BUILDING MATERIALS

What are building materials?

These are the materials used in the construction of buildings and are classified as follows:
a) Those found naturally e.g. timber, thatch (organic), stones, sand, clay, asbestos, etc.
b) Those manufactured e.g. cement, tiles, bricks, concrete blocks, gypsum (Ca 2SO4), bituminous
products, paints, brass, etc.
c) Imported materials e.g. steel, iron, ceramic tiles, plastics etc.

Commonly used building materials

 Thatch
 Galvanized Corrugated Iron sheets (GCI)
 Timber
 Bricks
 Mud/cow dung
 Makuti
 Stones/rubbles
 Concrete blocks
 Asbestos
 Sand
 Concrete/mortar
 Polythene/canvas
 Shingles (thin pieces of wood for covering)
 Tiles
 Cement
 Ballast
 Hardcore
 Reinforcement bars
 Nails
 Bituminous felt
 Glass
 Lime

General characteristics/properties of materials

i) Strength (tensile, shear, compression, creep, etc)
ii) Low thermal quality
iii) Low water absorption (impermeability)
iv) Hardness and toughness (resist fracture)
v) Resistance to fire
vi) Appearance and colour

Stonework
Stones are building materials which are naturally obtained from rocks and shaped for building purpose.
Masonry is the art of shaping and laying blocks of stone to form walls.
Uses of stones
i) Used in broken form as ballast (coarse aggregate)
ii) Used as blocks for general construction
iii) Used as crushed stones to substitute sand
iv) Used as slabs for face work of buildings for beauty or pavements
v) Produces limestone which is used in the manufacture of cement
vi) Used as rubble stones for walling etc.

Rubble – is a term used to describe any stone work (or mass of broken stones) which is not highly
finished or used in form received from the quarry.

Types of rubble
i) Squared rubble
Are roughly dressed stones with square edges and may be square in form or rectangular.
ii) Random rubble
Irregular shaped stones of various sizes which are laid randomly i.e. big and small stones are
laid to each other with no attention paid to their levels.
iii) Rag rubble
This presents an attractive surface appearance with roughly hexagonal main stones and
other irregular shaped minor stones.

Classification of stones
The natural stones/rocks are divided into three geological classes as follows:
i) Igneous rocks
ii) Sedimentary rocks
iii) Metamorphic rocks

I) Igneous stones (primary rocks) i.e. hot lava.

These originate from volcanic action being formed by the crystallization of molten rock or
mass in earths’ crust. Magma is forced through cracks on to or just below the earth surface
and later cooled, solidifying into rocks. Granites are examples of this class which is
composed of quartz, feldspar and mica.

II) Sedimentary stones (secondary rock)

These stones are stratified and largely composed of materials derived from the breakdown
and erosion of existing rocks deposited in layers under water.
As the velocity of water flow decreases, heavier particles are deposited followed by finer
ones. Examples of these stones are sand stones (flagstones) and limestone.

III) Metamorphic stones/rocks

These may have been originally igneous or sedimentary rocks, but have since been changed
by geological processes such as pressure, movement, heat etc.
The excessive heat and pressure cause the parent rock to melt and as it cools, new crystals
are formed, forming a new rock structure. Examples are, the marbles and slates.
Properties of good stone
i) Appearance
It must be of uniform colour and homogeneous and close grain structure
ii) Density
Dense stones are more compact and less porous
iii) Strength
Be strong to withstand pressure
iv) Hardness
Be resistant to abrasive forces/wear
v) Seasoning
The moisture content must be at minimum. This moisture is called quarry sap.

Quarrying
This is the process of extracting/harvesting stones of various sizes from natural rock.

Quarry
Is an open part of the natural stone/rock where quarrying is carried out.

Methods of quarrying
i) Excavation – use of hammer and chisels
ii) Wedging – wedge is drilled into the rock (narrow space)
iii) Heating – use of bad thermal conductors
iv) Blasting – use of explosives
BRICKS
Types of bricks
i) Common bricks
ii) Engineering bricks
iii) Facing bricks
iv) Concrete bricks
v) Purpose made bricks
vi) Sandline bricks
vii) Air bricks

Common bricks
Are for general purpose work which includes walls below the ground (sleeper), backing to external walls,
as internal partitions etc.

Engineering bricks
They are hard, dense, heavy, and highly resistant to water penetration. They are often used below
ground or in retaining walls due to their high strength and resistance to sulphates and water attack. It is
also used as D.P.C.

Facing bricks (cladding)

They are of better quality giving good appearance and effective weather protection. Also used
principally, as external finishes and obtainable in different colours.
Concrete bricks
Are made in areas where brick clay is not available and simply comprise plain concrete shaped to brick
size.

Purpose made bricks

They are of various types:
- Rubber bricks
- Fire bricks (chimney stacks)
- Glass bricks (internal works)

Sandline bricks
They are made from a mixture of sand and lime but no clay. They are finished with clean sharp edges
and give good weather resistance.

MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS
The basic raw material is clay (firm soil) and shale. Bricks are either moulded by machine or by hand.

Process of manufacture
1. Excavation of clay
2. Weathering either by stacking in the open during rainy season or by passing through a wash mill
(to remove dangerous salts)
3. Moulding by use of a metal/wooden box which has the same dimension to a brick.
4. Drying by staking in the open in drying racks or in drying chambers
5. Burning in an intermittent kiln or continuous kiln.
6. Delivery to site for building
N.B
Bricks burnt in damp conditions would twist, warp or crack.

Qualities of a good brick

i) Emits a hard ringing sound when struck on the other, indicating adequate burning.
ii) Be of the required size and shape
iii) Be of straight edges and even surfaces so as to facilitate laying them in position
iv) Be free from cracks, chips, etc.
v) Uniformity in colour

BLOCKS
A block is a walling unit bigger than a brick and its height not exceeding its length. The natural stones are
harvested from quarries and fall under the following sizes:
i) 9” X 9” (225mm x 225mm x 450mm) – width x height x length
ii) 6” X 9” (150mm x 225mm x 450mm). This is for domestic house.

The above two sizes are dense and strong and therefore suitable in the following areas:
- All load bearing walls i.e. foundation walling.
- Construction of water tanks
- Construction of retaining walls
- Construction of waste water treatment works
- Construction of pillars etc.

iii) 4” x 9” (100mm x 225mm x 450mm)

This is not strong because of the load bearing area and is therefore suitable for partitions
only.

CONCRETE BLOCKS (sandcrete blocks)

These are of the same sizes as those of natural stones and are man-made units.
They are made from a mixture of cement, clean sand, and water in the ratio of 1:6 (i.e. cement and fine
aggregates)
The mix is then poured in a mould and compacted before removing the mould to enable the block to
harden and gain strength. It should be thoroughly cured by sprinkling water daily for 7 days.

Types of concrete blocks

i) Solid concrete blocks
ii) Hollow concrete blocks
iii) Cellular concrete blocks

The types vary and those with voids are much lighter in weight and are therefore suitable for use as
partitions.
All concrete blocks are grey in colour and generally have unattractive finish so that when they are used
For external walls they are usually covered with another layer or plastered and painted (cladded).
Properties of blocks
i) Strength
ii) Fire resistance
iii) Durability
iv) Thermal insulation
v) Sound transmission and absorption

Stages in blocks manufacture

i) Batching of materials(measuring)by volume or mass
ii) Mixing (hand or machine)
iii) Moulding
iv) Curing
v) Storage/stacking

MORTAR
Mortar is what we use to build masonry. Mortar glues bricks and blocks together. Mortar takes up
irregularities in the shape and size of bricks and blocks. By providing full contact between adjacent units,
mortar spreads loads evenly throughout masonry. Mortar prevents weather penetration between bricks
and blocks, prevents penetration of walls etc. by fire and sound, can be a decorative feature of masonry.
This is a mixture of cement (binder), sand (fine aggregates), plus the right quantity of water. The mixing
ratio is usually 1:3 or 1:4 and sometimes even 1:5.
The purpose of water ratio is to start off the chemical reaction and ease the workability. Too much
water will affect the strength and durability of mortar.

Additives such as colourings, water proofers, accelerators and air entrainers are frequently introduced.
The most usual aggregate is washed building sand. The binder may be:
- Ordinary Portland cement
- Building lime
- Mixture of ordinary Portland cement and lime
- Masonry cement

Water is added to trigger and complete the setting process of the binders. Water makes the mixture
plastic, thus allowing the bricks and blocks to bed into the layer of mortar.
Proportions of the principal ingredients are determined by the use to which the mortar will finally be
put. The proportions are expressed as parts by volume.

Uses of mortar
i) Joining different walling units e.g. stones, bricks, concrete blocks etc.
ii) Plastering (internal wall surface finishing)
iii) Rendering (external wall surface finishing)
iv) Screeding (finishing of the concrete floor). The ratios are; 1:3, 1:4, 1:5, 1:6,1:8, 1:10.
Choice of mortar depends on the:
- units being built,
- strength required
- the season of the year (weather conditions)
- location of use within the building
- degree of exposure of weather, particularly effect of rain beating

‘Fat’ mixes
Mortar mixes suitable for building masonry units should be ‘fat’. This is a difficult term to define, but
imagine you are trying to spread out a mixture of plain sand and water into a thin layer. Such a mixture
is gritty and stiff and if it is applied to a porous surface the water is absorbed. To improve the
spreadability of mortar, to reduce the grittiness and loss of water on absorbent surfaces, one can do a
number of things to the mixture:
- include lime in the binder or
- add an air entraining chemical or
- use masonry cement
Highly absorbent surfaces on bricks or blocks especially in hot dry weather can take so much water out
of the mortar that the chemical reaction between the water and the binder cannot fully take place and a
weak bed and perpend are formed.

General rules for selection of mortar

 Adequate strength to resist crushing loads in the beds of the masonry
 Weaker than the masonry units so that shrinkage of the mortar does not crack the units
 Sufficient elasticity to absorb movement of the units
 Good spreadability with proper water retention on absorbent surfaces
 Appropriate for the season of the year
 Capable of withstanding the exposure to be experienced

Mortar additives
Frequently introduced additives are:
 Colourings - added to desired colours
 Waterproofers – added to prevent water penetration into the structures
 Accelerators – are chemicals added to mortar to speed up the reaction between the binder and
the water. This reaction is called setting. Calcium chloride has been widely used for this purpose.
 Air entrainers – are based on industrial detergent and are wetting agents. Numerous air bubbles
are formed during mixing. The effect is to reduce the loss of water to dry or porous building
units.
 Frostproofers – they are accelerators of setting. An accelerated setting time means the mortar
has a shorter time span during which it can be frozen.

Mixing mortar
Mixing of the ingredients is generally done in a mechanical concrete mixer. Occasionally it is done
manually by hand. This mortar is for small jobs. Consistency between batches is difficult to achieve with
hand mixing.
The dry ingredients are placed in a drum and mixed to a uniform colour. Water is finally added and
mixing continues to give a uniform consistency. Never mix beyond that point. Mixing for longer than is
necessary to give a uniform consistency will entrain an excessive amount of air into the mix, which will
weaken the mortar.
Mortar should never be remixed, nor should old mortar be reintroduced into a fresh batch. Old mortar
should never be re-freshened up or knocked-up by adding more water.
Once the water is added to the batch of ingredients, the chemical reaction of setting commences. It
takes up to about 3 hours to reach an initial set. This is the point beyond which the mortar should no
longer be used for building. In practice mortar should be used within 2 hours of mixing.

AGGREGATES
Definitions
In mortar, the aggregate is sand (or occasionally finely crushed waste stones) and in concrete, can either
be fine aggregate or course (broken brick), stone gravel etc). In both cases, the adhesive i.e. matrix is
hydraulic lime or more usually Portland cement.

Types of aggregates
a) Fine aggregate
Is normally sand i.e. quarry and river sand. Sea sand can also be used due to its low cost but
should be washed with fresh water to avoid efflorescence due to its salt content especially when
used where it is exposed into view.
Fine sand normally passes through a test sieve having 4 -8mm.square mesh.

b) Course aggregate
Materials normally retained in 4 -8mm meshed sieve varies in sizes thus 19mm for reinforced
concrete work and for mass concrete; 38mm generally for foundations and may be 64mm.

Classification
a) Uncrushed aggregates
This comes from natural gravel. These are naturally got from river beds and other deposits in
quarries. They are normally of fine texture.

b) Crushed aggregates
This comes from a bulk source. These materials are from a bulk of waste materials or otherwise,
and crushed to finer suitable sizes. i.e. 10mm. maximum size. In this case the grading should be
done to get the desired sizes by subjecting the aggregate to different sieves of different sizes.

Grading of aggregates
This is variation in size of the aggregates such that the fine aggregates will fit into spaces between the
course aggregates to leave a minimum percentage of voids to be filled by the adhesive in cementing the
whole mass together. This ensures concrete of good quality in terms of density and strength. Aggregates
can be naturally be graded or graded artificially. Adequate grading is economical, as less cement is
needed if aggregates are well graded because a mixture of too much cement may shrink excessively. In
relation to cement water ratio, excess water may lead to considerable reduction in strength.
To achieve proper grading, samples of aggregates should be taken periodically and examined. The
sample should be representative and therefore must be taken from different parts of the consignment.
These are then well mixed together test sample obtained i.e. ungrading proceeds by means of a sieve.
Here, samples are taken of aggregates and passed successfully through sieves of 9mm standard sieves.
The sizes of the opening of a sieve is double (or approximately so) that of the next small sieve. The
aggregate retained in each sieve is then carefully weighed and the amount passed is expressed as a
percentage.
Unsuitable grading of sand is a frequent cause of concrete defects affecting workability and strength.
Excess of those fine materials necessitates addition of excessive amount of water decreasing concrete
strength while deficiency of the same causes unworkability and harshness. Concrete with crushed
aggregates with sharp edges requires more water than that made of rounded particles; thus the
rounded particles preferred.

Organic impurities
In aggregates the following are considered to be impurities:
 Soil or dust in gravel e.g. loam and clay
 Coal particles e.g. in winker and breeze
 Adherent lime e.g. broken bricks
 Shally fragments as in pumice – without shale
 Vegetable matter/fibres

N.B
Shale is a type of soft rock that splits easily into their flat pieces.

Specific gravity or density

Different materials have their specific gravity when obtained naturally or when produced artificially. This
can be classified as follows:
i) Normal density aggregates
They are seen in many natural materials of gravel igneous (ballast and granite) stronger
sedimentary rocks (limestone and sandstone), they have normal limited range of specific
granites e.g. 2.55 – 2.75 producing concrete of similar densities normally in the range 2250
– 2450 kg/m3 depending on mix proportions with an exception of certain forms of silica.

ii) Light weight aggregates

They are used to produce lower density concrete which is advantageous in reducing the self-
weight of structures and also have better thermal insulation than normal weight concrete.
Reduced specific gravity is obtained from air voids within the aggregates particles e.g. in
pumice, a naturally recurring volcanic rock of low density and widely used artificial light
weight aggregate coke-breeze, slag and clinker. These materials are porous.

iii) Heavy weight aggregate

They are used where high density concrete is required e.g. in radiation shielding, heavy
weight aggregates can be used. Densities of 3500 -4500kg/m3 obtained by using barites (a
barium sulphate ore) and about 7000kg/m3 shot.

Moisture content
The moisture content of aggregate is determined by the porosity which makes them absorb water more
especially during wet seasons. This affects the proportion of water to use during mixing. It is therefore
important to determine the amount of water in these aggregates or dry the aggregates completely
before mixing.

Bulk density
This simply means the volume increase of aggregates especially sand when in moist condition. This
makes it automatically difficult to obtain the correct uniform concrete batches when pure aggregate is
measured in volume. Experiment shows that 1m3 of dry sand will approximately increase to 1.2m3 if 3
percent of water is added to it and therefore there is actually less aggregate in 1m 3 of moist sand than in
the same volume of dry sand. To 4% increase will mean additional volume increase by ¼ while beyond
this percentage, the bulking gradually decreases and finally becomes the same as that in dry sand when
the sand becomes totally submerged. So the finer the sand the greater the bulking because it is
comparatively small force of gravities.

Percentage of bulking = Depth of box – depth of dry concrete

Depth of dry concrete

(Fill the box with moist sand; dry the sand; return to the box and measure the reduced depth of the sand
after leveling. Express it in percentage)

General requirements of aggregates

The materials should be:
i) Clean: - to ensure thorough adhesion of cement and development of setting properties of
the concrete.
ii) Strong: - able to resist stresses
iii) Durable: - to withstand alternate weather conditions of wetness, frost and thaw
iv) Suitably graded: - for economy and development of strength and workability of concrete,
right particle shape and right texture
v) Free from combustible materials:- this is to ensure adequate fire resistance
vi) Inert in the presence of water: - this is so as to avoid expansion and contraction movement
resulting from disruption of the concrete.
vii) Resistance to abrasion: - especially in concrete floors and road aggregates.
viii) Non-flaky and non-laminated: - i.e. not to come off or fall off in flakes and of one material.

Production of aggregates
The aggregates are produced either naturally or artificially. They can be obtained readily from river
beds, sea shores/inland deposits that are quarried, excavated manually or mechanically. Alternatively
they can be derived from waste materials from industrial activities like burning coal etc.
i) Broken brick – old bricks from demolished buildings etc are broken for use. It should not be
porous and should be well watered before being mixed.
ii) Broken stone – stones are crushed and screened. It is excellent provided it is free from
undesirable mineral salts, not soft, porous, friable or laminated. Granites, sand stones and
close grained limestone soluble.
iii) Gravel – also known as ballast. It is obtained from river beds, sea shore and inland deposits
which are quarried.
iv) Blast-furnace slag – a very uncertain material as a course aggregates which is a product of
the blast furnace in which iron ore is smelted as preliminary in the manufacture of cast iron,
steel etc. They are impurities of these processes sometimes mixed with Portland cement to
produce Portland blast furnace cement.
v) Pumice – is a whitish or yellowish material of a volcanic origin, which is honeycombed. It is
used and crushed as aggregates for light weight concrete suitable for partitioning, covering
flat roofs, encasing beams and pillars and similar purposes where strength is not important.
it is inert.
 vi) Breeze and clinker –are waste materials resulting from burning of coal? Breeze is obtained
from gasworks and coke ovens; clinker as the mineral matter or as from furnaces. Distinctly
unsound especially when they contain small particles of coal due to concrete failures owing
to considerable expansion when associated with cement. Spoils concrete and extensively
corrode steel due to sulphur content. Is therefore not suitable for reinforced concrete.
vii) Foamed slag – it resembles somewhat pumice. It is produced from blast-furnace slag by
rapidly cooling the molten materials with water. It is light and usually crushed and graded as
required. Is suitable for the manufacture of partition slabs.
viii) Expanded slates – is a light honeycombed material produced by heating waste slag to higher
temperature till its thickness is considerably increased? Then crushed and graded. A good
light weight aggregate not extensively used due to its high cost than that of foamed slag.

LIME
Lime in its pure foam is calcium carbonate. It varies in composition depending on the nature of
limestone it has been obtained from.

Production of Lime
Lime is produced by burning of limestone in a process called Calcination. The heating is aimed at the
removal of CO2 from limestone while the cooling is aimed at preventing recombination of the resultant
oxides.
There are two methods of manufacture of lime:
i) Intermittent
ii) Continuous

Intermittent kiln
This involves a bottle kiln provided with a grating on offloading door at the bottom and a loading
doorway at the top.
The kiln is lined with fire bricks on the sides. Limestone is fed into the kiln through the loading door and
is loosely packed in the kiln.
A fire is started gently so that the charge is heated up gradually so as to avoid cracking and bursting.
Temperatures are increased later till contents are bright red. This is maintained for several days after
which fire burns out. Cooling is allowed to take place and lime is offloaded. This whole process takes one
week.

Continuous kiln
This involves an arrangement of layers of limestone on top of coal placed in a kiln. The lowest level of
coal will be placed on a grating and a second layer coal fire.
As the first layer is removed through the offloading door, an additional layer of fuel (coal) and limestone
is added on top. This results to a continuous process of production called mixed feed. The ashes from
the fuel material and lime are mixed together.

Classification
Broadly, lime is classified as:
i) Quick and
 ii) Hydrated lime

Quick lime
This is lime before slaking and is normally produced in lumps. Rarely quick lime is packed in bags in
powder form. Care should be taken not to confuse quicklime with powder hydrated lime.

Hydrated lime
Hydrated lime is quicklime treated at the manufacturing plant with steam to allow for slaking process to
take place. Therefore this is called slaked lime. It is a dry powder which is packed in moisture resistant
bags. It can be stored for long periods of time. It is easy to work on for it is requires only addition of the
necessary amounts of sand and water.
Storage of lime
Lime should be transported and stored in a dry place in air tight bags. If this does not happen, lime
absorbs carbon dioxide reverting back to limestone.

Uses of lime
i) For plastering
ii) Manufacture of gypsum cement

Advantages of lime
i) Easy to work on
ii) Attractive when used in plaster

Disadvantages
i) Has a lengthy process of manufacture.
ii) Prone to damage from air
iii) Must be handled carefully

SOIL
Definition
Soil can be defined as top or sub-soil.

Top soil
The surface of much of the land is covered with a layer of top soil or vegetation soil to a depth of about
100-300mm. It is composed of loose soil, growing plant life and accumulation of decaying vegetation. As
it is very soft it is unsatisfactory as a foundation and it is stripped from the site of a building.

Subsoil
This is the soil below the top soil. It is the natural foundation.
Soils are grouped by reference to the size and nature of the particles and the density of the particular
soli.

Groups of soil
1. Coarse grained non-cohesive soils
2. Fine grained cohesive soils
 3. Organic soils

Types of soils
Soil can be classified according to the size of their particles and its cohesive qualities. Cohesive soils have
particles that stick together more easily.

Sub-soil type particle size (diameter in mm.)

Rock does not apply
Gravel larger than 2.0
Sand 0.06 – 0.2
Silt 0.002 – 0.6
Clay less than 0.002

Cohesive soils include silt and clay. Non-cohesive soils are gravel and sand.

Suitability for construction

To check for sub-soil suitability for construction, one is supposed to make an examination of the sub-soil
on a building site, trial pits or boreholes are extracted. Trial pits are usually excavated by machines or
hand to a depth of 2-4 metres. The nature of the soils is determined by examination of the sides of the
excavations.

Details of the sub-soil should include:

 Soil type
 Consistency/strength
 Soil structure
 Moisture conditions and
 The presence of roots at all depths

Gravel
Is a natural coarse grained deposit of rock fragments and finer sand. Many of the particles are larger
than 2.0 mm

Characteristics
 Condition – compact soil
 Have no plasticity and tend to lack cohesion especially when dug
 Under pressure from the loads on foundation, gravel soil compress and consolidate rapidly by
some rearrangement of particles and the expulsion of water.
 A foundation on such soil settles rapidly by consolidation of the soil, as the building is erected so
that there is no further settlement once the building is completed.
 Gravel soil has a bearing capacity of >600KN/M2 when dry and >300KN/M2 when submerged.

Sand
Is a natural sediment of granular mainly silicaceous products of rocks weathering. Particles are smaller
than 2mm. and are visible to the naked eye and the smallest size is 0.06mm.
Sand is silty and has real plasticity and can easily be powdered by hand when dry. Under pressure from
the foundation load, the sand soil compresses and consolidates rapidly by some arrangement of particle
and the expulsion of water.
Some sandy soil in water logged condition may expand in frost (frost heave) and for some distance
below the surface.
It is advisable to carry the foundations down to a depth of 450mm. which is below the frost line to avoid
ground movement in soils liable to frost heave under and around unheated buildings.

Sand soil bearing capacity

- Dry compact sand <300mm
- Submerged compact sand <150mm
- Dry medium dense sand 100-300mm
- Dry loose sand soil <100mm
- Submerged dense sand soil <50mm

Silt and clay

These are the natural deposits of the finest silicaceous and aluminous products of rock weathering.
It is smooth/soft and greasy to touch. They high plasticity and dries out slowly and shrink appreciably on
drying.
When under pressure, of the loads on foundations, clay soils are very gradually compressed by the
expulsion of water through the very many fine capillary paths and settle gradually during building work
and this settlement may continue for some years after the building is completed.
Firm shrinkable clay suffers appreciable vertical and horizontal shrinkage on drying and expansion on
wetting.

The bearing capacity of these soils is:

- Boulder, hard and dry clay 300-600
- Soft clay 75-100
- Very soft <75
Minimum width of strip foundation (mm) is 450in one storey and 650 in 2 storey buildings.

Stabilization of soil
In clay and silt
It is common knowledge that clays suffer appreciable vertical and horizontal shrinkage on drying and
expansion on wetting. The extent of shrinkage or expansion can be 1-4 metres on grass and below trees.
It all depends on seasonal variation.

Reasons/factors that cause instability in soil

a) Compression on the soli by the load of the building
b) Seasonal volume changes in the soil
c) Ground recovery due to the felling of trees
d) Mass movement in unstable area such as made up ground and mining areas where there may
be considerable settlement.
e) Ground made unstable by adjacent excavation or by dewatering for example due to an adjacent
road cutting.

Ways to improve/prevent differential settlement on the above areas

 a) Compression of the soil by the load of the building
- From calculating the anticipated loads on the foundation
- From an investigation of the sub-soil
- From the design of a suitable foundation as follows:
Strip foundation. Best in unstable soils to upto 0.9m
Narrow strip (trench fill) foundation – best for clay. Wide strip foundation is best for
sand and gravel
Pad foundation
Raft foundation for soft clay
Pile foundation for clay and silt

b) Seasonal volume changes in the soil

- Seasonal changes and the withdrawal of moisture by deep rooted vegetation can cause
considerable volume changes in shrinkable clay soil especially after periods of low rainfall.

Recommendation
A foundation depth of at least 0.9 m. is recommended. Narrow strip or trench till foundation can be
used.
- In frost heave areas, a normal strip foundation of 450mm. is recommended
c) Ground recovery due to felling of trees. Short-bored pile foundation is recommended in
recovered grounds to transfer loads to a depth enough to a sub-soil of stable ground.
d) Mass movement in unstable areas such as made-up grounds and mining areas. Raft foundation
is recommended with an edge beam. Larger building should be supported by pile foundation
carried down to a firm base.

METALS
Metals are basically in two types:
1. Ferous and
2. Non-ferous metals

FEROUS METALS
Iron is the commonest of all metallic elements extracted from different kinds of rocks; earth or mineral
termed iron.

Usable ores include:

i) Magnetic which contains tetraoxide and produces up to 70% or iron. It is found in USA and
Sweden.
ii) Red or brown hematite which contains ferric oxide or ferric hydroxide and produces upto
605 of iron.
iii) Spathic ore contains ferrous carbonate and yields upto 30 to 40% of iron.

To reduce the oxides from these ores of iron (the ores) are heated with carbon i.e. limestone (a part
from spathic ore whose ferruginous limestone renders itself sufficient for smelting so that carbon takes
up oxygen leaving the metal hence:
Oxide of iron + carbon = oxide of carbon + iron.
Limestone is therefore crushed to suitable sizes for handling and charged in to the blast furnace i.e. the
plant for smelting iron ore by forcing a current of heated air in to it.)
Iron being denser than slag, collect in liquid form with the liquid slag forming a layer on top of it. Both
iron and slag are tapped and run off through holes suitably located. The crude iron resulting from
smelting the iron ore up to 18000c is termed pig iron being so termed because it is cast into ingots (brick
shaped sand moulds) called pigs. The molten pig iron runs off from the furnace is 89 to 95% pure
containing 3.5 – 5% carbon and the remainder is manganese, silicon, sulphur and phosphorous.

Of these substances, carbon is the impurity which cannot affect the quality of iron. Pig iron is used as
raw material in the manufacture of cast iron or steel.

a) Cast iron
Is made from smelting pigs in a miniature (very small) blast furnace termed cupola and then casting
molten iron in moulds. Cast iron contains up to 4% carbon.

N.B
The whiteness or greyness of iron depends on its rate of cooling, e.g. the faster the cooling, the greater
is the carbon taken into combination and the whiter is the solidified iron.

Properties of cast iron

i) Hard and brittle
ii) It is strong in compression but weak in tension. Its tensile strength being a quarter of its
crushing strength.

Uses
i) For making (casting) cast iron articles such as hollow columns, gully gratings, pipes etc.
ii) It may also be converted into wrought iron or steel.

b) Wrought(wrot) iron
This is purified iron with 0.2% carbon purification being achieved by raising the melting point from
12000c to 15000c.it is re-heated, hammered or rolled i.e. beaten into shape (hence its name wrought
iron) several times to expel as much as possible carbon which is oxidized by contact with an oxidizing
flame.

Properties of wrought iron

Wrought iron is:
i) Ductile i.e. easily pressed, beaten or drawn into desired shape
ii) Strong – owing to the repeated hammering and rolling it receives during its manufacture.

Uses
Common uses include:
i) For hand rails, balusters, frames etc.
ii) Better grades for resistance to rusting are used for boilers, chains, ornamental, gates etc.

c) Steel
Carbon content of steel is between that of wrought iron and cast iron (i.e. 0.2 to 4%) being carefully
controlled according to the properties needed for the finished product.
 i) Mild steel
This is also termed as structural steel and has low carbon steel containing 0.25 to 0.3% carbon. It is
however not suitable for all building purposes because of its weight and is therefore used for bridge
construction etc

ii) High tensile steel (hard steel)

It has 0.5% carbon and having a higher tensile strength than that of mild steel. It is used where there is
high designing stress with consequent reduction in weight of steel work.

iii) Stainless (Nickel-chrome) steel

This is mild steel containing 18-20% chromium and 3.75 to 10% nickel. Being very resistant to heat, and
corrosion, it is used in:
- Kitchen equipment
- Pipe nuts
- Stainless steel with higher proportions of nickel and chromium is used in kilns and furnaces to
resist very high temperatures

Steel for general building purposes is in the form of:

- Structural sections
- Tubes and steel pipes

1. Structural sections
They are also known as load steel sections and are produced by the process of hot rolling the hot white
steel being passed through rolling mills which reduce and notify its cross-section and also increase its
length.
In the case of a beam and steel is first roll in a blooming mill to roughly rectangular section and is then
called a bloom.
Manufacturing firms keep to a standard specification to manufacture ranges of standard sections. The big
sections are in two ranges, namely normal and heavy.
i) Normal section
They are those most economical to use and are lighter when used as beams.

ii) Heavy range

They are sections with shorter webs and wider flanges hence are ideal for stanchions because of their
greater cross-section.

2. a) Tubes and steel pipes

They are formed by either vertical casting or centrifugal casting, joints being welded in any one of the
following two ways:
a) Butt welded to form a square joint or
b) Cap welded to form a splayed joint

b) Jointless (welds) tubes and pipes

i) In one process the tube is made from a metal bar which is heated to a high temperature and passed
through a die of which bends the heated and therefore set metal bar to a circular section so that the square
edges a butt and weld together by pressure.
ii) In another process the Mannesmann Hot drawn tube process, heated round metal bar passes between a
pair of heavy rollers which are inclined to each other and made to revolve clockwise in the same
direction. The metal bar being soft because of its high temperature tends to follow the contour of the
rollers.
Between rollers is a small mandrill that gives a circular shape to the cavity of the metal. As the metal is
drawn on beyond the rollers, it is now in the form of a tube of lager diameter than the metal bar.

NON-FEROUS METALS
Metals are described as either ferrous containing a substantial proportion of iron or non-ferrous
containing no iron. Non-ferrous metals are aluminum, copper, lead, and zinc.

Non-ferrous metals are more expensive to manufacture than the ferrous metals but this difference is offset
by their superior working properties and resistance to corrosion.

By chemically combining two or more non-ferrous metals, other metals known as alloys with different
properties are formed.

Aluminum
Aluminum is extracted from bauxite. It has the following properties:
i) Aluminum is a light , white, very soft and weak
ii) Is very good in resisting corrosion
iii) Its melting point is nearly 7000c.
iv) It is 99% or more pure
v) It has a low density about 1/3 that of steel (steel has a density of 1.78%)
vi) It is easily attacked by acids
vii) Its electrical conductivity is 60% that of copper
viii) Aluminum members can be joint by bolts or rivets by soldering or welding

Building uses of aluminum

1. Aluminum is mainly used for alloying with other metals
2. Aluminum extrusions (squaring aluminum through a shaped orifice) are used as:
i. Solid extrusions for non-load bearing components such as edge trims, joint, covers etc
ii. Extruded aluminum tubes
3. In sheet form aluminum is used in:
i) Flushing, aprons, and soakers
ii) Roof covering works for both flat and pitched roofs
4. Because of its reflectibility and a capacity to take a mirror, aluminum is used for reflectors to
electric unit heaters etc
5. A 0.05mm.thick foil of aluminum is used to cover sound reflecting surface (resonating boards)
for purposes of heat insulation
6. A much esteemed protective and durable aluminum paint is made by suspending finely powdered
aluminum in suitable ‘vehicles’

Aluminum alloys
They are used where superior strength, yet lightness is required e.g. for:
i) Corrugated and toughened roof sheeting
ii) Window sections
 iii) Cooking utensils,
iv) Electrical apparatus etc

In addition to increasing hardness, alloying also reduces thermal and electrical conductivity.

1. Alloying for casting

7 to 12% copper is used for casting strong, tougher and easily machined aluminum alloy than pure
aluminum.

2. Alloys to be worked or wrot

It contains 0.4 to 0.7% manganese, 0.4 to 0.7%magnesium and 3.5 to 4.5% copper
Copper
Common ores from which copper is obtained by smelting in small blast furnaceare:
i) Copper pyrets containing double compound cupro-ferrous disulphide
ii) Oxide (copper oxide)
iii) Carbonate (copper carbonate)
iv) Sulphide (copper sulphide)

Properties of copper
1. Clean copper is reddish brown in colour
2. Copper is very resistant to corrosive agents e.g. sea water but is attacked by strong mineral acids
and ammonia
3. Copper is very strong and extremely ductile
4. Copper has a high electrical and thermal conductivity
5. Copper can be joint by either welding, soldering or brazing

N.B
Brazing: solder with an alloy of brass and zinc
Solder: easily melted alloy used when melted to join harder metals, wires etc
Welding: by joining pieces of metal by heat or fusing by use of an oxy-acetylene flame or an electric arc

Available forms of copper

1. 0.025 to 5mm. diameter wire or rod made from cast bars
2. 1.5 to 610mm. diameter tubes
3. 3.7m.long by 305mm. by 10mm.thick plate flat material
4. Sheets from 0.18mm.to 10mm.thick and wider than 460mm.
5. Foils (strips) from 0.025mm. to 15mm. thick end from 150mm.to 915mm. wide
Working copper
Unalloyed copper can either be:
i) Hot rolled
ii) Forged
iii) Extruded
Building uses of copper
1. Hot and cold water distribution
2. Manufacture of hot water cylinders
3. Roof sheeting
4. Flashing, weathering etc
5. Electrical conductors e.g. earthing
6. Horizontal damp proof course materials

Copper alloys
Small proportions of copper are added to other metals for reasons that include:
i) High electrical and thermal conductivity
ii) To improve resistance to corrosion of structural steel
iii) Good mechanical properties i.e. they can be forged pressed and easily machined
Copper alloys are:
i) Copper + zinc =brass (copper is the main element). Brass are classified according to their
zinc content in cast and thick walled tube and used as extrusion for windows, hand rails etc
ii) Copper + tin = bronze
iii) Copper + aluminum = aluminum bronze
iv) Copper + silicon + manganese +silicon bronze
v) Copper + zinc + nickel = nickel silver

LEAD
Lead occurs as lead carbonate in cerrussite rock or as lead sulphide in galena (ashing black mineral rock
lead) lead ores rock containing lead are crushed and smelted in miniature blast furnaces.

Properties of lead
1. Lead is dull bluish grey in colour
 2. Is the densiest and most durable of all non-ferous metals
3. Is resistant to corrosion
4. Due to its ductility, it can be worked into different shapes
5. It can be paired by soldering (wiped solder joint)
6. It has low melting point compared to other non-ferrous metals
7. It is poisonous when in form of soluble compounds as even the lowest quality of lead dissolved in
drinking water is dangerous to health as it causes lead poisoning
8. Lead is the softest and weakest. Horizontal lead pipes should therefore be supported at not less
than 500mm. intervals to prevent sagging
9. Lead suffers from creep and fatigue, i.e. gets weakened by repeated application and removal of
stress, such as occur due to vibrations and causing ultimate failure.

Building uses of lead

1. Lead compounds are important pigments for paints especially for external uses
2. Lead in sheet form is used for:
i) Weathering and flushing as it is easily shaped to complex shapes
ii) Roof covering (though very costly)
iii) Horizontal damp proof course. It is very economical in lead cured bituminous felt D.P.C.
(lead not being less than 1.2kg/m3
3. Extruded lead pipes are used for internal plumbing services especially for gas pipes and for
collecting liquid wastes.
Lead pipes should not be used for distribution of drinking water especially soft water e.g. very soft and
acidic rain water though industrially polluted atmospheres because such water is plumbo-solent (i.e.
ability to dissolve lead)

Lead alloys
1. Lead + tin alloys known as solders are used by plumbers
2. Ternary alloys that are more resistant to creep and fatigue are lead alloys that have:
i) 0.5% antimony and 0.25% cadmium or
ii) 1.25 to 1.75% tin and 0.2 to 0.3% tellurium which gives lead work hardening properties
which make it possible to use this alloys in a soft state (i.e. hardening itself under
condition of use) or in a pre-hardened state.
Zinc
Zinc is extracted from ores that include:
 1. Zinc blende containing zinc sulphide
2. Calamine containing zinc carbonate
Properties of Zinc
1. Zinc is bluish white in colour with lustrous crystalline fracture, the lattice being hexagonal
2. Its density is 445lb/c/ft
3. Its melting point is 4190c
4. Its tensile strength is about 3 tons per square inch with elastic limit one half of this
5. Cast zinc is brittle unless first heated to 1500c, worked and then cooled when it retains its
malleability.
6. Upon exposure to atmosphere, a film of basic carbonate appears on the surface and this forms a
protection since it adheres well to the metal
7. Very soft natural water produces corrosion of zinc especially when hot as in the case of
galvanized tubes, cylinders etc in hot water systems. Also acid and strong alkaline attacks zinc
(i.e. corrosion)

Building uses of zinc

1. In sheet form, main uses are:
i) As a roof covering for both flat and pitched roof
ii) As flushing, apron valley, gutter etc
iii) As covering for table and bench tops for various purposes
2. In perforated sheet form, for ventilation in ladders ( i.e. rooms or cupboards where meat and other
kinds of food are stored)
3. Zinc oxide is used as a pigment for oil paints and also for metal spraying
4. Zinc is applied as a protective coating to other metals to protect them against corrosion

Zinc alloys
Other metals may be added to pure zinc:
i) To greatly increase its strength and
ii) To prevent damage that zinc may cause to other metals , for instant, a prolonged contact to
other metals with a copper nail, iron nails or a few fillings left in galvanized tank leads to a
hole developing at a later date.

Protection of metals
a) Zinc coating
Zinc applied as a protective coating to other metals by galvanizing, electroplating and sherardizing
b) Painting
Application of a paint coat on metals to prevent rusting
c) Metal spraying
d) Alloying of metals
This is the mixture of metals mechanically

CONCRETE
Definitions
Concrete
Is the proportional mixture of suitable types of cement, sand and ballast plus the right quantity of water.
Grading
This is the particle size distribution or proportions of particles of different size in the aggregate
Segregation
This is the separation of the constituents of a heterogeneous mixture so that their distribution is no longer
uniform.
Aggregate
This is an inert, inexpensive material dispersed throughout the cement paste so as to produce a large
volume of concrete
Types of concrete
1. Fresh/wet concrete
Is a term used to describe concrete before setting commences i.e freshly laid
2. Green concrete
This is a term used to describe concrete which has not fully set i.e setting has started but not
complete.
3. Plain/mass concrete
This is a mixture of cement, sand and ballast (concrete) which is not reinforced by metal rods/bars. Is
used in structures with low tensile and shear stresses
4. Reinforced concrete
This concrete which has reinforced bars embedded so as to resist tensile and shear stresses. It is used
in structures with high tensile and shear stresses.

Mixing Ratios
i) 1:3:6. This means one part of cement, three parts of sand and six parts of ballast.
This concrete mix ratio is used in mass concrete works such as oversite concrete, foundation
concrete, casting paving slabs and moulding blocks.

ii) 1:2:4. This is a strong concrete mix ratio used in reinforced concrete works such as beams,
columns, slabs, lintels, pillars etc.

Process of obtaining concrete

1. Getting the proportions
 2. Batching i.e measuring the materials in dry state
3. Mixing (hand or machine)
4. Transportation
5. Placing
6. Compacting
7. Curing
Batching is the process of measuring the specified quantities of materials in dry state for making concrete.
This is done in two ways:
a) By volume
This involves measuring of materials by use of buckets, metals basins, wheelbarrows, gauge box etc.
This is not an accurate method.

b) By mass
This method involves measuring of the materials by weighing. It is the most accurate and commonly
used method.
The hand mixing of concrete should be done on a hard and clean surface. The materials are turned or
mixed atleast three times in dry state. After thorough mixing to a uniform colour, water is added and then
mixed again atleast times in wet state.
In machine mixing, the mix should be turned over for atleast two minutes after adding water. Some of the
concrete mixers include:
i) Revolving drum
ii) Tilting drum
The transportation of concrete is done by, use of wheelbarrows, cranes, dumpers etc. the runs should be as
short as possible to minimize vibrations which may lead to segregation. Timber planks can be used to run
the wheelbarrow over.
The placing of concrete should not be done from a height of more than 1 metre to minimize segregation.
Concrete should be compacted to reduce its void content so as to avoid honey combing as a result of
unhomogeneous mix.
Excess compaction should be avoided as this will cause segregation of fine particles (cement and water)
and larger particles which will be formed at the bottom. What will be formed on the surface is called
laitance (‘fat’) which is a thin layer of fine cement paste, water and fine aggregates formed on top of
freshly laid concrete (wet concrete ) after excessive compaction or over tamping.
Curing
This is a process of controlling drying of concrete or mortar by continuous wetting during dehydration so
as to attain its optimum strength.
Concrete should not be allowed to dry very rapidly, as it will continue gaining strength up to 28 days. It
should be atleast cured for 7 days, because it will have gained 3/4 of its strength.
The methods of curing include:
i) Watering or sprinkling water to the surface for al least 3 times a day.
ii) Use of plastic sheeting
iii) Use of damp sacks or mats
iv) Use of damp saw dust or sand
N.B
The use of the last method is not preferred as it tends to stain the concrete.

Reinforced Concrete
Concrete is strong in compression and but weak in tension and because it is used to withstand various
stresses, steel (reinforcement) is introduced before the concrete is placed.
The reinforcement resists the tensile forces which the concrete cannot afford.
i) Plain, round bars in mild steel
ii) Twisted bars for better strength
iii) Expanded metal fabric
iv) Binding wires
v) Stirrups

Precautions to consider when mixing concrete

i) Specified ratio should be used during mixing
ii) The sand used should be clean with angular sharp grains
iii) Clean graded ballast (angular) be used
iv) Leveled, hard and clean surface should be used for mixing the materials
v) Batching should be done to obtain a uniform colour
vi) Use clean water and mix thoroughly to obtain a workable mix

Repairing cracks/potholes on a mud floor

Causes of segregation
i) Long runs
ii) Rough runs
iii) Placing of concrete at a height more than 1metre
iv) Over tamping

Workability
This is the physical property necessary to produce full compaction and to overcome the internal friction
between the individual particles in the concrete so as to produce it in a plastic condition.
These properties include:
i) Compactability
This is the ease with which the concrete is compacted by expelling the air voids
ii) Stability
This is the property of concrete to resist segregation of its ingredients either in transit or
during compaction.
iii) Mobility
This is the property which determines the ease with which the concrete can flow round the
reinforcement and fill out the angles.
iv) Finishability
This is the property which helps to produce a smooth surface finish by trowelling.

Factors affecting workability

i) Water content in the mix
ii) Type of aggregate and grading (size, shape and texture)
iii) Aggregate cement ration
iv) Fineness of cement
v) Time and temperature
Natural aggregates are formed by the process of weathering or abrasion by artificially crushing a large
parent mass.
All-in-all or pit run aggregates are either deposits containing a whole range of sizes from the largest to the
smallest.
Fine aggregates (sand) particles are smaller than 5mm. while coarse aggregates contain particles the
majority of which are larger than 5mm.
Roundness – measures the relative sharpness or angularity of the edge and corners of a particle.
Admixtures
These are additives or substances introduced or added into a batch of cement during or immediately
before its mixing in order to alter or improve the properties of the fresh or hardened concrete.
Examples:
i) Slags
ii) Pozzolanas
iii) Calcium chloride
iv) Aluminum chloride
v) Aluminum sulphate (gypsum)

Classification of admixtures
i) Water reducers – increases workability or decrease water content
ii) Water repellers – prevents absorption of rain water
iii) Set retarders – delays onset of setting or hardening
iv) Accelerators – speeds up the rate of setting and hardening
v) Air entrainers – reduces air bubbles
vi) Bonding agents – increases the bonding properties
vii) Pigments – it gives the desired colour

Strength of concrete
Among the properties of concrete, its strength is very important. It is comparatively strong in
compression, but lower in tensile strength.
The strength is influenced by several factors of which the most important are explained here below.

Factors affecting concrete strength

i) Void content
Strength decreases as the proportion of voids increases
ii) Age
The rate of gain in strength is rapid at first, but decreases progressively. At an age of 7 days,
its strength is approximately 2/3 of its 28 days strength.

iii) Type of cement

 Ordinary Portland cement in 7 days it gains 2/3 strength; rapid hardening Portland cement in 3
days it gains 2/3 strength and high alumina cement gains 2/3 strength in 1 day.
iv) Water content
Optimum amount of water is needed for ease of workability and to start the chemical
reaction. Too much water decreases the strength because the void content increases
v) Grade of aggregates
Strength is increased by use of angular and rough aggregates rather than rounded and smooth.
Impurities in aggregates also affect the strength
vi) Temperature
An increase in the temperature of the concrete as it hardens; accelerates the hydration
process. This increases the rate of gain of early strength, provided there is no evaporation.
vii) Segregation
This where when have fine particles at the top and larger particles at the bottom. This will
result from excess compaction, transportation on rough runs and placing methods.
viii) Inadequate or lack of curing

Grout or nil – is a mixture of cement and water in such proportions as to produce a fluid or thin paste.

CEMENT
Definition
Cement is a fine powder which has adhesive properties used as a binder or setting agent and made from
limestone and clay.
Uses
Cement is used for making the following:
i) Mortar for building materials
ii) Concrete
iii) Concrete blocks
iv) Grout/nil

Raw materials
i) Limestone chalk (Ca2CO3) with 75% lime
ii) Clay i.e 25% (kunkur) which has the following:
- Alumina (Al2O2)
- Silica oxide (SiO2)
- Iron oxide (Fe2O20 –Ferric oxide
iii) Water for starting the chemical reaction and to eases workability

Manufacture
The manufacture of cement is carried out by one of the following processes:
i) Dry process i.e the raw materials are ground separately and mixed before adding water.
ii) Wet process

In both processes, operations include:

i) Excavation
ii) Mixing
iii) Burning
iv) Grinding
v) Testing
vi) Storage (silos)
vii) Distribution

The wet process

i) The crushed raw materials in desired proportions are fed into rotating steel cylinder (ball
 mills) which have grinding media (steel balls).
ii) Water is added and as the cylinder rotates the balls pulverize the materials to form a thick paste
called slurry
iii) The slurry is taken into the silos for testing the proportions before being fed into the rotating
kiln for burning.
iv) The resultant product is called clinker which is air cooled
v) The clinker is ground in large tube mills with pozzolana
vi) While grinding, gypsum (Ca2SO4) is added to prevent a flash setting of cement
vii) The ground cement is stored in silos from where it is drawn for packing in bags and
distributed

Flow diagram of cement manufacture

Limestone
l clay

Preliminary crushing

Wet mixing (water added)

Raw slurry

Silos for proportioning

Burning (kiln)

Clinker

Clinker grinding (adding gypsum)

Storage (silos)

Testing and packing

Effects of water on cementDistribution

When water is added to cement in suitable proportions, a plastic paste (nil) is formed which starts to
stiffen shortly. This stiffening process of a plastic paste is formed by mixing suitable proportions of
cement and water.
Flash set is the rapid or immediate stiffening of the paste after a violent reaction of calcium aluminate
with water which causes evaporation of water. After the completion of the setting process, the
materials start to gain strength at a rapid rate. This process of gaining strength after the paste has set is
termed hardening.
The process of setting and hardening are collectively termed hydration because water is taken in.

N.B
Slag is a waste product in the manufacture of pig iron.

Types of Portland cement

1. Ordinary Portland cement
2. Rapid hardening Portland cement
3. Low heat Portland cement
4. Sulphate resisting Portland cement
5. Blast furnace Portland cement
6. Super sulphated (slag) cement
7. White and coloured Portland cement
8. Hydrophobic cement
9. Water repellant cement
10. High alumina cement
11. Pozzolanic cement
12. Water proof cement (admixtures)
TIMBER
Definition
Timber is a piece of wood which has been cut/sawn to a particular shape and size for a specific use.
Uses of timber
i) For structural purposes in roofing, walling etc
ii) For finishing purposes e.g. floor finishing, ceiling, skirting etc
iii) For making doors, windows etc

Advantages of timber

i) It is relatively cheap
ii) Is light in weight
iii) It is reasonably durable if properly seasoned and preserved
iv) Has adequate strength (against various stresses)

Disadvantages

i) Can easily absorb moisture

ii) Can easily attacked by insects
iii) Can easily catch fire
iv) Some have natural defects e.g. knots

Classification of timber

i) Soft wood and

ii) Hard woods

Soft woods

 Podo
 Cedar
 Cypress
 Pine
 Spruce
 Fir
 Larch
 Hemlock
Hard woods
These have broad leaves; bear seed fruits and cast their leaves in the autumn.
Examples are:
 Mvule
 Camphor
 Mahogany
 Eucalypyus
 Teak
 Oak
 Elm
 Chestnut

Structure of Timber

The structure of timber comprises:

i) A central core (pith or medulla) which disappears with time

ii) Inner concentric rings of woody tissue called heart wood
iii) Outer coloured concentric rings of woody tissue called sapwood
iv) Radical narrow bands of tissue medullary rays (partition) which contain cells and radiate
from the centre
v) The back

The concentric rings forming the heartwood and sapwood are called annual rings (growth rings) i.e. each
ring is formed annually.

Soft wood Characteristics

i) Comparatively weak and split easily

ii) Its texture (substance) is soft and regular
iii) Annual rings are very distinct
iv) Has straight fibres
v) Is resinous i.e contains resins

Characteristics of hard wood

i) Is comparatively heavier and darker in colour

ii) Is hard and difficult to work upon
iii) Annual rings are not distinct
iv) Is close grained and strong
v) Is non-resinous

Characteristics of a good timber

A good timber should:

i) Have straight and close fibres

ii) Be of uniform colour
iii) Give a clear ringing sound when struck , as dull heavy sound is an indication of internal
decay
iv) Have regular and narrow annual rings
 v) A freshly cut surface should give a sweet smell
vi) The teeth of the saw should not get clogged while sawing
vii) Have bright and smooth surface when planed
viii) Be free from numerous knots or other defects

Logging Process

i) Tree felling when mature to produce logs

ii) Saw milling to extract sections for either structural or finished purposes
iii) Seasoning (natural or artificial)
iv) Preservation

Seasoning or maturing of timber

This is the process of allowing or causing a freshly cut/sawn wood to dry out either naturally or
artificially

This consists of removing a considerable amount of moisture or sap from a wood/timber

Reasons for controlling moisture content

i) To attain a maximum strength and durability

ii) To increase resistance to decay
iii) To prevent unduly high shrinkage
iv) To improve the finishing properties e.g. better holding properties for paints
v) To reduce the weight of timber
vi) To prevent rusting of iron or other metals embedded in timber
vii) To increase the impregnation degree

Moisture content (M.C.)

The amount in wood varies from one species to the other and from one geographical area to the other.
The moisture content is normally expressed a percentage of the dry weight of the same timber. This dry
weight is that weight gotten after a timber which has been so dried that further drying causes it to loose no
more weight.

M.C. =[ weight of raw timber – weight of dry timber] X 100%

Dry weight of the same timber

The moisture content of timber should be such that the timber will not appreciably gain or loose moisture
in the position in which it is fixed in a building.

Methods of seasoning
There are two methods of timber seasoning:
i) Artificial seasoning and
ii) Natural seasoning (air seasoning)

i) Natural seasoning
This is done by stacking planks horizontally off the base and under a shade. Each raw of
planks being separated from the next by use of pieces of wood.
 This will allow free air circulation so as to aid in the removal of moisture from the timber.
They are left stacked for about two months for soft woods and about six months for hard
woods, though this is determined by the thickness of the timber and climatical conditions.
The process of seasoning is constantly checked by determining the moisture content of wood.
The least moisture content that can be achieved by this method is about 18%

ii) Artificial seasoning (kiln drying)

This process is carried out in kilns where timbers are carefully stacked in them, with battens
in between. Hot air is circulated amongst the timber by means of fans.
Temperatures and humidity are controlled to account for different species of timber. If the
timber is seasoned too quickly/rapidly, it shrinks and is liable to crack and loose its shape.
This process of seasoning reduces the time needed for adequate seasoning and can produce
seasoned wood with low moisture content than the natural method.
Swelling and shrinking of timber will be directly controlled by the environment.

Timber Preservation
Definition
Timber preservation is the process of painting, spraying, or impregnation of timber with a suitable liquid
chemical called a preservative.

Reasons for preservation

i) To increase its resistance to fungal attack which cause rotting of timber
ii) To increase resistance to wood boring pests such as termites, wood beetles etc
iii) To make the timber more durable and resistant to dampness

Wood preservatives are divided into three main groups:

i) Oil tars
ii) Water borne
iii) Organic solvents

i) Oil tars
Tar oils preservatives are a mixture of distillate oils of coal, tar, and commonly known as creosote
(creosoting). It reduces moisture absorption and effective against fungal and insect attack. It is painted
and sprayed on timber surfaces.

ii) Water borne

The water borne preservatives (water soluble) include the Boron compounds for unseasoned timber and a
mixture of Copper, Chrome and Arsenic (C.C.A.) for seasoned timber.

iii) Organic solvents

The organic solvent preservatives contain fungicidal ingredients of low water solubility and are dissolved
in volatile solvents such as white spirits that evaporate, leaving the preservative in the timber.
Methods of preservation
i) Brushing and spraying
ii) Dipping
iii) Steeping
iv) Hot and cold open tank process
v) Pressure process
vi) Diffusion process
- Full cell process
- Empty cell process

Requirements of a good preservative

i) Be poisonous to fungi and other insects but not to human beings
ii) Be permanent and non-washable by rain
iii) Be cheap and locally/readily available
iv) Be non-corrosive to metals (i.e. nails, bolts)
v) Have a good penetration for effective protection
vi) Be odourless
vii) Should not increase inflammability of wood
viii) Should permit subsequent painting or finishing of wood

Defects in Timber
The defects in timber fall into two categories:
i) Those which develop during the growth of a tree
ii) Those occurring after felling the tree

In this case the defects may be structural due to the nature of the wood itself or decay due to external
causes such as fungi etc.
Class in (a), above defects include:
i) Coarse grains
ii) Twisted grains
iii) Shakes (cup and heart)
iv) Knots

Class in (b), above defects include:

i) Fungal decay (i.e. dry rot and wet rot)
ii) Shrinkage and swelling
iii) Warping
iv) Insect attack (pests)

i) Coarse grains
The timber has very wide annual rings caused by the tree growing too rapidly. Such timbers
are deficient in strength and not durable.
 ii) Twisted grains or fibre
The fibres are twisted such that they (most of them) are cut through when a tree is cut. Wind
action is the cause of twisted grains. Such timbers have a tendency to break easily.

iii) Shakes
These are cracks or clefts developing between annual rings, or may begin at the heart or pith
of a timber. These render the conversion of timber difficult resulting in to waste. They are
caused by shrinkage in an over mature tree or excessive frost (sap freezing).

iv) Knots
These are sections of dead branches on the surface of wood which are in form of hard dark
pieces. Woods with large or ‘base’ knots are unsightly and readily removed and may be
difficult to work upon.
Knots are a source of weakness, hence not suitable for building.

v) Shrinkage and swelling

When the amount of moisture in timber is reduced during seasoning it shrinks. Likewise if
the timber contains excess moisture and is used in dry position, it loses moisture and shrinks.
On the other hand, if it absorbs additional moisture after seasoning, it swells or increases in
volume.
vi) Warping (bowing)
This is distortion or twisting out of shape which may occur during shrinkage of timber.
The timber may be slightly curved in the direction of its length i.e. bowing or curved in cross
section i.e. cupping.
vii) Pest attack
The common insects attacking timber are:
a) Termites (white ants). They are the most dangerous
b) Beetles e.g. furniture beetle, house longhorn beetle etc

N.B
Preserve timber to avoid pest infestation

viii) Fungal decay

Wood destroying fungi will attack timber that is persistently wet or in poorly ventilated area
(> 20% m.c.)
Dry-rot
This is a decay caused by fungus (Suepulula lacrymans) which feeds on the wood and
reduces it to a dry and powdery condition. It appears as masses resembling cotton wool with
grey or brown coloured strands which branch out in network structures to adjacent timber
with high or excess sap (m.c.) and in poorly ventilated area.
The affected timber turns dark-brown, shrinks and dries into a cracked powdery mass
resembling ash. This timber has little or no strength and crumbles by slight pressure.
Prevention
i) Use of well seasoned timber
ii) Timber should be protected from dampness
iii) Use of DPM/DPC in buildings
iv) Timber should be preserved in case there is a risk of dampness
v) Raised timber floors should be adequately ventilated to remove moisture
vi) Timber should be preserved only when it is dry (seasoned)
vii) Immediate removal of affected timber and burning to avoid spread (of infection)

GLASS
Definition
Glass is a building a material which is not a true solid but super cooled liquid which is composed of
silicate of sodium and or potassium and calcium with small quantities of metallic oxides which are melted
together and subjected to controlled cooling . It is used for glazing and other decorative purposes.

Manufacture of Glass
Glass is manufactured by melting of metallic oxides, lime, potash and soda at 1200 -15000c. the
manufacture process is done in two melts:
a) First melt
b) Second melt
In the first melt, some silica sand with sodium and or potassium oxide are melted and in the second melt,
the remainder of the sand with lime with other additions.
The first melt results in a silicate of sodium and or potassium and the second in the silicate or calcium or
lead in case of lead glass.
The lime, potash and soda are introduced into the furnace as carbonate, thus being the most convenient
form of raw material which loses carbon dioxide during heating thus making oxides.
Each silicate is crystalline and slightly soluble but after melting together, they set as glass.

Types of Glass
There are various types of glass namely:
i) Blown glass
ii) Crown glass
iii) Drawn cylinder shut glass. This type of glass is obtained by modern method of manufacture
where the ingredients (the frit) are melted in tank furnace. It van hold 1000tons of molders.
iv) Blown sheet glass which is further divided into:
- Horticultural glass, which is an inferior sheet
- Ordinary glazing glass which is a quality sheet
- Special selected quality
These glasses are of various densities and can be further be processed and polished i.e.
- Clay glazing for glaring for ordinary plate glass windows
- Selected glazing quality. This is used in superior and ordinary mirrors.
- Silvering quality. This is the finest for the best mirrors and optical instruments.
 v) Rolled glass. It is rolled using a plain roller and they are two types:
- Rough cast. It is translucent in nature,
- Figured glass. It is patterned.
vi) Opal glass. This glass possess opacity in some degree laying from slight milkiness to
complete opacity produced by inclusions in the mass of various proportions of particles
having different refractive indexes.

Opal glass is of various types:

a) Flashed opal is produced from a thin flash of opal glass.
b) Sheet or opal. It is a blown sheet from opal metal and thus opal throughout
c) Polished opal. It gives undistorted reflection for fascias. It is semi opaque.
d) Rolled opal. Its face is plain and the back is fluted to give okey for bedding in plaster to the
glasses include:
- Wired glass. This has a layer of wire mesh embedded in it for its safety
- Toughened glass. Its resistance to impact and to sudden temperature change has been
increased by heat treatment.
- Laminated glass. It is made up of a number of pieces alternating with sheet or
reinforcing material
- Prismatic glass. Is rolled glass which are set at different angles like prism
- Ultra violet glass. It is transparent to ultra-violet as well as visible to daylight
- Heat resisting glass. Has a very low co-efficient of expansion and therefore resistant
than other glasses due to changes of temperature heat absorbing glass. Is a blue or
green sheet rolled or polished plate glass to absorb high percentage of solar heat.
e) Non-actinic glass. It is opaque to ultra violet light and so largely prevents fading by sun and
strong daylight (green in colour) thermolux. It passes high percentage of visible light whilst in
subletting against solar heat.

Lead plate glass

It provides opacity to x-rays and therefore protects x-ray workers and patients.
Anti fly glass is useful for glazing food stores

Properties of Glass
The properties of a glass depend on the composition and the treatment it undergoes during its
manufacture. These include;
i) Transparency
ii) Brittleness
iii) Glarity and brilliancy
iv) Opalescence
v) Resistance to abrasion and weather resistance
vi) Durability (some types)
vii) Are non-crystalline
viii) Low tensile and compressional forces
ix) Fire resistance (some)
x) Suffer fatigue (some)
 xi) Transmits heat and sound
xii) Attack by pure water (some)
xiii) Can dissolve in hydrochloric acid and strong alkalis

Uses of glass
1. Used as a building material such as walling, glazing of windows and doors, roofing etc
2. Making optical instruments
3. Manufacture of mirrors
4. Manufacture of tiles
5. Manufacture of vehicle side mirrors, windscreen etc
6. For decorative purposes
7. For occupational protection e.g. x-ray workers and patients against x-rays
8. It is a source of obtaining solar heat

BITUMINOUS PRODUCTS/MATERIALS
Definition
Bitumen is a complex hydrocarbon which occurs naturally as a viscous liquid in isolation deposits,
mainly in the region of Tigris and Euphrates. It occurs in conjunction with mineral deposit in form of lake
Asphalt. It can also be mined as Asphalt rock, a form of limestone a fine grained limestone uniformly
containing some percentage of bitumen.

Bituminous Products
1. Mastic Asphalt
This is made from mixing lake Asphalt, natural Asphalt rock, graded aggregate and Asphaltic cement
or flux. Such asphalts are suitable for parings, floors, damp proof course, roofing felts etc

2. Other bituminous products

a) Bitumen felt. This consists of close textured made from animal and vegetation fibre impregnated
with asphalt bitumen (not coated)
Examples:
i) Impregnated bituminous felt
ii) Sanded bitumen felt. Is similar to the above but surface with sand.
iii) Self finished felts of similar fibres. Has mixture impregnated and coated with asphaltic
bitumen. It is surfaced with talc or mica. This prevents adhering to one another when rolled.
iv) Mineralized bitumen felt similar to fibrous felt impregnated and coated on the upper surface
with slate or other mineral granules.
v) Reinforced bitumen felt. Also fibrous as before but have hessian-layer where it is wholly
impregnated and coated and surfaced.

3. Impregnated flax and hair felt

 They are textured felt made from long fibred flax jute, or cow hair or a mixture of these. They contain
no bitumen. They are not suitable for external use.
Examples include:
a) Black impregnated flax felt
b) Inodourous felt
c) Black hair sheeting felt
d) Brown bituminous hair felt

4. Tar felts
These are for roofing sheds made from mixer of fibres impregnated with fluxed cool-tar pitch.
Examples are;
a) Saturated bitumen felt
b) Sanded bitumen felt
c) Bituminous felt surfaced with talc or mica to prevent it from adhering to one another when rolled.

5. Asphalt block
They are heated to molten state (DPC) to ensure that:
- Timber patterns are placed on both walling and faces, horizontally and should project
25mm. (minimum) which is to receive molten bitumen.
- Timber is slightly held back from the external perpendicular face of the wall.
So that it may be pointed with cement mortar after the wall has been completed:
- Covers the dark line (unpleasant appearance)
- Prevent bitumen/asphalt from being squeezed out and discolouring the wall below
especially during the high heat of the sun.
When used as a vertical DPC for basement, tanks lip joints of the inner wall is raked out to afford/provide
keys upon the application of bitumen to hold the DPC.
Cement grout is poured into the 50mm. space between the two walls to provide with smooth even surface
for the DPC

Floor bitumen
Concrete or mortar consists of Portland cement, sand, fine chipping and pigment mixed between bitumen
emulsion instead of water. The aggregates should be able to resist wear. Proportions are 1:3, 1:5 mixer
being applied fairly stiff.
After laying the mix is tamped and trowelled before the initial set of the cement is over.
To be cured by keeping moist for atleast 24 hours before polishing. Other bitumen felts are; self-finished
bitumen felt, reinforced bitumen felt.
Those which are coated with fluxed pitch are: saturated fluxed-pitch felt, sanded fluxed-pitch felt

6. Sprayer Asphalt
This is largely confined to work on horizontal surface such as floors and roofs, basement tanking and
tanks et.c

Durability
Bituminous products (felt)
i) Does not crack upon receiving the weight of the wall
ii) Does not support combustion
iii) Does not deteriorate upon exposure to humid or moist environment
iv) It is resistant to acidity and alkalinity of the soil

Precautions
1. When used as a DPC the bituminous felt is tapped 75mm.where joints occurs.
2. It should be tapped full width at all crossings and angles
3. Before placing the bituminous felt (DPC), cement mortar is laid first on the wall, then the felt is
placed , then more mortar is placed on top of the felt before walling units are laid (i.e. to ensure a
soft/smooth even surface).