Qualitative Research Methods

Topic 1

Why do research at all?

- We need to have an accurate picture of reality to make decisions

- Human perception is limited and subjective
- Scientific research is a way to obtain objective data and therefore have
better understanding of reality
- Decisions and policies based on objective data are better adjusted and
more effective than those without proper evidence

3 main approaches

- Ontology - study of existence - study of how we determine if things exist

or not, as well as the classification of existence. It attempts to take things
that are abstract and establish that they are, in fact, real. (What exists?
What is the nature of the social world?)
- Epistemology – is the study of knowledge. Refers to the ideas of how it is
possible to get information about a subject and how valid that
information is. (How can we know about it?)
- Methodology - a system of methods used in a particular area of study or
activity. (What strategies can we use to gain knowledge?)

Two traditional research paradigms:

- Positivism - objects have qualities that exist independent of the

researcher
 - Interpretivism - the qualities researchers ascribe to the objects they
research are socially constructed

Deductive Reasoning vs Inductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning

- If the general principle is true and the logic is valid, then the conclusions
drawn from it must also be true.
- Deductive reasoning is often associated with formal logic and
mathematical proofs.
- Example: "All humans are mortal. Giorgi is a human. Therefore, Giorgi is
mortal.”; “All children whose parents often quarrel in front of them
exhibit [specific sign of] stress. Ana’s parents often quarrel in front of her;
therefore, Ana exhibits [specific sign of] stress.”

Inductive reasoning

- Does not guarantee certainty in its conclusions; rather, it suggests

probabilities or likelihoods based on observed patterns.
- It is common in scientific research, where hypotheses are generated from
observed data and then tested through experimentation or further
observation.
- Example: “Research indicates that 75% of children whose parents often
quarrel in front of them show [specific sign of] stress.”
Abductive reasoning - typically begins with an incomplete set of observations
and proceeds to the likeliest possible explanation for the set. Abductive
reasoning yields the kind of daily decision-making that does its best with the
information at hand, which often is incomplete.

Research Process

1. What research question are you trying to answer?

2. What evidence or data do you need to answer the question?

3. How are you going to analyse the data, and what are the practical steps
needed to obtain and record them?

3 overall steps

- Planning
 - Execution
- Reporting

More precisely - 7

- Selection of a topic
- Literature review
- Defining research question and hypothesis
- Selection of the research method, sampling strategy
- Data collection
- Data analysis
- Report

Method vs Methodology

- Methods - specific techniques, tools or procedures used to collect and

analyze data. (for example, experiments, surveys, and statistical tests)
- Methodology - broader theoretical framework and approach guiding the
research process. It encompasses the overall strategy or plan of action that
shapes the researcher's choices of methods.

Quantitative vs Qualitative research

Quantitative research methods

- Survey (structured interview)

- Controlled observation
- Experiment

Strengths

- Generalizable results;
 - More objective, than qualitative;
- Data analysis is less time consuming.

Weaknesses

- Requires more planning;

- Answers the question what? How many? But not why?

Quantitative Research

Meaning - Focuses on measuring and quantifying variables to understand

relationships and phenomena statistically. It emphasizes breadth and
generalizability.

Data - Numerical, collected through structured methods like surveys with

closed-ended questions, experiments, or existing statistical data.

Analysis - Uses statistical methods to analyze data, enabling hypothesis testing

and drawing conclusions that can be generalized to larger populations.

Qualitative research methods

- In-depth interview
- Focus group
- Participant observation
Strengths

- In-depth insight into the phenomena;

- Answers the question why?
- Takes the context into consideration.

Weaknesses

- Limited generalization;
- Is more subjective than quantitative;
- Data collection and analysis is more time consuming

Qualitative Research

Meaning - Focuses on understanding human behavior, experiences, and social

phenomena. It emphasizes depth over breadth.

Data - Usually non-numerical, such as interviews, open-ended surveys, focus

groups, and observations.

Analysis - Involves identifying patterns, themes, and narratives. It seeks to

provide insights into motivations and feelings.

Topic 2 – research questions

- How to find a research question

 - What qualifies as a good research question
- What types of challenges you might face while formulating research
question(s) and how to avoid them

Research process – 8 steps

Research components
"Research components" refer to the essential elements that make up a research
study. These components guide the research process and help ensure that the
study is structured, rigorous, and effective.

Concepts and Variables

Concept

- Something conceived in the mind.

- An abstract or generic idea generalized from particular instances.
- A thought or notion.
- Something that is conceived or imagined (Merriam-Webster dictionary).
- Individuals can hold different ideas for the same topics;
- All theories are based on concepts and connections between them.

Variable

- Something that can be changed;

- Something that describes a person, place, idea, etc.
- Measurable concept.

- A variable possesses various attributes, meaning it can assume different

values within a given context.
Variables

Independent Variable - The independent variable is the variable that is

manipulated or controlled by the researcher to observe its effect on another
variable.

Role: It is considered the cause in a cause-and-effect relationship.

Dependent variable - The dependent variable is the variable that is measured or

observed in response to changes in the independent variable.

Role: It is considered the effect or outcome in a cause-and-effect relationship.

Intervening variable - An intervening variable, also known as a mediating

variable, is a variable that explains the relationship between the independent
and dependent variables. It provides insight into how or why the independent
variable affects the dependent variable.

Role: It acts as a link or mediator in the cause-and-effect relationship.

Concept and Variable

Concept

Meaning: A concept is an abstract idea or a general notion that represents a

phenomenon, quality, or characteristic. Concepts are often broad and can
encompass various dimensions.

Examples: Examples of concepts include "happiness," "motivation,"

"intelligence," and "social capital." Each of these represents a complex idea that
may have multiple interpretations and dimensions.

Variable
Meaning: A variable is a specific, measurable representation of a concept.
Variables can take on different values and are used to operationalize concepts in
research.

Types: Variables can be independent (affecting other variables), dependent

(being affected), or control (kept constant to avoid influencing the outcome).

Examples: For the concept of "happiness," variables might include "self-reported

life satisfaction," "number of social interactions per week," or "income level."
These are measurable aspects that researchers can collect data on.

Differences

Abstract vs. Measurable - A concept is abstract and broad, while a variable is

specific and measurable.

Role in Research: Concepts provide the foundation for research questions and
hypotheses, while variables are used to collect data and analyze relationships.

Example in Context: If the concept is "educational achievement," possible

variables could include "grade point average (GPA)," "standardized test scores,"
or "number of books read." Here, the concept is the overarching idea, while the
variables are the specific metrics used to assess it.

Examples of concepts:

- Authority
- Social class
Examples of variables:

- Level of education
- Primary activity

Research Question
Types of research question

Descriptive (looks for description) - These questions aim to describe

characteristics, behaviors, or phenomena without attempting to establish
relationships or causes.

For example - "What are the common study habits of college students?"

Relative (looks for relations) - These questions seek to explore the relationships
or associations between two or more variables without implying causation.

For example - "Is there a correlation between students' attendance and their
academic performance?"

Causal (looks for causes) - These questions aim to determine whether one
variable causes changes in another variable, establishing a cause-and-effect
relationship.

For example - "Does increasing study time lead to higher exam scores?"
Conceptualization

The process through which we specify what we mean when we use particular
terms in research is called conceptualization.

In social research, the process of coming to an agreement about what terms

mean is conceptualization, and the result is called a concept.

The mental process whereby fuzzy and imprecise notions (concepts) are made
more specific and precise. --So, you want to study prejudice. What do you mean
by prejudice? Are there different kinds of prejudice? What are they?

Purpose - The goal of conceptualization is to create a clear framework for the

research, which helps guide the formulation of research questions and
hypotheses.

Example - If a researcher is studying "social anxiety," they need to define what

social anxiety entails, which may include aspects like fear of social situations,
avoidance behaviors, and physiological responses. This definition will help
frame the study.

Operationalization

Operationalization follows conceptualization and involves translating the

defined concepts into specific, measurable variables that can be empirically
tested. It details how the abstract concepts will be measured in practice.
Purpose - The goal of operationalization is to make concepts measurable,
enabling researchers to collect data and analyze it quantitatively or
qualitatively.

Example: Continuing with the concept of "social anxiety," operationalization

might involve:

Identifying measurable variables such as self-reported anxiety levels, frequency

of social interactions, or physiological measures like heart rate.

Developing a survey instrument to measure anxiety levels, using standardized

scales (e.g., the Social Anxiety Questionnaire).

Research question examples

- How do citizens evaluate the activities of Tbilisi City Hall?

- What are the most effective methods of traffic management?
- What is people’s attitude towards foreign policy of Georgia?

Research goals and objectives

- Are closely related to the research question;

- Describe what the researcher is trying to achieve;
 - Help us to determine a research design;
- Objectives - Identify the issues related to the main question that the
research (question/guide) should cover to answer the main research
question.

Hypothesis in quantitative research

- Predicts the answer to the research question;

- Presents main variables;
- Explains how variables are related;
- Serves as a testable statement or proposition that suggests a relationship
between two or more variables
 - empirical;
- generalizable;
- logical
- concrete;
- compatible with data;
- Verifiable.

Normative vs Empirical

Democracy is the best form of governance.

VS

The degree of democracy is higher in countries with a higher general level of

education than in countries with a lower general level of education.

Less generalizable vs more generalizable

The low level of democracy in Georgia can be attributed to its low general level
of education.

VS

The degree of democracy is higher in countries with a higher general level of

education than in countries with a lower general level of education.

Illogical vs logical

Democracy tends to be more prevalent in countries where fish is commonly

consumed compared to those where fish is rarely eaten.

VS

The degree of democracy is higher in countries with a higher general level of

education than in countries with a lower general level of education.
Vague vs specific (concrete)

Data Incompatible vs Data Compatible

The state of education in a country affects its democracy.

VS

The degree of democracy is higher in countries with a higher general level of

education than in countries with a lower general level of education.

Research question, goal, objectives, and hypothesis | Examples

Research question - How compatible is the political culture in Georgia with

democracy?

Research goal - The research aims to identify the dominant political culture in
Georgia and examine its compatibility with democracy.

Research Objectives:

a) Assess the attitudes of Georgia's population towards different political actors.

b) Define the prevalence of participatory, subordinate, and local political
cultures within the population.

c) Identify demographic groups exhibiting a participatory political culture.

Topic 3 – Research Design

What is research design?

 - Research design refers to the overall strategy or plan that a researcher
employs to integrate different components of a study in a coherent and
logical manner, aiming to address the research problem effectively and
efficiently.
- It encompasses various elements such as the overall framework,
methodology, data collection techniques, sampling strategy, and data
analysis methods.

Components of the Research Process

What is research design?

Research Approach: Determination of whether the research will be qualitative,
quantitative, or mixed methods.

Research Methodology: Selection of appropriate methods for data collection and analysis,

Sampling Design: Specification of the target population, sampling frame, sampling

technique, and sample size.

Data Collection Instruments: Development or selection of tools for collecting data, such
as interview guides.

Data Analysis Plan: Description of how collected data will be processed, analyzed, and
interpreted to answer the research questions.

Validity and Reliability Considerations: Strategies to ensure that the study measures what
it intends to measure (validity) and produces consistent results (reliability).

Ethical Considerations: Adherence to ethical principles and guidelines, such as informed

consent, confidentiality, and protection of participants' rights.

Timeline and Resources: Allocation of time and resources for each phase of the research
process.

Internal validity

The extent to which we can be confident that the independent variable

produced the observed effect.

- Is the independent variable responsible for variation in the dependent

variable?
- What other possible causes might there be for the relationship between
the variables?
- Could something else have been responsible for the variation in the
dependent variable?

External validity
The extent to which results from a study can be generalized beyond the
particular study.

- Can you generalize your findings?

- Are your conclusions likely to apply more widely?
- Are they applicable to other similar situations or cases?

Reliability

Reliability refers to the ‘repeatability’ or ‘consistency’ of your findings.

- A research design is reliable if other researchers can perform exactly the

same procedures and come up with the same results (your findings are
repeatable).
- A measure is reliable if it gives us the same result over and over again
(assuming that what we are measuring isn’t changing).
Functions of qualitative research

-Contextual - describing the form or nature of what exists

-Explanatory - examining the reasons for, or associations between, what exists

-Evaluative - appraising the effectiveness of what exists

-Generative - aiding the development of theories, strategies or actions.

Types of research

Descriptive question - might involve describing the characteristics of

something; or modelling how it works or behaves.

Explanatory questions - need a design that enables the researcher to determine

whether one or more variables causes or affects one or more outcome variables,
and to rule out other feasible explanations.

Predictive questions - require research designs that enable researchers to

forecast future developments, based on an analysis of current events and
relevant theories.

Qualitative research can contribute by:

- identifying the absence or presence of particular phenomena in the

accounts of different groups
- exploring how the manifestations of phenomena vary between groups
- exploring how the reasons for, or explanations of, phenomena, or their
different impacts and consequences, vary between groups
- exploring the interaction between phenomena in different settings
- exploring more broadly differences in the contexts in which phenomena
arise or the research issue is experienced.
Types of research design

Types of research design: Selecting the time frame

The timing of research

Single research episodes

Longitudinal research

- Panel studies - are used to explore micro-level change, where the focus of
change is the individual. The same people are interviewed more than
once.
- Cross-sectional studies - are used to explore macro-level change, where
the focus of change is the wider context within which individuals are
situated. Subsequent samples of new participants are interviewed.

Types of research design: Historical design

Historical research designs involve the systematic examination and analysis of

past events, developments, or phenomena to understand their significance,
causes, consequences, and implications.

Choosing a data collection method

 - Questionnaires and surveys
- Interviews
- Focus groups
- Ethnographic research
- Discourse/content analysis

Sampling strategies for qualitative research : Non-probability sample

Convenience sample - consists of participants who are readily available and

willing to participate in the research. This method is often used due to its ease
and low cost.

Advantages - Quick to implement, cost-effective, and requires minimal

planning.
Disadvantages - May lead to biased results because the sample may not be
representative of the larger population. The findings may lack generalizability.

Example - Surveying people at a shopping mall because they are easily

accessible.

Purposive sample - Purposive sampling involves selecting participants based on

specific characteristics or criteria that align with the goals of the research.
Researchers use their judgment to identify individuals who are most likely to
provide relevant information.

Advantages - Allows for a targeted approach, ensuring that the sample is

relevant to the research question.

Disadvantages - Subjective selection can introduce bias, and the findings may
not be generalizable to the broader population.

Example - Studying the impact of a specific therapy on patients, where only

individuals receiving that therapy are selected.

Snowball sample - method used when participants are hard to reach or identify.
Existing study participants recruit future participants from among their
acquaintances, creating a "snowball" effect.

Advantages - Useful for accessing hidden or hard-to-reach populations.

Disadvantages - Can lead to a biased sample as participants may recruit others

similar to themselves, limiting diversity and generalizability.

Example - Researching substance abuse where initial participants refer other

individuals they know who are also experiencing similar issues.
Quota sample - involves dividing the population into subgroups (or strata) and
then selecting a predetermined number of participants from each subgroup.
The selection within each group can be done using any method (including
convenience sampling).

Advantages - Ensures that specific characteristics are represented in the sample,

which can enhance the study's relevance and validity.

Disadvantages - Still subject to bias because the selection within each subgroup
may not be random.

Example - a store determines its customer base of 1000 is comprised of 600

women and 400 men. Sample based on proportion. The quota size should be
representative of the collective subgroup population. In the example above, he
should select 60 women and 40 men.

Probability sampling - involves random selection, allowing you to make strong

statistical inferences about the whole group.

Non-probability sampling - involves non-random selection based on

convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.