SUMMARY OF

SOCIAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVES TO PEACE AND CONFLICT

(VOL. II)

GSP 202

A CHAPTER-BY-CHAPTER SUMMARY

COMPILED

BY

OKOLIE CHIDERA OBINNA (ELDER)

CO-ORDINATOR, CROSS-OVER MEDICAL STUDENTS’ INITIATIVE.

WISHING YOU ALL MASSIVE SUCCESS IN YOUR EXAMS.

CHAPTER ONE

Peace and Conflict Studies (PCS) developed as an academic field of study in 1940s and 1960s. It
has developed in Europe and North American. It is multi disciplinary.

Three positions of the course are:

• Peace and conflict studies

• Peace and conflict resolution
• Conflict transformation

Oliver Ramsbotham, Tom Woodhouse and Hugh Miall is of the view that the course should be
named conflict resolution with four reasons

1. It is the earliest term used to define the new field

2. It is mostly widely used among analyst and practitioners
3. It is the most familiar to the media and the public
4. Because conflict transformation is inherently indeterminate unless further quantified

Some of the proponents of conflict transformation are Vayrynen, Rupesinge and Lederach.
Matyok defines as transformative leadership field, inter disciplinary in nature and poised to
provide a range of non violent actions to address issues faced by current and future generations.

Webel and Johnson view PCS as a trans-disciplinary enquiry into the nature of peace and the
reasons for war and other forms of human conflicts.

PCS incorporate other fieldsa like Anthropology, Sociology, Political Science, Ethics, Theology
and History.

5 STAGES OF PCS by Oliver Ramsbotham, Tom Woodhouse and Hugh Miall

1 first generation/precursor stage (1918-1945)

Achievements:

✓ Emergence of institutional mechanism

✓ Activism
✓ Academic research.

The issue of First World War gave birth to international relation (IR) as an academic field of study.

The first chair of IR, endowed at the university college Wales, Aberystwyth in 1919.

The first chair of peace research was at university of Lyons, France in 1931.

The period also witnessed the involvement of natural scientist in the advocacy for peace.
Follet(1942) advocated for win-win approach to negotiation

United Nation was formed in 12/October/1945 as a global intergovernmental organization.

Second generation/foundation era (1945-1965)

Main development: sustained development in peace and conflict in the form of institutional
growth.

First peace research laboratory was founded by Theodore Lentz at Lious University Missouri.

Journal of Conflict Resolution (JCR) was founded in 1957 by Kenneth Boulding and others. Centre
for research on conflict resolution was founded in 1959.

Berth Rolling, a Dutch jurist founded the polemological institute in Groningen, Netherland in
1962. The Stockholm international peace research institute (SIPRI) was opened in 1966. IPR was
founded in 1964 with Johan Galtung as its editor. The Canadian peace research and education was
founded in 1966.

The 2nd generation witnessed 3 key founding figures:

▪ Kenneth Boulding (JCR)

▪ Johan Galtung (IPR)
▪ John Burton (social conflicts and human needs theory)

It was during this era that distinct characteristics of PCS emerged. Galtung pay attention to peace
and violence and Boulding is prevention of war.

3rd generation/consolidation era (1965-1985)

This era focused on understanding of nature of violent conflict at 3 levels:

Domestic level
Interstate level
National/intra state level.

Emphasis was also placed on welding theory and practice. Harvard school also popularized win-
win approaches to international conflicts.

Works on mediation diplomacy Track II became popular among peace practitioners and conflicts
managers. Peacemaking processes such as negotiation, mediation and problem-solving received
attention.

Fourth generation/reconstruction era (1985-2005)

Critical approaches to responses in poor societies got attention of scholars as there were
development of professional, quantitative and qualitative methodologies for conflict analysis and
resolution. 4 key issues occupied in the mind of many peace scholars during this period:

Conflict complexity
Conflict asymmetry
Cultural diversity
Conflict intractability

the analysis of conflict complexity led to the its 3 types

1) Dynamic complexity (causes and effects in conflict)

2) Social complexity ( contradictory perception)
3) Generative complexity

The need for dialogue and non violent conflict resolution responses dominated this period.
Religious violence is value based violence.

Other key features of this era were continuous proliferation of nongovernmental organizations with
focus on peace and conflict issues. Some NGOs also gained ground during this period.

Fifth generation/cosmopolitan era (2005-date)

It is the continuation of issues raised in the other eras. University of Ibadan was first to start PCS
in Nigeria in the year 2000 with Prof. Isaac Olawole Albert as the pioneer.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PCS BY ROGER

❖ Underlying cause
❖ Multi disciplinary approaches
❖ Multi level approaches (micro, macro, meso and mega)
❖ Multi cultural/ global outlook
❖ Analytic and normative
❖ Theoretical and practical
❖ Nonviolent transformation

Two major schools in PCS

1 Minimalists/Pragmatists perspective: Developed in North American with Kenneth

Boulding leading other scholars. It proposes negative peace
2 Maximalists/structuralists perspective developed in Europe with Johan Galtung,
particularly in Scandinavia

Factors that led to emergence of PCS

 ➢ Two world war
➢ Development in IR (international relation)
➢ The cold war
➢ The war of colonization
➢ Global North/South socio-economic disparity
➢ Environmental issues
➢ Activities of peace movements and activists
➢ The controversy that trailed the Vietnam War.

CHAPTER TWO

Institutions that have embarked on publication and collection of PCS

A united nation university of peace (UPEACE)

B United States institute of peace (USIP)

C London early warning network

Peace has its root in the Anglo-Norman word “pas” which means freedom from civil disorder.
English- pax, Greek- eirene, Hebrew- shalom, Arabic-Salaam. All meaning a condition of safety,
welfare, security, friendliness, prosperity, fortune etc.

Johan Galtung is widely regarded as the father of PCS. He developed positive and negative peace.
He identified 3 types of violence- direct, structural and cultural violence. Absence of direct
violence is negative peace while absence of all is positive peace.

Francis(2007) of Bradford Peace study dept holds peace as absence of war, fear, anxiety as well
as creation and maintenance of a just order in the society.

Peacekeeping: is the UN or regional bodies’ effort towards public security in conflict zones.

Chapter VI: provides for peaceful settlement

Chapter VII: empowers UN to enforce peace through military and economic sanctions some
scholars refer to it as chapter six and half.

UNSC: only body authorize by UN charters to deploy peacekeeping force.

Chapter VIII: involvement of regional and agencies in the maintenance of peace.

Four types of UN peacekeeping operation (PKO)

Type 1 PKO: also known as 1st generation pko involves observance where conflict has broken
Type 2 helping political transition in conflict zones

Type 3 involves active action to create peace

Type 4 activities focusing on post conflict resolution.

All the UNPKOs are to work by the principle of a. consent b. impartiality c. non use of force
except in self defence and defence of the mandate.

The UNPKOs usually conduct the following operations: a. disarmament b. demobilization c.

reintegration.

Peace enforcement: use of military forces with or without the consents of the conflictants to
achieve its mandate as its enshrine in chapter VII of UN charter.

Peacebuilding: it was coined by Johan Galtung and popularized by Broutros-Ghali in 1992. It

involves rebuilding institutions torn by civil war and strife.

Conflict: it is from latin word confligere meaning to crash or engage in a fight. Conflict could
be interpersonal, intergroup, international or global. 4 main categories of conflicts a. resources b.
value c. communication gap d. psychological needs.

Violence: two broad types- direct and structural violence. A detailed typology of violence are-
physical, environmental, structural, cultural, psychological, spiritual violence

According to Jeong, physical violence is usually personal, visible, manifest and non-structural.

Conflict prevention: efforts geared towards ensuring that conflict situations do not escalates when
they occur or resurgence of de-escalated conflict. Identifying and avoiding situations that could
lead to conflict.

Conflict management: it is a means to an end. It is the use of military and non military actions at
containing conflict situations that have become intractable.

Conflict resolution: refers to approaches aimed at resolving conflict through non violence means.
It implies that the deep root of the conflict has been addressed and transformed.

Conflict transformation: deeper level of conflict resolution. It refers to the positive changes in
the conflict situations. Components of conflict transformation are actor transformation, issue
transformation, rule transformation, context transformation and structure transformation.

Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) refers to a range of procedures and approaches other than
litigation that aims to identify resolutions to conflicts that will be mutually accepted to the
conflictants. It seeks to move the resolution of conflict from litigation to other processes that
promise better outcomes. Reasons for ADR: high cost of litigation, external factors, complex and
rigorous judicial procedures, fear of just outcome. The non resolution of root cause of conflict by
litigation lead to ADR.

Types of ADR: mediation, negotiation, arbitration and conciliation.

Arbitration: (win-lose) refers to a means of resolving disputes where conflictants identify their
grievances and demands and agree on the procedural process and willing to submit to an external
entity known as arbitrator and the outcome which the conflictants agreed will be binding.

Conciliation: voluntary referral of a conflict to a neutral external entity. The suggestions of the
third party are not binding but could help facilitate further co-operation among the conflictants. It
helps to establish and open communication line that will help in negotiation.

Negotiation: face to face discussion aimed at reaching an agreement on a conflicting situation. It

is back and forth communication designed to reach an agreement.

Mediation: The word mediate is a derivative of mediato which comes from latin verb (mediare)
meaning to separate into halves. Mediation is the intervention of the third party unfamiliar to the
conflict, trustable unbiased and intending to be neutral whose decision is not binding but aid in
settling conflict. There are 3 types of mediator- independent, social network, and authoritative
mediators

Security: is the feeling of being free from harm or threats. There are two broad categories of
security: traditional-makes the state its referral object (focus) through military might and non-
traditional- it makes human its referral object i.e it focuses on protecting people from life threaten
dangers.

Two schools of thought on the nature of security- broad and narrow schools.

Multi-Track Diplomacy (MTD) is a procedural approach premised at conflict management and

peace building. It was developed by John MacDonald and Louise Diamond who co-authored the
Institute for Multi Track Diplomacy (IMTD). The concept expanded the earlier distinction between
Track 1 and Track 2 by Joseph Montville in 1962.

Track 1-government, Track 2-Non-Governmental and professionals, Track 3- Business, Track 4-

Private Citizens, Track 5- Research/Training/Education, Track 6- Activism, Track 7- Religion,
Track 8- Funding and Track 9- Media.
CHAPTER THREE

Major theories of conflict

Karl marx: view conflict as dichotomous. The entire society is split into 2 classes and conflict
is along such divide. He also saw conflict as ultimately going to transform the society after the
final resolution.

Georg Simmel: conflict has a salutary effect in the preservation of social groups. He viewed it
as legitimate component of social life called sociation.

Lewis Coser: conflict is cross cutting

Ralph Dahrendorf: it was the superior/subordinate relationship among member of the society
that cause conflict.

David Lockwood: he classified conflict into two- social and system conflict.

Frustration-Aggression theory: has its root in a 1939 monograph on aggression publication by

Dollard, Doob, Miller and Sears. It was modified in 1941 by Miller for him; frustration produces
instigation to a number of different types of response.

Human need theory: it was propounded by Maslow in 1943. He believes that needs are
hierarchical in nature while John Burton, a conflict scholar and others theorists hold that conflict
is simultaneous in nature.

Relative deprivation: it dates back to the work of Gurr (1970) who identify it as discrepancy
between what people think they deserve, and what they actually believe they can get i.e
discrepancy between aspiration and achievement. In his book “why men rebel” he defines relative
deprivation as discrepancies between value expectations and value capabilities.

Greed and Grievance theory: published by Paul Collier in his article “doing well out of war” in
1999.

Protracted social conflict (PSC): initiated by Edward Azar. The term PSC emphasized that the
source of conflict is predominantly within and across rather than between states. He also
established centre for international development and conflict management at the University of
Maryland. Three groups of determinant of PSC- communal actions and strategies, state actions
and strategies and built-in mechanisms of conflict.
CHAPTER FOUR

Ethnicity: interactions among members of many diverse groups. Ethnic Group: a group of people
having a common language and cultural values. Ethnic loyalty: the feeling of attachment to ones
ethnic group. There is nothing wrong with ethnic group rather it helps for healthy competition in
economy development (Nnoli, 1978). The British divide and rule system made religion and
ethnicity the preeminent markers of identity conflict in Nigeria.

3 main theories of ethnicity

Primordialism- it assumes that ethnic identity is fix at birth and cannot be changed over time. It
is further divided into biological, cultural and soft perspectives.

Instrumentalism:- they believe that ethnic identity is neither fixed at birth nor consistent overtime
but it is transferable and changeable.

Social constructivism: it identifies the role of social economic and political factors. It is the
combination of both one’s in born traits and social standing.

Factors that contributed to conflict in Africa: structural ethnic consciousness, colonialism and
unhealthy competition.

Conflict is ether jaw-jaw or war-war. It is classified into public realm ethnicity and private realm
ethnicity. Two classifications based on manifestation: latent (non violent) and manifest (violent).
Two types of ethnic violence in Africa: inter-ethnic/ethnic genocidal wars and intra-
ethnic/indigenes settler conflict.

CHAPTER FIVE

Conflict analysis is a systematic study of the people, causes, actors and dynamics of conflict. 3
aspects of peace practice/process- conflict analysis, conflict tracking and conflict intervention.

Conflict tracking: is a proactive approach designed for the collation of information from conflict
sources, working with community field observers, comparing conflict information, logging
conflict information and disseminating conflict information to the end users.

Conflict intervention: is response mechanism and a process that helps contending parties in
conflict to confronts the root of the conflict.

3 stages of conflict analysis: pre-conflict analysis, intervention analysis and post-conflict

analysis.
Aims/objectives of conflict analysis: to understand history, nature and context of the conflict;
reveal the stages of the conflict; design appropriate intervention strategy.

Components of conflict analysis: issues, actors, conflict stages and context analyses.

Causes of conflict: resources, communication, psychological value-based problems.

5 stages of conflict:

A pre conflict stage: the parties seem to be managing their differences through denial and
avoidance.

B confrontation stage: characterized by open conflict, occasional fight, positions hardened,

resources mobilized and search for secondary party.

C crisis stage: this is the peak or height of the conflict situations, intense fighting leading to
killing, injuries, population displacement etc. UN and NGOs’ intervention.

D outcome stage: violence is decreased and the conflict will start de-escalating. A
mismanaged intervention at this stage would also bring a win-lose, lose-lose, lose-win situation
which is capable of escalating the conflict again but if well intervened, there will be win-win
situation.

E post-conflict situation: characterized by two levels of activities- improvement and

transformation. Transformation comes after improvement has been achieved.

Methods of conflict analysis: mapping method, pyramid method ABC triangle, onion/doughnut
method and conflict free method.

Challenges of conflict analyst: gathering reliable information, time, money, personnel etc

Methods of gathering information by conflict analyst: case study, workshop, fact-findings

CHAPTER SIX

Conflict handling style: is a process of analyzing conflict in order to handle, manage and resolve
it. Things that need to be done before handling conflict: identify the actors, interests, issues and
opportunity structure. Two prerequisites that must be satisfied for conflict to occur: perceived
goal incompatibility and perceived opportunity for inference/blocking.

Styles of handling conflict:

Accommodating/Appeasement/Smoothing style

Avoiding/Flight style
Collaborating/integrative style

Compromising style

Competing/forcing style

Confrontation/Domination/Fighting style

Problem solving style

Forgiveness

Two broad categories to resolve conflict peacefully:

Proactive category: aims to prevent the occurrence of conflict.

Reactive category: responds to situation that has turned conflictual. Here a third party enters to
mediate.

Conflict resolution: process of addressing and resolving the sources of conflict and redirecting
the behaviour of the parties to the conflict from violence to a more humane and peaceful behaviour.
NB: if conflict cannot be resolved, then it can be transformed, managed or minimized.

Conflict management: process of reducing the negative and destructive capacity of conflict
through a number of means and by working with the conflicting parties.

Conflict transformation/Reformation: it goes beyond conflict mgt and resolution. It is change

in perception and behavioural attitude of the parties.

Conflict suppression: the use of instrument of power or force to suppress and push away the
issues under the carpet or to impose a solution that is not sustainable and with which the parties
are not satisfied.

Litigation/Adjudication: intervention of social organized authority to decide the issues and

enforce the decision. It is a win-lose approach and the decision is binding.

2 approaches in the litigation processes

Adversarial/Accusational method

Inquisitional method

Mediation: it is a confidence building exercise, with the mediator acting as a bridge between
parties. It is one of the processes in peace building.

2 process of approaching conflict resolution

a. cooperative process: it proffers win-win solution to problems. This mutual gains approach is
what scholars considered as constructive resolution process.

b. competitive process: win-lose outcome

Methods of ADR

Conflict resolution,

Conflict management,

Conflict reformation,

Conflict suppression.

CHAPTER SEVEN

Language is a wonderful and rich vehicle of communication (Moulton, 1974). Communication is

all the procedure by which one mind may affect another. Mass media are generally categorized
into print and electronic media.

4 media approaches to conflict management

The integrated conflict mgt approach

The problem solving approach

Village square paradigm

Synergistic approach/building trust.

For mass media to be effective in conflict resolution and transformation there must be reflect of
neutrality, accuracy, impartiality, independence, less suspicious, devoid of antagonism, less
legalistic.

Conflict reporting/ peace journalism: is the skill of gathering, compiling and disseminating
information about conflict via mass media.

Barriers to effective communication

Language barrier

Psychological barrier

Physical barrier
Attitudinal barrier

System barrier

Physiological barrier.

Factors promoting effective communication in conflict situation:

Non-ambiguity

Appropriate medium

Proper presentation

Relationships of language, communication and media in conflict mgt and resolution:

Language and communication as facilitators

Effective listening skill

Confidence building

Exchange of views

The use of the media.

CHAPTER EIGHT

Nonviolent resistance: is a peaceful means of showing disapproval of some government policies

or orders with a view to enforcing them into negotiation. It is the antithesis of violence (Galtung,
1967)

Concepts of non-violent resistance by Dudouet, 2008:

Non violence as opposition to physical violence

Non violence as opposition to structural violence

Non violence as contentious and direct action.

Non violence originated from a few of the forest sages of India about 3000years ago. The
idea of non violence was recorded in the Upanishads, it was developed by Bhudda and Jari
Tirthankaras about 500BC, and preached and practiced by Lao Tzu in China and Socrates in
Greece and it was further practiced and preached by JESUS in 30AD.

5 characteristics of non violent resistance

1. Non violence is not a method for cowards.

2. It does not seek to defeat/humiliate the opponent, but to win his support, friendship and
understanding.

3. The attack is directed against the forces of the devil rather than persons who are caught in
the web of those forces.

4. It avoids external physical forces and internal violence of spirit.

5. It is based on the conviction that the universe is on the side of justice.

Methods of non violence resistance:

Demonstration, protest match, picketing, industrial strikes, vigils, work to rule, boycotts, protest
rallies etc

Criteria for selecting a particular method above:

Appropriateness

Suitability

Effectiveness

*Non violence struggle is a means and the expected change is the end.

Sharp 1973 identified 198 methods of non violent struggle and it was categorized into 3:

Protest and persuasion

Non-cooperation

Nonviolent intervention/General strike

4 mechanism/ways of achieving non-violent struggle:

Conversion

Accommodation

Nonviolent coercion

Disintegration.
CHAPTER NINE

Terrorism has its origin from Latin word Terrere which means to cause to tremble. The Reign
of Terror was popularized during revolutionary government in France from 1793-1794

Terrorist organizations in Africa:

Armed Islamic Group (AIG) in Algeria

Tuareg Insurgent Violence in Mali

Casamance Struggle in Senegal

Book haram Insurgents in Nigeria.

The modern development of terrorism as a tool for achieving political and religious goals
began during the French revolution (1973-74). During this period, Maximillan Robespierre of
France introduced government sponsored by terrorism.

Classifications of terrorism:

According to National Consortium for the study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, a case
of UN dept of Homeland security based at University of Maryland, there are over 652 terrorist
organizations in the world. Old form of terrorism challenged political and territorial hegemony
while the new challenged the very value systems of the liberal international system. Over 200
chiboks girls was abducted on14/4/14 and 12 were abducted from kontagara College of Education,
Niger state on 12/11/14.

Classifications of terrorist orgs are based on- ideology, motivation, location, size, support and
category.

Based on ideology: anarchist, environmental, anti-globalization, racist, religious,

communist/socialist, leftist, nationalist, separatist, right wing conservative, right wing reactionary.

Based on location: international, transnational, domestic, state terrorism

Types of political terrorism: revolutionary, anarchist, sub-revolutionary, repressive terrorism

Causes of terrorism: abject poverty, corruption, selfish/sit tight leadership, resource control,
youth unemployment, religious fanatics

Effects of terrorism: physical violence, psychological violence, waste of time and resources,
factionalization of the society, human rights cost.

Implications of terrorism to national development:

Political implications
Social implications

Educational implications

Religious implications

Economic implications

Psychological implications

*The management of terrorism is anchored on crime control model of human, national and
environmental security.

*The rationale for counterterrorism is to protect lives.

*In May 2013, Goodluck Jonathan declared state of emergency in Yobe, Adamawa and Borno
states.

Ways of managing terrorism in the world

Declaration of state of emergency

Multilateral approach to counterterrorism

Counterterrorism strategy

Extradition of terrorist suspects

Judicial intervention

Legislative intervention

Surveillance on terrorist groups

*The best way to address eradicate is to address all form of deprivation in the society.

*When state of emergency is declared to contain terrorism, it is called counterterrorism-oriented

agency rule implemented by security forces and monitored by Ministry of Defence.

CHAPTER TEN

International organization is a social system organized around specific goals and usually
consisting of several inter-related groups or subsystems and governed by clearly stated and
enforced norms (Katz and Kahn, 1978). International organizations were divided into two-
intergovernmental/international governmental organization (IGO) and International Non-
Governmental Organization (INGO)
Purposes of international organization

1. They provide stable and supportive administrative structures and platforms that support
state inter-actions and centralize their collective activities.

2. They offer independence and autonomy for sovereign states to take concrete decisions
among equals.

3. It fosters political, economic and cultural cooperation among member states.

4. They help to maintain international peace and security through the promotion of
international environmental standards and prosecution of international crimes and other related
matters.

5. It enables government to share and compare information, set international minimum

standards of operation and provide technical, financial and material assistance to member states.

6. It serves as an agent of socialization.

* UN was formed on 24/10/1945 due to failure of League of Nation to prevent the outbreak of
Second World War. It was formed by 5 nations (France, USA, Russia, UK, and China) and they
later became the permanent members with veto power. It is made of 193 nations. UN has 6
principal organs:

The General Assembly

The Security Council

The Economic and Social Council

The trusteeship council

The Secretariat

The International Court of Justice

3 areas of UN’s peace support group:

Preventive diplomacy

Preventive deployment

Preventive disarmament

Strategies used by UN’s support group in achieving peace:

Peacekeeping, peace building, peace enforcement, conflict prevention and peacemaking

5 main reasons for peace building:

Military and security area

Strengthening the rule of law

Promoting social economic recovery and development

Political action

Humanitarian activities

Objectives of UN’s support Operation:

To create a secure and stable environment

To strengthen state ability to provide security.

To achieve full respect for rule of law and human rights.

To promote dialogue and reconciliation

To support the establishment of effective political institutions.

Problems of UN’s support Group:

Acute shortage of fund, shortage of equipment and personnel, overdependence, lack of political
will or consensus among members etc.

Six organs of AU (African Union):

The Assembly

The Executive Council

The Peace and Security Council

The Pan-African Parliament

The Economic, Social and Cultural Council

The Peace and Security Directorate

*the CHADIAN OPERATION was OAU’s first peacekeeping movement

*Africa is divided into 5 main regional economic communities:

ECOWAS- formed in 1975 with 6 organs

SADC-Southern African Development Community- formed in 1992

ECCAS-Economic Community of Central African states

AMU-Arab Maghreb Union- formed in 1989

IGAD-Intergovernmental Authority on Development- formed in 1996

*The primary purpose of forming the organizations is to foster political and economic integration
and conflict management.

Conflict intervention strategies: mediation, prevention diplomacy, peacekeeping, peace

enforcement, support for democratic government, post-conflict reconstruction, development
assistance, early warning.

There are 3 major levels of peace support operations in Africa: UN, AU and sub-regional
organizations.

CHAPTER ELEVEN

In traditional African societies, the understanding of conflict and its resolution was linked with the
dissatisfaction between the humans (low beings) and the supernatural (high beings). Conflict could
be violent on uncontrollable dominant or recession, resolvable or insolvable under various sets of
circumstances.

Sources of conflict in traditional African societies: the family, the economy, chieftaincy,
religion, breakdown of diplomatic relations, personality annoyance over behavioural patterns,
deviation from cultural norms.

In traditional African societies, the law enforcement agents, traditional police and courts are
responsible for ensuring compliance with the law of the land while elders and neighbourhood
mediators are depended upon to resolve conflict in local language.

The Yoruba: the Yoruba people derived their sources of adjudication from wisdom and traditional
knowledge of the forebears. The elders are the power house of wisdom and knowledge.

There are three levels/phases of conflict resolution:

The inter-personal or family level

The extended family level

Village/town level

There are also 3 political units making up the community:

Nuclear family (Idile) headed by Bale

Extended family (Ebi) headed by Mogagi

Quarter (comprising several family compounds) headed by Bale

The Igbos: The igbo traditional institutions for conflict resolution include: the family, Amala,
Okpara system, Umuada, Age grades, Asembly of people, Ohanaeze, hunter’s association and
Agbara. Igwe is the head of the council. The modalities of the igbo system of peacemaking
incorporate elements of negiotation, mediation, arbitration and adjudication. A peace effort begins
with prayer and is accompanied by breaking of kola nuts. The igbos employ difference strategies
and processes to ensure and make peace- taboos, sanctions, ostracism, courses, demonstration by
women, women’s accord etc.

*African traditional societies are patriarchal in nature

*Igbo societies are communal in nature

Traditional stages of drama adjudication:

Homes as family court

Markets as commercial court

Streets as open court

Colonial court of heritage as loyal court

Modern stages

The media house as public court

Colonial court of heritage as customary court

Methods of performing conflict resolution in traditional African societies:

Mediation

Negotiation

Arbitration

Reconciliation

*The end product of adjudication is reconciliation. Apology for wrong done to the entire
communities was a feature of negotiation. Negotiation is the secret to harmonize the interest of the
parties involved. The adoption of conflict prevention has 2 fronts in traditional societies: on the
natural side and on the physical earth side.

Some African traditional personalities in conflict resolution:

Elders and family heads

Kings and chiefs

Age-grade association

Secret societies

Ancestors (priests and priestesses)

CHAPTER TWELVE

Peace is the ceasefire or balance of power (Harris, 2004). According to him, peace education is
about empowering people with the skills, attitudes and knowledge of peace. The history of peace
education dates back to the anti-war and the war years in Europe.

UNICEF- outlined the qualities which must be incorporated by peace education

Four forms of peace education:

Development peace education

Environmental peace education

Conflict resolution education

Human right education

3 types/methods of peace education:

Formal peace education

Informal peace education

Approaches used by UNICEF to practice formal peace education in schools:

Curriculum development

Teacher, training and development

Enhancement of the school environment

Cumut (2006) identified various subjects taught in schools which can portray the message of
peace:

History

Religion

Language

Music

Fineart/visual

Informal education can be passed across through:

Folktales

Proverbs

*Peace education places a great deal on emphasis on:

Knowledge

Attitude

Skills

Basic areas that student of peace education should be equipped with knowledge:

Awareness of self and others

Causes and resolution of conflict

Knowledge of community mechanism for peace building

Knowledge of mediation process

Basic areas that student of peace education should be equipped with attitude:

Social responsibility

Tolerance, Acceptance and respect for differences

Gender equality

Ability to cooperate

A sense of justice and equity

Basic areas that student of peace education should be equipped with skills:

Problem solving skills

Ability to live with change

Assertiveness

Communication

4 challenges of peace education:

Creation of a ripple effect

Enhancing the sustainability of the effects of peace education programme

The need for difference in methods of approach.

*The use of education to foster peace dates back to antiquity

*The Czech teacher, scientist, educator and writer COMENIUM (1592-1670) is regarded as the
father of peace education. Other peace educators are John Dewey, Maria Montessori and Paolo
Freire.

*UNESCO is the only UN arm empowered to bring peace education.

*Any educational activity has two aims: learning and transfer.

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