CONTENTS

4 Current Electricity 3
4.1 What is Electric Current? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.2 Drift speed (vd ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.3 Relation between current density and drift velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.4 Ohm’s Law and its vectorial representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.5 Heating effects if current: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.6 Power in Electrical circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.7 Battery and what the emf ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.8 Kirchhoff’s Laws and the internal resistance of a battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.9 Kirchhoff’s Junction law: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.10 Kirchhoff’s Voltage law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.11 Combination of resistors in series and parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.12 Combination/Grouping of Batteries in series and parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.13 Circuits Containing Capacitors in Series and in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.14 R-C Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.15 Measurement devices and the wheatstone bridge: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.16 Wheatstone bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.17 Measurement devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.18 Ammeter: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.19 Voltmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.20 Exercises: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

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4.21 Answer keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

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 CHAPTER 4

CURRENT ELECTRICITY

4.1 What is Electric Current?

If a charge ∆Q crosses an area in time ∆t, we define the average electric current through that area
during this time as,
∆Q
xiy “
∆t
The electric current at some instant of time ’t’ is,

∆Q dQ
i “ lim “
∆tÑ0 ∆t dt

Thus, electric current through an area is the rate of transfer of charge from one side of the area to
the other. The SI unit of current is ampere. We define 1 Ampere as the amount the amount of
charge equivalent to 1 Coulomb passing through an are in time 1 second.
A vector quantity known as the electric current density is defined as
A E ∆i
⃗j “ ,
∆t

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where ∆A is the area though which the current ∆i passes.

The instantaneous current density is

⃗j “ lim ∆i “ di
∆tÑ0 ∆A dA

It should be noted that the direction of current density is the same as the direction of the electric
current through the area ∆A. When the area vector is perpendicular to the direction of electric
current then
i
j“
A
but, if the area vector makes an angle θ with the direction of the current, the current density in
this case is given by,
∆i
j“ or
∆A cos θ
ż
i “ ⃗j.dA⃗

Streamlines representing current density in the flow of charge through a constricted conductor.

It must be noted that the electric current has direction as well as magnitude, but it is not a
vector quantity. On the other hand, the current density is a vector quantity.

4.2 Drift speed (vd )

The speed of an electron in a conductor due only to thermal agitation is averaged at almost 0.5 cm{s.
This might come as a surprise to you, but it is much more understandable in terms of practicality.
IF the electron inside the conductor, only due to thermal agitation, moved at high speeds, then
that would lead to the production of electric currents inside the conductor. You do not experience
this in the metallic glass with which you drink water, in the metal plate in which you eat your food.
Why this happens is rather kosher.
There are a large number of free electrons inside a conductor that move randomly in all directions.
They collide with the atoms in the conductor, which are called ’kernels’. This temporarily slows
the electrons down. As a result, the number of electrons crossing an area ∆A from one particular

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side is nearly equal to the number of electrons crossing from the other side at any instant in time.
Therefore, the electric current through that area is zeroed out.
You might now ask, then, how does an electric current flow through a conductor? The answer is-

⃗
Positive charge carriers drift at speed vd in the direction of the applied electric field E.

Electric fields.
When there is an electric field inside a conductor, a force acts on each electron (F “ qE) in the
direction opposite to the direction of the electric field through that conductor. It is this force that
”drifts” the electrons inside the conductor. When these electrons collide with kernels, they restart
their drift. As a result, this accelerated motion of the electrons inside the conductor results in a
constant drift, called drift velocity.
Mean time(τ ): The average time between two successive collisions of the electrons in the
conductor is called the mean time.

Let us assume that these charge carriers all move with the same drift speed vd and that the
current density is uniform across the cross-sectional area of the wire A. The number of charge
carriers in the length l of the wire is nAl(where n is the number of carriers per unit volume). The
total charge of the carriers of length l, each with charge e, then is

q “ nAl

and the drift speed is given by,

l
vd “
τ
and
1 2
l “ puqthermal t ` ae pτ q
2

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We learnt earlier that puqthermal is effectively zero, therefore,

1 eE 2
l“ pτ q ,
2 me

since Fe “ Eq “ peEq and me ae “ eE ñ ae “ eE

me

1 eE
vd “ τ
2 me

It’s worth noting that when no electric field exists, the electrons stay at rest (for all practical
applications), and when an electric field exists, they move with a constant velocity, opposite to the
field.

4.3 Relation between current density and drift velocity

Let an electric field 1 E 1 exist in a cylindrical conductor of cross-sectional area A. The length of the
conductor covered by the electrons in time ∆t be vd ∆t. Thus the volume covered by the electrons
becomes Avd ∆t.
Let the number of free electrons per unit volume be 1 n1 , thus the charge crossing this area in time
∆t is,
∆Q “ npAvd ∆tqe

and
i ∆Q nvd ∆te
ñj“ “ “ “ nve e,
A ∆tA ∆tA
or simply,
i “ vd enA

4.4 Ohm’s Law and its vectorial representation

Ohm’s law tell us that there are some of the materials (like metals or conductors) or some circuits
for which, current passing through them is proportional to the potential difference applied across
them . It also tell that the resistivity of a material is independent of the electric field existing in
the material.
We determine the resistance between any two given points of a conductor, applying a potential
difference V between any points and measuring the current i that results. The resistance R is then

V
R“
i

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Deriving the expression for Ohm’s Law:

Suppose that we have a conductor of length l and a uniform cross-sectional area A. Let us apply a
potential difference V between the ends of the conductor. The electric field within the conductor
is E = V/l. If the current in the conductor is i, and the current is j “ A.
i

Ohm’s law becomes,

i “ vd enA∆t, where, ∆t “ 1s...p1q

and we know that

eE
vd “ τ...p2q
me
so, form (1) and (2) we get,
e2 nEA
i“ τ ; where
me
e2 Eτ
me is a constant called the conductivity of the material denoted by σ.
Therefore,
V l
i “ σEA ñ σ AñV “ i, where
l σA
l
σA is the resistivity of the material, denoted by ρ.
We have seen that Ohm’s law is valid in most cases, as long as the temperature of the resistor is
within the limits of certainty, but sometimes, you cannot rely on Ohm’s law for your measurements.
Consider a circuit, where as you observe on your oscilloscope for low values of current, ohm’s law
holds just fine, but for higher value of current, which increase the temperature of the resistors,
ohm’s law goes out of practicality. For low values of current, you get a linear relation for current
versus potential difference.
For higher values of current, as the temperature increases, the graph becomes non-linear and shows
a curve below the linear graph under ideal conditions.

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4.5 Heating effects if current:

As the temperature of a conductor increases, the thermal agitation increases and collisions become
more frequent. The average time t between successive collisions decreases and hence the drift
speed decreases. Thus, the conductivity decreases and the resistivity increases as the temperature
increases. For small temperature variations, we can write for most of the materials,

ρpT q “ ρpTo qr1 ` αpT ´ To qs

which analogously gives the relation for resistant as well, as,

RpT q “ RpTo qr1 ` αpT ´ ‘To qs

where ρ(T) and ρpTo q are resistivities at temperatures T and To respectively and α is a constant
for the given material.

4.6 Power in Electrical circuits

As an electron moves through a resistor at a constant drift speed, its average kinetic energy remains
constant and its lost energy of electric potential appears as thermal energy in the resistor and
surroundings. On a microscopic scale, this energy transfer is due to collisions between the electron
and the molecules of the resistor, which leads to an increase in the temperature of the resistor
lattice. The mechanical energy thus transferred to the thermal energy is dissipated because the
transfer cannot be reversed.
The principle of conservation of energy tells us that the decrease in the energy of the electric
potential is accompanied by a transfer of energy to some other form. The power P associated with
this transfer is the transfer rate dU {dt (where dU “ dqV “ idtV ), which is given by the following
equation as
P “ iV

The above relation can be further extended to

V2
P “ i2 R “
R

using Ohm’s law, as long as the law holds, under certain conditions.

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4.7 Battery and what the emf ?

A battery is a device that maintains a potential difference between its two terminals. Some internal
mechanism exerts forces on the charges of the battery material. This force drives the positive
charges of the battery material towards one of the terminals. If a charge q is taken from terminal B

Schematic representation of a battery.

to the terminal A, the work done by the battery force is W “ F d, where d is the distance between
A and B. The work done by the battery force per unit charge is

W Fd
ε“ “
q q

This quantity is called emf of the battery. The full form of emf is an electromotive force. The
name is misleading in the sense that emf is not a force, it is work done per unit charge. Emf of the
battery equals the potential difference between its terminals when the terminals are not connected
externally. The potential difference and emf are two different quantities whose magnitudes can be
equal under certain conditions. The emf is the work done per unit charge by the battery force
that is non-electrostatic in nature. The difference in potential originates from the electrostatic field
created by the charges accumulated on the terminals of the battery.
Thermal Energy Produced in a Resistor in time t as charge q goes through it is given by

U “ i2 Rt

This loss in energy of the electric potential appears as an increase in the thermal energy of the
resistor.

4.8 Kirchhoff’s Laws and the internal resistance of a battery

A non-ideal battery develops thermal energy as a current passes through it and the potential
difference between the terminals is smaller than emf. If there is a current i through the battery in
the direction indicated in the figure below, the potential difference between the terminals is

∆V “ ε ´ ir

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Then the thermal energy developed in time t is i2 rt. The addition of a resistance r accounts for

the difference between ϵ and ∆ V, as well as the thermal energy developed in the battery.

4.9 Kirchhoff’s Junction law:

The sum of all currents directed towards a point in a circuit is equal to the sum of all currents
directed away from the point. Therefore, for the above given figure,

i1 ` i2 “ i3 ` i4

If we take the current directed towards a point as positive and that directed away from the
point as negative, we can restate the junction law as, the algebraic sum of all the currents directed
towards a point is zero.
The junction law follows from the fact that no point in a circuit continues to accumulate charge
or continues to supply charge. Charges pass through the point. So, the net charge coming towards
the point should be equal to that coming away from it at the same time.

4.10 Kirchhoff’s Voltage law

: Also called Kirchhoff’s loop law, the law states that the algebraic sum of all potential differences
along a closed loop in a circuit is zero.
Suppose that we start at any point in the circuit given below and mentally proceed around the
circuit in either direction, adding algebraically the potential differences that we encounter. Then,
when we return to our starting point, we must also have returned to our starting potential.
When using this rule, one starts from a point on the loop and goes along the loop, clockwise
or anticlockwise, to reach the same point again. Any potential drop encountered is taken
as positive and any potential rise as negative. The net sum of all these potential

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differences should be zero.

Consider an example of a circuit as shown below. i.e.,

i1 R1 ` i2 R2 ´ ε1 ` i3 R3 ´ i4 R4 ` ε2 “ 0

or
ÿ
Vloop “ 0

*NOTE: The loop law follows directly from the fact that electrostatic force is a con-
servative force and the work it does in any closed path is zero.

4.11 Combination of resistors in series and parallel

Series combination of resistors: Two or more resistors are said to be connected in series if the
same current passes through all resistors. In a circuit with resistors R1 , R2 ...Rn the equivalent
resistance is given by
Req “ R1 ` R2 ` ... ` Rn

The proof for the above result is as follows: Consider a circuit with three resistors having resistances
R1 , R2 and R3 connected in series. If we apply a potential difference V between the points P and

N as shown in the above representation, we can state that a current i passes through all resistors.
And using the Kirchhoff’s loop law, we get an expression relating the potential difference across all

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