1. Permanent situations; things we do not 1. Temporary situations, for a limited

expect to change period of time
Ex: Janice lives in London with her Ex: But Janice is staying in a hotel this
husband and children. weekend.
Reese drives her car to work Time expressions: today, this week, at the
moment.

2. Regular actions, habits, and routines 2. Actions that are happening at/around
the time we are speaking.
Ex: Janice is a pilot. She flies all over the
world. Ex: Janice is flying to Sydney today.
The moon goes around the Earth Today expressions: (right) now, at the
moment, today
Time expressions: usually, often, every
day, once a month, at the weekend, most
days.

3. Permanent situations; things we do not 3. Something is changing

expect to change. Ex: More and more women are training
to become pilots these days.

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Ex: Pilots usually train for about two

years to get flying licence.

4. To describe events in a book, play o ¡r 4. To describe what is happening a photo

film. or picture

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Ex: The story starts in Madrid. The main That’s my niece in the photo. She’s riding
character lives there. One day, he goes her brother’s bike.
out and…

ACTION VERBS

Action verbs describe an action and can usually be used in both simple and continuous
forms:

We usually drive to work, but at the moment we aren’t driving because the car has
broken down.

STATE VERBS

State verbs describe states rather than actions, e.g. ways of thinking or feeling. These
verbs are not usually used in the continuous form:

I prefer classical music to popular music. I’m preferring classical music to popular
music.

Do you understand the maths homework now? Are you understanding the maths
homework now?

State verbs Examples

Verbs of feeling/wanting Like, love, dislike, hate, prefer, Does she like her present?
need, want, wish I need a little more time
(BUT we often use enjoy in the (Are you enjoying that book?)
continuous)
Verbs of Believe, doubt, forget, know, I don’t believe in luck
thinking/believing mean, realize, recognize, Do you know the answer?
remember, think, understand We think she’s really nice
Verbs of being/appearing Appear, be, seem This door appears to be locked
Maria seems very helpful
Verbs of Belong, contain, have (got), These drinks contain Vitamin C
possessing/relating own, possess Duncan has two Ferraris
Sense verbs Hear, see, smell, taste Listen! Do you hear music?
This coffee tastes really good
The verbs agree, cost, promise and thank are also rarely used in the continuous tense:

I agree with you. The hotel costs 100€ a night. We promise not to be late. He always
thanks us with a card or flowers.

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STATE VERBS AND THE CONTINUOUS FORM

We can use some state verbs in the continuous form, with a different and more active
meaning:

State (present simple) Action (present continuous)

Have I have two sisters (=possess) I’m having breakfast right now (=eating)

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Think What do you think of it? What are you thinking about?
(=what’s you opinion?) (=considering at the moment)
Appear It appears that they’re going to close Taylor Swift is appearing at the local
the theatre. (=seems that/looks like) theatre next week. (=performing)
Taste Your soup tastes wonderful! (=a quality I’m tasting the soup to check if it needs
of the soup) any more salt. (=I’m checking/testing it)
See Do you see the difference between the Are you seeing your friends a lot at the
two pictures? (=can you notice it?) moment? (=meeting regularly)

• We can also sometimes use state verbs in the continuous when we want to
emphasize that the state is unusual or unexpected, and probably temporary:

My new car uses a lot of petrol so it’s costing me a fortune. (I don’t usually spend
this much on petrol)

I’m finding it difficult to organize my time at the moment. (This is unusual for me; I
usually organize my time well)

• Some verbs which express physical states (feel, hurt, ache) can be used in the
simple or continuous forms with no (o very little) difference in meaning:

How do you feel/are you feeling today? I feel/I’m feeling a lot better, thanks.

My back aches/is aching this morning

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 PRESENT PERFECT (FOR PAST EXPERIENCES AND PRESENT RESULTS)

1.FORM

We form the present perfect with have + past participle. The regular past participle ends
in -ed.

Positive I have (‘ve) finished

She has (‘s) gone
They have (‘ve) broken it
Negative I have not (haven’t) finished
He has not (hasn’t) gone
We have not (haven’t) broken it
Questions Have you finished?
Has he gone?
Where have you been?

There is a difference in meaning between been and gone:

My parents have gone to New York on holiday. (= They are there now)

My parents have been to New York. (= They have visited it in the past, and have
returned home)

2. PAST EXPERIENCES

We use the present perfect to talk about actions and experiences that have happened in
our lives up to now.

Have you driven an automatic before? I’ve travelled a lot. My father has worked for
several different companies.

We can use expressions like often, once, twice or several times to say ‘how often’.:

I’ve eaten in that restaurant several times. My parents have visited Canada twice.

3. EVER, NEVER, BEFORE

- We often use ever to ask questions about past experiences. It means ‘in your life’:

Have you ever driven a truck? Has Kemal ever been to an opera?

- We use never in negative sentences. It means ‘not in your life’

I’ve never swum with dolphins. Caroline’s never eaten Chinese food

We put ever and never before the past participle:

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Have you been ever to California?

Have you ever been to California? No. I’ve never been there.

- We often use before to say whether it’s the first time we’ve done something:

We’ve been here before. We came for my birthday. (= We are here now and we’ve been

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here in the past as well.)

I haven’t stayed in a five-star hotel before. (= I am going to stay in one soon – for the
first time)

4. PAST ACTIONS WITH PRESENT RESULTS

We can use the present perfect to talk about a past action that has a result in the present:

My car’s broken down. (= It broke down earlier, and it isn’t working now)

They’ve gone out. (= They went out earlier, and they aren’t home now)

Compare this with the past simple, where the action and the result are both in the past:

My car broke down last year and I couldn’t drive it for three weeks.

5. JUST, ALREADY, RECENTLY

• We use just to talk about actions that happened a very short time ago:

The plane has just landed. The shop has just closed – you can’t go in now.

• Already means ‘before the expected time’. We use it in positive sentences:

You’ve missed the match. It’s already finished.

We usually put just and already before the pas participle.

My car has broken down just. My car has just broken down.

• We use recently to talk about actions that happened in the last few days or
months:

Have you seen them recently?

We don’t use already in negative sentences:

The parcel hasn’t arrived already. The parcel hasn’t arrived yet.

6. STILL, YET

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• We use yet in questions to ask about something we expect to happen around

now, but which hasn’t happened at the time of speaking:

Has the six o’clock train arrived yet? It’s five past six and I haven’t seen it

• We use still or yet in negative sentences when we expected something to happen

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before now:

Our pizzas haven’t come yet. We ordered them nearly half an hour ago!

I gave my teacher that essay last week but she still hasn’t marked it.

• We usually put yet at the end of a question or negative statement; we put still
before hasn’t/ haven’t:

Has your car been repaired yet? We still haven’t had our exam results

• We can also use still in positive sentences to say that an earlier situation has not
changed. We use the present simple or continuous, not the present perfect:

Carlos is thirty, but he still lives with parents. The bridge is closed: they’re still
repairing it.

We don’t use yet in positive sentences:

I’ve paid for the meal yet. I’ve already paid for the meal

PRESENT PERFECT (FOR SITUATIONS UP TO THE PRESENT)

1. UNIFINISHED TIME PERIOD + (SO FAR), THIS MORNING, TODAY, ETC

We use the present perfect to talk about actions in a time period that is still continuing

• With time expressions (e.g., today, this morning, this week, this year)

I’ve driven 500 kilometres this week. (The week has not finished)

Have you spoken to Clare this morning? (Its’s still morning)

• With so far to mean ‘up to now’:

We’ve had four holidays so far this year, and it’s only September.

Compare:

Present perfect: I’ve made several phone calls this morning (It’s still morning)

Past simple: I made several phone calls this morning. (It is now afternoon)

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 2. REPEATED ACTI.ONS

We use the present perfect to talk about repeated actions (that may happen again):

I’ve been there many times (I might go there again one day)

She’s phoned five times already (She may phone again)

How many times have you played Grand Theft Auto? How often has she been there?

3. SITUATIONS UP TO THE PRESENT +FOR/SINCE, HOW LONG

We use for (and not since) with a period of time (e.g. for an hour, for years):

David has worked in México for many years. I haven’t seen Janice for a long time

We don’t use for before expressions beginning with all (e.g. all day, all my life)

I’ve worked in Mexico for all my life. I’ve worked there all my life

We use since with a particular time, day or date, or with a past event:

David has worked in Mexico since January 2000. I haven’t seen Janice since Tuesday.

I haven’t been to the beach since we got there.

• We can use it’s (present simple) or its been (present perfect) + time expression +
since:

It’s two years since our wedding. It’s been two years since our last meeting.

• The verb after since is usually in the past simple, not the present perfect:

John has worked here since he left school. It’s ages since I saw you.

We use the present perfect (not the present simple or continuous) to talk about present
situations that started in the past:

I am married for ten years. I’ve been married for ten years

We are living here since 2005 We’ve lived here since 2005

4. SUPERLATIVES, THE FIRST TIME

We often use the present perfect (+ever) with superlative adjectives:

That was the worst film I’ve ever seen! This is the best holiday we’ve ever had!

We also use the present perfect with the first, the second, etc:

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This is the third time I’ve visited China, but it’s the first time I’ve travelled in business
class.

PRESENT PERFECT OR PAST SIMPLE?

Present perfect Past simple

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Single or repeated actions in the past, when we Single or repeated actions that happened at a
don’t know the date of the action, or it isn’t definite time in the past:
important. (indefinite time)

I’ve driven an automatic car before. I drove a racing car in the summer
She’s been to South Africa twice. She went to South Africa in 2009
We’ve been to the theatre many times. We went to the theatre last month.

Time expressions: before, ever, already, juts, yet Time expressions: yesterday, last month, in 2007,
etc
Situations that started in the past and are still Situations that started and finished in the past
continuing:
Alex worked at the garage for two years
Tom has worked at the garage for two years (He isn’t working there now)
(He’s working there now)

France has governed the island of Réunion since France governed Ivory Coast from 1893 to 1960
1642

Unfinished time. One or more completed actions Finished time. Completed actions in a time period
in a time period that is still continuing: that is finished:

He’s sold fifteen cars this month. He sold twenty cars in August.
I haven’t seen Keith this morning (it’s still I didn’t see Keith this morning. (it’s now
morning) afternoon/evening)

Present result/relevance: No indication of present relevance:

The Indian Government has imposed a ban on The Indian Government imposed a ban on tiger
tiger hunting to prevent the extinction of tigers hunting a few years ago

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

1. FORM

We form the present perfect continuous with have + been + the -ing form of the verb.

Positive I have (‘ve) been waiting. He has been cooking.

Negative I haven’t been waiting. He hasn’t been cooking
Questions Have you been waiting? Has he been cooking?

2. ACTIONS/SITUATIONS UP TO THE PRES ENT

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- We use the present perfect continuous to talk about actions or situations that started in
the past and are still continuing now:

We’ve been waiting to hear from them. Clare’s been living with her cousins.

- We often use for or since to answer the question How long?

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We’ve been waiting for about an hour. I’ve been working since three o’clock

- We can also use the present perfect continuous if the action or situation finishes at the
time of speaking:

I’ve been waiting in this queue for an hour! (… but now I’ve reached the ticket office)

Claire’s been driving all morning (… but now she’s arrived)

3. RECENT CONTINUOUS ACTIONS WITH PRESENT RESULTS

We often use the present perfect continuous to talk about an activity in the recent past:

I haven’t seen you in the office recently. I know, I’ve been working at home.

We often use this form to explain a present situation or result:

Your clothes are all wet! I know, I’ve been washing the car

Have you lost weight? Yes, I’ve been going to the gym a lot

We use the present perfect simple or continuous for a situation that is still continuing,
not the present simple or continuous:

I live her for five months I’ve lived here for five months

I am living here for five months I’ve been living here for five months

PRESENT PERCECT SIMPLE OR CONTINUOUS?

Present perfect simple Present perfect continuous

Completion: Continuation:
This country has welcomed several This country has been welcoming
hundred refugees from Albania recently refugees for many years.
Repeated action: Duration of action:
She has played with the symphony She has been playing with the symphony
orchestra three times this season orchestra all season
Permanent situation: Temporary situation
People have eaten a lot less meat over People have been eating less meat
the last twenty years or so recently because of the health scares

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 Focus on the result of a past action: Focus on the activity:
I’ve done the accounts – here they are I’ve been doing my accounts all
The mechanic has repaired the car (it’s afternoon
ready for the costumer now) She’s been repairing the car

STATE VERBS
12

With state verbs (understand, know, be, own..) we use the present perfect simple, not
the present perfect continuous:

I’ve been knowing Ben since I was six. I’ve known Ben since I was six

We can use always and never with these verbs:

I’ve always liked ice cream. Switzerland has never had a king.

YES/NO QUESTIONS

YES/NO QUESTIONS

Yes/no questions ask if something is true or not: Is it the biggest palace in the world?

• If a statement contains be, an auxiliary verb or a modal verb, this moves in front
of the subject in questions:

The water is from a bottle. Is the water from a bottle?

The builders were working here all day. Were the builders working here all day?

• In present simple and past simple statements, there isn’t an auxiliary verb, so we
use do/does/did:

My mother worked when I was at school. Did your mother work when you were at
school

NEGATIVE
QUESTIONS

We can make negative yes/no questions to check information or ask for agreement:

Isn’t the Royal Palace in Madrid the biggest? Wasn’t the traffic awful? Yes, it was.

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We can also use a negative question when we are surprised:

Didn’t you know that? I thought everyone knew.eh

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WH- QUESTIONS

WH- QUESTIONS AND QUESTION WORDS

Wh-word Example
Who,what Who can you talk to about your course? What do you want to ask?
When, how When did your visitors arrive? How did they get here?
Where, why Where have you been? Why did you leave so suddenly?
Whose, which Whose book are you using? Which chapter are you on?

We need to use be, an auxiliary verb or a modal verb in most wh- questions:

Where you living? Where are you living? How you get here? How did you get here?

• With what, whose and which we can have a noun before the verb:

What time is it? Whose class are you in? Which subjects are you taking this year?

• We can also make negative questions:

What didn’t you understand? Why didn’t you say something?

SUBJECT AND OBJECT QUESTIONS

In most wh- questions the wh- word is the object of the verb; we use the question word
order:

WH- QUESTIONS + PREPOSI TIONS

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If we use a verb + preposition in a wh- question, we usually put the preposition at the
end of the question:

Which hotel did they stay at? Who are you buying the bracelet for?

With when and where, we don’t usually use a preposition.

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Where did they stay at? Where did they stay?

Formality check: in more formal speech and writing, we put the preposition before the
question word, and change who to whom

To which letter are you referring? From whom did the defendant accept the payment?

HOW, WHICH/WHAT, WHO AND WHOSE

1. HOW

We usually use how to ask about the way something is done: How long is the film? It’s
90 minutes long. How old is the Taj Mahal? It’s 400 years old. How many people work
here? How much do the lessons cost? They’re 30€ an hour.

When we form questions with how + adjective/adverb, we don’t usually repeat the
adjective/adverb in the answer: How far is it from the station? It’s 500 metres far from
the station. It’s 500 metres from the station.

When the question contains the adjectives tall, high, long, wide, deep, we put the
adjective in the answer: How tall is Thomas now? Thomas is tall 1.8 metres Thomas is
1.8 metres tall

Notice the answer to a question asking about a person’s age: My daughter is seven years
My daughter is seven. / My daughter is seven years old

We use how to ask about health, opinions, and progress: how are you? How’s the hotel?
How’s the new job going?

We don’t use like with how:

How’s Neil like? What’s Neil like? (asks about Neil’s appearance/personality)

How’s Neil? (asks about Neil’s health)

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 2. WHICH AND WHAT

Which and what both have similar meanings but which asks about one or more of a
small number of things.

What’s for dinner? What are they playing? What sort of shoes should I wear? What
time is it? Which airport did you fly from, Heathrow or Gatwick? Which teacher have
you got for history?

• We use what to ask about one (or more) of many things:

What languages is it best to learn if you want to be an interpreter?

• We usually use which when the answer is one of a limited number of

alternatives:

Which cake do you want to try first? (limited choice of cakes)

Compare with what:

What cakes do you like best? (of all cakes; unlimited choice)

• We can use what and which without a noun if it is clear what we are talking
about:

Our college offers language courses. Really? Which do you teach? (=which course)

What’s for dinner this evening? Well, we’ve got a chicken or burgers. Which do you
fancy?

WHO AND WHOSE

We use who to ask about people, but we use whose (with or without a noun) to ask
about relationships and possessions:

Who did you meet at the conference? Who’s your favourite film star?

Whose daughter is she? Whose newspaper is this? Whose is that?

4. TALKING ABOUT LANGUAGES (VOCABULARY)

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Accent: an accent is the way someone says the word and shows what country or region
they come from. Example: She speaks with an American accent.

- A slight / strong / heavy accent

- A foreign accent

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Accurate: something that is accurate is correct or true in every detail. Example: This is
a more accurate translation.

- An accurate calculation / estimate /prediction

Achievement: an achievement is something good that you have done, usually after a lot
of time and effort. Example: Winning this tournament is her greatest achievement.

- A sense of achievement
- An impressive / remarkable / outstanding achievement

Express: to tell someone about a feeling, opinion or aim by speaking or writing about
it. Example: His teachers expressed concern about his progress at school.

Fluently: if you can speak a language fluently, you can speak it very well. Example:
The owners are German and speak English fluently

Frustrated: someone who is frustrated feels angry or upset because they are being
prevented from achieving something. Example: She gets frustrated when she can’t
express herself.

- Frustrated at / about / with something

- Feel frustrated
- Become / Get frustrated

Get by: if you can get by, you have just enough of something, for example knowledge
or money, so that you can do what you need to do. Example: I’m not very fluent in
Spanish, but I can get by.

Give up: if you give up, you stop trying to do something because you think it’s too
difficult. Example: Even though it was hard, she never gave up.

Lack: a situation in which you do not have any, or enough, of something that you need
or want. Example: She lacked the necessary skills.

- Lack of (noun) (example: support)

- For lack of something (example: lack of trying)

Master: to learn how to do something well. Example: He quickly mastered the art of
interviewing people.

- Mastered the art of something

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Pick up: to learn a new skill or start a habit without intending to. Example: She picked
up a few German phrases while staying in Berlin.

Struggle: to try to do something that you find very difficult. Example: Anna has always
struggled with maths.

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- Struggle with something
- Struggle to do something

Unit 2
1. PAST SIMPLE

1. FORM

Regular verbs add -ed to the infinitive to form the past simple.

Positive I stayed with my friend last night. They failed the exam.
Negative I did not (didn’t) stay with her last night. We didn’t fail the exam.
Questions Did you stay with her? Which exam did they fail?

2. PAST SIMPLE FOR PAST ACTIONS AND SITUATIONS

We use the past simple for

• A single completed action in the past: He died in 1539. Did you see the film las
night?
• Repeated actions in the past: Caroline phoned her family every day when she
was on holiday
• A series of actions (when one thing happens after another) in the past: We
arrived in Rome at eleven o’clock and took a taxi to Franco’s apartment. Then
we went to the square and looked round the shops, but we didn’t buy anything.
• Situations that finished in the past: He lived from 1500 to 1539. Children didn’t
have so many electronic toys when I was young.

3. PAST SIMPLE + ADVERBS OF TIME; WHEN, AFTER

We often use adverbs of time to say when a past time action happened, for example

• ago: We arrived at the airport ten minutes ago. (ten minutes before now)
• for: (with period time): The economic crisis lasted for two years
• last week/month/year: Mariela started college last month.

We can also use when/after + past simple:

When they arrived, they explored Texas and New Mexico…

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 After Rory left home that morning, he went to work as usual…

PAST CONTINUOUS

1. FORM

Positive I was waiting for you

She was traveling in the Middle East
Negative I was not (wasn’t) waiting long
He wasn’t travelling then
Questions Were you waiting long?
Where was she travelling?

2. PAST ACTIONS AND SITUATIONS

We use the past continuous:

• to describe an action or situation happening at or around a time in the past:

I wasn’t feeling well that day, so I didn’t go out with the others.

• for temporary past situations:

We were living in Beijing at the time of the 2008 Olympics (we don’t live there now)

• for two actions/situations happening at the same time:

While Rob was playing his match, I was waiting in the car outside.

3. INTERRUPTED ACTIONS

We use the past continuous and the past simple together to show that one actions (past
simple) interrupts another action (past continuous)

4. PLANS THAT DID NOT HAPPEN

The past continuous of verb like plan, hope, intent shows that the action did not happen:

We were planning to come to your party; but Mike was ill so we couldn’t make it.

I was hoping to study medicine, but my grades weren’t high enough so I couldn’t.

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PAST SIMPLE OR CONTINUOUS?

Past simple Past continuous

We use the past simple for single or We use the past continuous to describe an
repeated completed actions in the past: unfinished action at or around a time in
the past:

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We arrived at the hotel at three o’clock When we arrived at the hotel, the maid
He went on many expeditions to Africa. was cleaning our room.
He was searching for the source of the
Nile

1. INTERRUPTED PAST OR SERIES OF PAST ACTIONS?

We use the past continuous for an action in progress when something else happened:

While we was searching for the source of the River Nile, he disappeared.

Were you playing football when you sprained (torcer) your ankle? No, I wasn’t doing
anything like that. I was running downstairs and I tripped (tropezar) over my trousers.

We use when + past simple, followed by pas simple, when one action happened after
another one. Compare:

When Isabel joined us, we watched a DVD (=Isabel came and then we watched a DVD)

When Isabel joined us, we were watching a DVD (= We were already watching a DVD
at the time Isabel came)

2. WHEN AND WHILE

We can use either when or while before an unfinished action or the interrupted past. It
means ‘during the time’:

The post came when I was having my breakfast.

While he was doing his homework, his mother arrived.

We can use when before the unfinished (continuous) or the completed (simple) action:

He was trying to find the source of the Nile when he died in 1873.

He died in 1873 when he was trying to find the source of the Nile

We don’t use while before a completed action:

While the post came, I was having my breakfast.

When the post came, I was having my breakfast.

The post came while/when I was having my breakfast

¡¡We can use as instead of while!

As/while I was driving to work this

morning, I saw a deer by the side of the
road.

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USED TO AND WOULD

1. FORM OF USED TO

Positive I used to work there. He used to be a teacher. We used to have a cat.

Negative I didn’t use to work. He didn’t used to be a teacher.

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Questions Did you use to work there? Did they used to have a car?
- it’s possible to form the negative and question with used to: didn’t used to / did you
used to?

- there is no present form of used to: I use to go to work by bus I go to work by bus

- do not confuse used to do with be/get used to doing:

I’m used to spending time on my own. (= I’m often alone; it isn’t unusual for me)

I used to spend time on my own. (= I spend time on my own in the past; I don’t any
more)

2. USED TO

We use used to + infinitive to talk about regular past actions that do not happen now:

I used to take the bus to work every day. (But now I take the train)

People used to write a lot of letters. (But now they send emails)

We often use adverbs of frequency (e.g. always, once a week, every year) with used to:

I always used to swim before breakfast. We never used to stay up late when we were
young! (= we didn’t use to stay up late)

We also use used to + infinitive when we talk about past situations that are no longer
true:

He used to be a teacher. France used to have a king.

3. WOULD

We can also use would + infinitive to talk about regular past actions that do not happen
now: when we first moved here, people would stop and talk in the street. They don’t
now.

When we start descriptions of past actions with used to, we usually continue with
would:

When he was younger, he used to go on very difficult expeditions and he would take
risks….

Would is used for past actions, not situations:

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 France would have a king. France used to have a king

4. USED TO OR PAST SIMPLE?

We often use used to, not the past simple, when we want to emphasise a difference
between the past and the present:

My sister works in an office now but she used to work on a farm.

We used the past simple for:

• single actions in the past: I used to have an exam last week. I had an exam last
week
• periods of time: he used to be in Greece for two years. He was in Greece for
two years
• a number of times: we used to swim in the pool twice when we stayed there. We
swam in the pool twice when we stayed there.

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE

1. FORM

We form the past perfect with had + past participle. The regular pas participle ends in -
ed.

Positive I had already seen the film.

She had met him before.
We had finished early.

Negative I had not (hadn’t) seen it before

She hadn’t met him before
They hadn’t finished the job

Questions Had you seen the film?

Had they finished the job? (no, they hadn’t)
Where had she met him before?

2. THE ORDER OF PAST ACTIONS

We can use the past perfect to show which action happened first:

(2) Before I finally found a job, (1) I had been to about thirty interviews

If one action happens immediately after the other, we use the past simple for both:

When Colin had arrived at the door, Sheila opened it straight away

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When Colin arrived at the door, Sheila opened it straight away

We often use adverbs of time and linking words with the past perfect:

Four years earlier, she had become the first American female pilot in space. (adverb)

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I’d never liked Japanese food before but the meal Yuki cooked was lovely. (adverb)

By the time grace decided to apply for the job, the position had been filled. (linking
phrase)

3. PAST PERFECT OR PAST SIMPLE?

We usually use the past simple not the past perfect:

• if the order of actions is clear: I got my first job after I left university
• if the order of actions is the same as the order of the verbs in the sentence.
Compare:

When I got to the café, everyone ordered their drinks (= First, I got to the café, then
everyone ordered their drinks)

When I got to the café, everyone had ordered their drinks. (= Firs, everyone ordered
their drinks, then I got to the café)

4. GIVING REASONS

We can use the past perfect to give a reason for an action or situation, often with
because:

Emily was unhappy – her husband hadn’t bought her a birthday present

5. SUPERLATIVES

We often use the past perfect (and ever) with superlative adjectives:

It was the worst meal I had ever eaten. I never went there again.

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

1. FORM

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Positive I had been watching them

She had been learning the language
We had been working hard
Negative I had not been watching them
He hadn’t been learning the language
They hadn’t been working hard

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Questions Had you been watching them?
Which language had she been learning?
Had they been working hard?

2. USE

We use the past perfect continuous to talk about an action or situation that was
happening in the past before another action or time:

I had been learning French for five years when I went to live in Paris.

How long had you been living in the house when you sold it?

We usually introduce the second action with when:

He’d been taking driving lessons for five years when he finally passes the test.

The first action can stop when the second action happens, or it can continue:

3. EXPRESSIONS OF TIME

1. AT, IN, ON

We use:

• at to introduce a time:
The flight’s at six o’clock.
• in for a point within a longer period.
I get to Australia in the morning.
• on to introduce dates and days:
we arrive on Thursday. The course ends on 11 July.

Common uses Examples

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 at special occasions We usually have fireworks at New Year
mealtimes The managers have business meetings at breakfast
+ night/the weekend It’s quiet here at night. We always sleep late at the
weekend.

in parts of the day I never work well in the afternoon.

months and seasons Is your birthday in October? We don’t go away in the
summer
years and centuries
I was born in 1984. The world changed in the last
century.
on special days Do you have a birthday cake on your birthday?
parts of days of the week I last saw him on Thursday afternoon.

Example:

+ What time’s your connection?

- It’s at six, and I get to Australia in the morning on Thursday. I’ll try to sleep during
the flight.

With some time expressions (this/last/next/every morning, week, year, etc.) we don’t
use a preposition:

The French market comes in every March The French marker comes every March.

What time did you have breakfast this morning? The new gym opened last month.

2. IN, WITHIN, BY (FROM)… UNTIL

We use:

• in to talk about a completed period of time:

They finished painting the hall in only two days.
• within to mean ‘before a period of time has passed’:
You should have the results within 24 hours.
• by to mean ‘not later than’:
I need your essay by Friday (on or before Friday)
• (from)…until/to for a period of time ending at a certain point:
The play didn’t finish until midnight.
Tickets are available to the end of the month.
The holiday season runs from July until October.

We often use till instead of until in everyday English:

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We stayed in the club from about 9:00 till closing time.

3. FOR, DURING, LAST

We use:

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• for with a period of time; it means ‘the whole time’: we waited for the bus for an
hour
• during to mean ‘at one point in a period of time’: my bike was stolen during the
night.

We also use during when we mean ‘for a while’ or ‘all through a period of time’: I’ll try
to sleep during the flight.

Notice the difference between during and for: we went away for two weeks during July.
Jason was in hospital for several months during his childhood.

With the verb last for, it is possible to leave out the preposition: the course lasts (for)
ten weeks.

ORDERING EVENTS

1. COMMON LINKING WORDS OF TIME

Linking words Examples

a series of events before We closed the shutters before we went to the
after basement.
We went to the basement after we closed the
shutters
one event as soon as As soon as we knew the storm was coming, we
immediately closed the shutters.
after another when We saw the warning when we turned on the TV.
event(s) in a when Mandy saw her cousin when she was in New
period of time while York
during (+ noun) I sent a lot of emails while I was on holiday
I sent a lot of emails during my holiday
(during I was on holiday)
until We stayed in the basement until the storm had
passed
at the same time while Luisa fed the baby while Daniel made the supper
- We can use after/before + ing verb to show the order of events:

We went to the basement after closing the shutters. We closed the shutters before going
to the basement.

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When, before, after and while/during can mean ‘whenever’ of ‘every time that’:

I always get headaches when the weather’s hot. (every time that the weather is hot)

Jackie used to feel nervous during exams. (every time she took an exam)

After linking words which refer to the future we use the present tense, not will or

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going to:

I’ll phone you as soon as I will arrive I’ll phone you as soon as I arrive

2. DESCRIBING A SERIES OF EVENTS

When we describe a series of events in the past, we can use the linking words first, then,
after that, afterwards, later, in the end and eventually (meaning ‘after a long time’):

First, we closed the window shutters. Then we went to the basement and stayed there.

Eventually, we were able to go back upstairs. Later, we went outside to look at the
damage.

We put these linking words at the beginning or end of the sentence, not in the middle:

Steve paid the bill after that we left the restaurant.

Steve paid the bill. After that, we left the restaurant.

Steve paid the bill. We left the restaurant after that.

DIRECT SPEECH

1. Use a comma to introduce text.

When writing a dialogue, place a comma before your opening quote. There is, however,
an exception to this rule: no comma is needed when you introduce text using a
conjunction, such as that or whether.

She said, “It’s all in the details.”

He told me that 2there are 1,008 different reasons to write”

2. Use a comma when a dialogue tag follows a quote.

When dialogue is followed by a tag (for example, he said, asked, replied), then use a
comma before the closing quote. You should not omit other punctuation that adds
meaning or clarity to the sentence, such as an exclamation point or question mark.

"Let go of your fears," he replied.

"When is the best time to write?" she asked.

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 REPORTED STATEMENTS

1. REPORTED SPEECH

When we repeat another person’s words, we can use direct speech or reported speech.

• For direct speech, we use the exact words and we put quotation marks (“”) or
inverted commas (‘’) around them:

‘I’m really hungry because I haven’t eaten since breakfast’, said Annabel.

• When we report speech with a reporting verb (e.g. say) in the present, we use the
same tenses, but we report speech with a reporting verb forms when necessary:

Annabel says (that) she’s really hungry because she hasn’t eaten since breakfast

• When we report another person’s words some time after he/she said them, we
usually use a past tense verb to introduce them, and we change the tense of the
verbs as well:

Annabel said (that) she was really hungry because she hadn’t eaten since breakfast.

• We can use that after said but we often leave it out

Jake said he would meet us here

2. TENSES CHANGES IN REPORTED SPEECH

Original words Reported statement

Present simple: Past simple:
‘We work for the town council’ They said they worked for the town
council
Present continuous: Past continuous:
‘I’m doing the washing’ She said she was doing the washing
Past simple: Pas perfect:
‘We decided to leave earlier today’ He said they had decided to leave earlier
that day
Past continuous: Past perfect continuous:
‘I wasn’t telling the truth’ She admitted she hadn’t been telling the
truth
Present perfect simple: Past perfect simple:
My guests haven’t arrived yet She said her guests hadn’t arrived yet
Present perfect continuous: Past perfect continuous:
We’ve been waiting for ages! They complained (that) they had been
waiting for ages
Be going to: Was/were going to:
They’re going to stay at home tonight

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They said they were going to stay at

home that night
Most modal verbs (e.g. can, will, must): Could, would, had to
I can’t say any more He added that he couldn’t say any more
The result will be available later He said that the result would be available
You must stop writing later

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She said we had to/must stop writing
Some verbs forms don’t change:

• Past perfect: I hadn’t met your sister before. He said (that) he hadn’t met my
sister before
• Modal verbs could, would, should and mustn’t :

We could go to France for the day: Len suggested (that) we could go to France for the
day

You mustn’t talk during exam: he insisted (that) we mustn’t talk during the exam.

3. OTHER CHANGES IN REPORTED SPEECH

4. REASONS FOR NOT CHANGING THE TENSE

There are times when we can choose not to change the tense of verbs in reported
speech.

• When the situations or feelings/opinions in the original speech are still true:

My three sisters have bright red hair. He told me his sisters have bright red hair

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I really like your friend. She said he really likes you

Compare:

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• When the verb follows the linking words after or because:

REPORTED QUESTIONS

1. WORD ORDER IN REPORTED SPEECH QUESTIONS

When we report a question, we change the word order of the question – it becomes the
same word order as a statement.

We do not use auxiliary do, does or did in reported questions:

He asked what time did the flight leave Paris. He asked what time the flight left Paris

We make the same changes in tense, pronouns and time and place words as for reported
statements:

The reporters asked, ‘Did you tell us the truth yesterday, Minister?

The reporters asked the Minister if he had told them the truth the day before.

2. REPORTED YES/NO QUESTIONS

We introduce reported yes/no questions with ask/want to know + if or whether:

‘Has your union agreed the new pay deal?’

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 Reporters asked the leader if his union had agreed the new pay deal

‘Did the Minister answer your questions?’

She asked me whether the Minister had answered my questions

‘Have you always lived in this city? Why do you like it?

They wanted to know if I had always lived in the city, and why I liked it.

With if and whether, we can add or not at the end of the question:

She asked if /whether the Minister had answered my questions or not.

3. REPORTED WH- QUESTIONS

We introduce reported wh- questions with ask / want to know + wh- word:

• ‘When will the article appear in the newspaper?

They asked us when the article would appear in the newspaper.

• ‘Where’s the cash desk?’

She wanted to know where the cash desk was

We don’t use an object after want to know:

They wanted to know me why I liked it.

REPORTED ORDERSM REQUESTS AND ADVICE 2.

1. REPORTING ORDERS

We can report orders, requests, and advice with a reporting verb + infinitive with to.
These reporting verbs all need an object. We usually report instructions and orders with
tell:

The doctor said, ‘Stop working so hard’ The doctor told me to stop working so
hard

We use order when the meaning is stronger:

The police officer shouted: ‘Get out of the car!’ The police officer ordered us to
get out of the car,

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2. REPORTED REQUESTS

We usually report requests with ask:

My mother said, ‘Will you please tidy your room?’ My mother asked me to tidy
my room

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We can use beg for a strong request:

Please – oh, please – give us the sweets’ The children begged us to give them the
sweets.

With these verbs, we make the same changes to pronouns and time and place words as
for reported statements. We also change the tense if necessary:

On Monday, my mother said, ‘Tidy your room when you get back from school this
afternoon’

My mother asked me to tidy my room when I got back from school that afternoon.

We don’t use say + to to report requests or orders: My mother said me to tidy my room

To request information, we use ask (+ object) + if / whether / wh- word:

He asked (me) if I had everything I needed.

3. REPORTING ADVICE

We report advice with advise, tell or warn:

The doctor said, ‘I think you should go to a gym’

The doctor advised me to go to a gym

The teacher said, ‘You should all take the exam’

The teacher told all the students to take the exam

Dad said, ‘Be careful – there’s ice on the roads’

Dad warned me to be careful because there was ice on the roads.

We do not use this pattern with suggest. We use suggest + should or suggest + ing
form:

The doctor suggested me to get some exercise

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The doctor suggested (that) I should get some exercise

My friends suggested going to the gym

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4. REPORTING NEGATIVE ORDERS, REQUESTS AND ADVICE

We report negative instruction, orders, requests and advice with verb + not + infinitive
with to:

‘Please don’t bring food into the shop’ The assistant asked us not to bring food
into the shop

‘I wouldn’t buy a new car if I were you’ My father advised me not to buy a new
car

We can also use warn in a situation where there is some danger:

Don’t swim beyond the rocks He warned us not to swim beyond the rocks

Don’t do too much exercise at once The doctor warned me not to do too much
exercise at once

REPORTING VERB PATTERNS

1. TELL AND SAY

The two must common reporting verbs are tell and say. We use these two verbs to
report information, but we use them in different ways.

• Tell needs an object, usually a person:

He told the reporters that the explosion had been an accident

• Say does not usually have an object:

He said that the explosion had been an accident

• But we can use an object with say, I we introduce it with to:

He said to the reporters that the explosion had been an accident

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 2. REPORTING VERBS PATTERNS

There are different ways of reporting speech, with different verbs:

Pattern 1 ‘I’m getting married in July’

Simon announced that he was getting married in July

Pattern 2 ‘You must remember to book the hotel later’

He reminded me to book the hotel later

Pattern 3 ‘I’m sorry I lost your umbrella’

She apologised for losing my umbrella

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GRADABLE AND NON GRADABLE ADJECTIVES

1. GRADABLE AND UNGRADABLE ADJECTIVES

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Gradable adjectives represent a point on a scale. For example, cheap and expensive are
adjectives on the scale of “how much something costs”.

Ungradable adjectives represent the limits of a scale. For example, free (=it costs
nothing) and priceless (=its cost is too great to be counted) are the limits on the scale of
“how much something costs”.

Most English adjectives are gradable. We can make comparative and superlative forms
from all gradable adjectives. We don’t usually make comparisons with ungradable
adjectives, although there are some patterns we use in spoken English:

That was the most delicious meal! Her house is even more enormous than his!

Some adjectives can have both gradable and ungradable meanings, depending on
whether the speaker is describing an absolute quality or one which is relative to
something else:

I’m afraid there are no rooms – the hotel is full. (ungradable = completely full)

The hotel’s very full but I think I can get you a single room for tonight. (gradable = has
many guests but there is still some space)

2. INTENSIFYING GRADABLE ADJECTIVES

We can make gradable adjectives stronger with very, but not with the adverb absolutely:

That new jacket looks absolutely expensive. That new jacket looks very expensive

Last night’s match was terribly exciting. I felt pretty upset after the accident (informal)

Deja que el Latin Spirit de Desperados te lleve a elrow

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The chapter on the early sonnets was most instructive (formal)

We usually use rather with negative adjectives or when describing something

unexpected:

There was a rather unpleasant smell in the flat. Surprisingly, the film was rather good.

Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad.
Es como “bastante” en español.

We often use les common adverbs to intensify certain gradable adjectives:

I was bitterly disappointed at my exam results. My brother is painfully shy.

The students in this school are highly intelligent.

But note that we can often only use certain adverbs with certain adjectives. (page 369)

3. WEAKENING GRADABLE ADJECTIVES

Gradable adjectives can usually be made by words fairly, slightly, a (little) bit
(informal) and somewhat (formal):

I’ve been feeling slightly dizzy all morning. (ligeramente, un poco mareado)

The friend was a bit upset. (informal)

The police reported that the man was somewhat aggressive. (formal) (algo)

We can use not very and not at all to weaken gradable adjectives after the verb be:

The end of term test wasn’t very long and it wasn’t at all difficult.

With gradable adjectives quite usually means ‘fairly’ but can have another meanings,
depending on stress and intonation:

The lecture was quite interesting (unmarked: fairly interesting)

The lecture was quite interesting. (stressed adjective: more interesting that the speaker
expected)

The lecture was quite interesting (stressed adverb: less interesting than the speaker
expected)

4. INTENSIFYING UNGRADABLE ADJECTIVES

A common way to intensify the meaning of ungradable adjectives is with the adverb
absolutely. We often use this device to add emphasis in informal English.

Deja que el Latin Spirit de Desperados te lleve a elrow

 I couldn’t swim in the sea; the water was absolutely freezing.

The show was absolutely fabulous.

We do not usually use very with ungradable adjectives:

Entrance to the museum is very free Entrance to the museum is absolutely free.

When we use quite with ungradable adjectives, it has a similar meaning to ‘completely’,
emphasising the strength of the adjective. In speech, the stress is usually on quite.

The tenor’s performance was quite amazing. You’re quite correct.

We can also use a most before an ungradable adjective + noun

Hilary has a most amazing hairstyle. (= her hairstyle is completely amazing)

Although we use absolutely which many ungradable adjectives, there are some
adjectives where we prefer to use other intensifying adverbs such as completely, totally
and utterly.

I’m afraid your answer is completely wrong.

Since the accident Henry has been totally deaf in one ear.

Susan was utterly appalled by her husband’s dishonesty. (appalled: en shock)

There are no grammar rules which explain these combinations so it is best to learn them
as a vocabulary items. (page 369)

5. WEAKENING UNGRADABLE ADJECTIVES

We use almost, nearly, practically or virtually to indicate a point close to the absolute
meaning of ungradable adjectives:

He never turns the heating on – it’s practically freezing in there.

The battery in my calculator is almost dead.

After six months with the disease, he was nearly deaf and virtually blind.

We do not usually use the modifiers fairly, slightly, a (little) bit, somewhat or not very
with ungradable adjectives:

Their favourite possession is a slightly priceless Satsuna vase

I wouldn’t recommend the show, it’s not very fabulous.

Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad.
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7.PHRASE, CLAUSE, SENTENCE

1. PHRASE

A group of words that states a meaning but does not have a subject and a verb. Also, a
phrase does not express a complete thought.

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Every phrase has a headword that determines the type of the phrase:

• Noun phrase: a phrase with a noun as the headword (solid rock, late arrival,
beautiful landscape, blue collar, etc)
• Verb phrase: a phrase with a verb as the headword, usually consists of auxiliary
and verb (go fishing, can help, wish to see, have lived, wanted to participate,
was called, will be attending, etc)
• Adjective phrase: a phrase with an adjective as the headword (very cloudy,
extremely high, so expensive, rather unwell, etc)
• Adverb phrase: a phrase with an adverb as the headword (very quickly, so well,
to easily)
• Prepositional phrase: a phrase with a preposition as the headword (on the table,
beyond comprehension, near the village, to the cinema, etc)
• Gerund phrase: a phrase with a gerund as the headword (teaching English,
learning vocabulary, sending a message, flying a plane, etc)
• Infinitive phrase: a phrase with “to infinitive” as a headword (to study
mathematics, to get on the train, to do well, etc)

.1.1 LONG PHRASES

No matter how long a construction is, as long as it does not have a subject and verb it is
a phrase.

Although a phrase has a certain meaning derived from its elements, it does not have a
complete idea, thus cannot stand alone as a sentence.

Example:

1. the building in front of the town square near the public school (No S-V)

2. the man who is standing in the middle of the hall with a black briefcase on his right
hand (No S-V)

These two examples are phrases, now lets see sentences:

1. the building is square (it has S and V)

2. the man stood up (it has S and V)

2 CLAUSE

Deja que el Latin Spirit de Desperados te lleve a elrow

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A clause is any construction that has subject and verb and can both stand alone and is
part of a sentence.

There are two types of clauses: independent clause and dependent clause

2.1 INDEPENDENT CLAUSE

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An independent clause has a subject and a verb, states a complete idea, and thus can
stand alone.

The other name for an independent clause is simple sentences.

Examples:

➢ the victims were carried to the hospital

➢ according to a report, the number of drug users has risen significantly during
recent years
➢ indonesia has more than 17 thousand islands
➢ the board will discus the issue in the upcoming meeting

2.2 DEPENDENT CLAUSE

Like independent clause, a dependent clause also has a subject and a verb, but it cannot
stand alone as a sentence.

It is because a dependent clause contains a subordinating conjunction or a clause

connector, and should be a part of a complete sentence

Examples:

➢ because it was already dark, (we decided to camp there)

➢ when the prices goes up (the supply tends to fall short)
➢ while we are finishing the illustration, (you can print the cover)
➢ if you want to succeed, (you must study hard)
➢ (public school is an institution) which is governed by the state

3 SENTENCE

A sentence is a group of words that has a subject and a verb and states a complete idea,
beginning with a capital letter and ends in period.

There are four types of sentence based on the number and type of the clauses it has:

3.1 SIMPLE SENTENCE

A simple sentence only has one clause with a subject and a verb

Deja que el Latin Spirit de Desperados te lleve a elrow

 Example:

➢ We are college students.

➢ Germany is an industrial country.
➢ Our forefathers fought against the Dutch for more than three century.
➢ Red is my favourite colour

3.2. COMPOUND

A compound is a sentence that consists of two independence clauses joined by a

coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, so, yet, far, nor).

Because it has two clauses, it also has two subjects and verbs

Examples:

➢ We came very early, and the manager greeted us enthusiastically.

➢ Robin is very excellent at math, but he is not quite good for English.
➢ You can use my car, or you may stay here until tomorrow.
➢ Teenagers are curious at new things, so they are at high risk of drug abuse.

3.3. COMPLEX SENTENCE

A complex sentence consists of two clauses; an independent clause and a dependent

clause joined by a subordinating conjunction (because, if, when, although, though,
while, as long as, until, since, where, whereas, how, why, etc).

Because it has two clauses, it has two subjects and verbs.

Examples: (the independent clauses are in red)

➢ The police had to disperse the mob using teargas because the protesters began to
act violently.
➢ Although he came from a poor family, he never gave up achieving his dream.
➢ There has been a tendency of intolerance and abuse since the internet become a
phenomenon.
➢ Whereas people in Japan bow to each other to greet, people in most countries
shake their hands.
➢ I do not understand why people like to post videos of violence online.

3.4. COMPOUND-COMPLEX

A sentence which has mixed clauses (compound and complex)

A compound-complex has at least there clauses.

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Examples:

➢ Because the job availability is relatively low, the unemployment rate remains
high and only few people can afford good living.

➢ They had to cancel the trip but they did not get a refund, although the regulation

Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad.
clearly said that the fight company should give the money back to the
passengers.

➢ When the result of the test is announced, the selected applicants should register
immediately, or they can register by email

4. SUBJECT

A sentence must have a subject and a verb.

Subject of a sentence can be in the form of:

• Noun: Books is a good source of knowledge.

• Noun phrase: University students should be independent and hardworking.
• Pronoun: They have been married for 15 years.
• Proper noun (name of a person, places, companies, or organizations):
Mitsubishi is a one of the leading auto companies in the world.
• Gerund: Talking is always easier than listening.
• Gerund phrase: Writing a good essay needs a lot of practice.
• To infinitive: To study language means to study culture.
• Noun clause: What happened last year was a pure accident.

5. VERBS

A verb forms the predicate of a sentence.

A verb of a sentence can be in the form of:

• Action verbs: Most Indonesian students spend their holiday at home.

• To be: My father was a physician. They will be here any moment.
• Linking verbs (seem, feel, smell, look): He seemed so happy
• Auxiliary + verb: We have talked about it.
• To be + v-ing: She is undergoing an operation.
• Modals + verb: We must stop doing this.

8. VOCABULARY: CHARACTER RELATIONSHIPS

Deja que el Latin Spirit de Desperados te lleve a elrow

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Deja que el Latin Spirit de Desperados te lleve a elrow

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