Thermal Properties of Matter

Thermal Properties of Matter

TEMPERATURE
Temperature may be defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. Heat energy flows from a body
at higher temperature to that at lower temperature until their temperatures become equal. At this stage, the
bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium.

Measurement of Temperature
The branch of thermodynamics which deals with the measurement of temperature is called thermometry. A
thermometer is a device used to measure the temperature of a body. The substances like liquids and gases
which are used in the thermometer are called thermometric substances.

Different Scales of Temperature

A thermometer can be graduated into following scales.
(a) The Centigrade or Celsius scale (ºC)
(b) The Fahrenheit scale (ºF)
(c) The Reaumer scale (ºR)
(d) Kelvin scale of temperature (K)

Comparison Between Different Temperature Scales

K C F
Water boils 373.15 100 212
body temp. 310.2 37.0 98.6
Room temp. 300 27 80.6
Triple point of water 273.16 0.01
Water freezes 273.15 0 32

Solid CO2 195 - 78 - 109

Hydrogen boils 20.7 -252.5 - 422.5

Absolute zero 0 -273.15 - 489.67

The formula for the conversion between different temperature scales is:
K  273 C F  32 R
= = =
100 100 180 80
General formula for the conversion of temperature from one scale to another:

Temp on one scale(S1 ) - Lower fixed point (S1 )

Upper fixed point (S 2 )  Lower fixed point (S1 )

Temp. on other scale(S 2 ) - Lower fixed point (S 2 )

= Upper fixed point (S 2 )  Lower fixed point (S 2 )

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 Thermal Properties of Matter
Thermometers
Thermometers are device that are used to measure temperatures. All thermometers are based on the principle
that some physical property of a system changes as the system temperature changes.
Required properties of good thermometric substance.
(1) Non-sticky (absence of adhesive force)
(2) Low melting point (in comparison with room temperature)
(3) High boiling temperature
(4) Coefficient of volumetric expansion should be high (to increase accuracy in measurement).
(5) Heat capacity should be low.
(6) Conductivity should be high
Mercury (Hg) suitably exhibits above properties.

Types of Thermometers (not for JEE)

Type of
Thermometric
thermometer and Advantages Disadvantages Particular Uses
property
its range
(i) Every laboratory use where high accuracy
Length of column of (i) Quick and easy to (i) Fragile is not required.
Mercury-in-glass
mercury in capillary (direct reading) (ii) Small size limits (ii) Can be calibrated against constant-
– 39ºC to 450ºC
tube (ii) Easily portable (iii) Limited range volume gas thermometer for more
accurate work
(i) Very accurate (i) Very large volume of bulb (i) Standard against which others calibrated
Constant-volume Pressure of a fixed
(ii) Very sensitive (ii) Slow to use and (ii) He, H2 or N2 used depending on range
gas thermometer – mass of gas at
(iii) Wide range inconvenient (iii) can be corrected to the ideal gas scale
270º to 1500ºC constant volume
(iv) Easily reproducible (iv) Used as standard below-183ºC
(i) Best thermometer for small steady
Platinum Not suitable for varying
Electrical resistance (i) Accurate temperature differences
resistance –180º temperature (i.e., is slow to
of a platinum coil (ii) Wide range (ii) Used as standard between 183ºC and
to 1150ºC respond to changes)
630ºC.
(i) Fast response
Emf produced Accuracy is lost if emf is (i) Best thermometer for small steady
because of low heat
between junctions of measured using a moving- temperature differences
capacity.
Thermocouple dissimilar metals at coil voltmeter (as may be (ii) Can be made direct reading by calibrating
(ii) wide range
–250ºC to 1150ºC different necessary for rapid changes galvanometer
(iii) can be employed for
temperatures for when potentiometer is (iii) Used as standard between 630ºC and
remote readings using
measurement of emfs unsuitable) 1063ºC
long leads.
Radiation Does not come into (i) Cumbersome (i) Only thermometer possible for very high
Colour of radiation
pyrometer above contact when (ii) Not direct reading (needs temperatures
emitted by a hot body
1000ºC temperature is measured a trained observer) (ii) Used as standard above 1063ºC.

The constant-volume gas thermometer

The standard thermometer, against which all other thermometers are calibrated, is based on the pressure of a
gas in a fixed volume. Figure shows such a constant volume gas thermometer; it consists of a gas-filled bulb
connected by a tube to a mercury monometer.

 p 
T = (273.16 K)  gas
lim 

 0 p 3 

P = Pressure at the temperature being measured, P3 = pressure when bulb in a triple point cell.

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 Thermal Properties of Matter

HEAT
The energy that is being transferred between two bodies or between adjacent parts of a body as a result of
temperature difference is called heat. Thus, heat is a form of energy. It is energy in transit whenever temperature
differences exist. Once it is transferred, it becomes the internal energy of the receiving body. It should be
clearly understood that the word "heat" is meaningful only as long as the energy is being transferred. Thus,
expressions like "heat in a body" or "heat of a body" are meaningless.
T1 > T2 T2

A Heat B

When we say that a body is heated it means that its molecules begin to move with greater kinetic energy.
S.. unit of heat energy is joule (J). Another common unit of heat energy is calorie (cal).
1 calorie = 4.18 joules.
1 calorie : The amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of 1 gm of water from 14.5 to 15.5 ºC at
one atmospheric pressure is 1 calorie.

Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

In early days heat was not recognised as a form of energy. Heat was supposed to be something needed to raise
the temperature of a body or to change its phase. Calorie was defined as the unit of heat. A number of
experiments were performed to show that the temperature may also be increased by doing mechanical work
on the system. These experiments established that heat is equivalent to mechanical energy and measured how
much mechanical energy is equivalent to a calorie. If mechanical work W produces the same temperature
change as heat H, we write,
W = JH
where J is called mechanical equivalent of heat. J is expressed in joule/calorie. The value of J gives how
many joules of mechanical work is needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C.

Example. What is the change in potential energy (in calories) of a 10 kg mass after 10 m fall ?
Solution : Change in potential energy
U = mgh = 10 × 10 × 10
= 1000 J
1000
= cal Ans.
4.186
EQUATION OF STATE ( FOR IDEAL GASES) :
The relation between the thermodynamic variables (P, V, T) of the system is called equation of state. The
equation of state for an ideal gas of n moles is given by
PV = nRT,

WORK DONE BY A GAS :

Let P and V be the pressure and volume of the gas. If A be the area of the piston, then force exerted by gas on
the piston is, F = P  A.
Let the piston move through a small distance dx during the expansion of the gas. Work done for a small
displacement dx is dW = F dx = PA dx
Since A dx = dV, increase in volume of the gas is dV  dW = P dV

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 Thermal Properties of Matter

or W=  dW  P dV
Area enclosed under P-V curve gives work done during process.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PROCESSES :

(a) Isothermal Process :
T = constant [Boyle's law applicable] PV = constant

There is exchange of heat between system and surroundings. System should be compressed or expanded very
slowly so that there is sufficient time for exchange of heat to keep the temperature constant.

Slope of PV curve in isothermal process:

dP P
PV = constant = C  
dV V

Work done in isothermal process:

Vf If v f  v i then W is positive

W = nRT  n If v f  v i then W is negative 
Vi

 f V 
W = 2.303 n R T log10 V 
 i 

Internal energy in isothermal process :

U = f (T) U = 0

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 Thermal Properties of Matter
(b) Iso- Choric Process (Isometric Process) :
V = constant
 change in volume is zero
P
 is constant
T

P
 const. (Galussac-law)
T
Work done in isochoric process :
Since change in volume is zero therefore dW = p  dV = 0
Indicator diagram of isochoric process :

f
Change in internal energy in isochoric process : U = n R T
2

f
Heat given in isochoric process : Q = U = n R T
2

(c) Isobaric Process : Pressure remains constant in isobaric process

V
 P = constant  = constant
T
Indicator diagram of isobaric process :

Work done in isobaric process :

W = P V = P (Vfinal – Vinitial ) = nR (Tfinal – Tinitial)

Change in internal energy in isobaric process : U = n CV T

Heat given in isobaric process :
Q = U + W

f f
Q = n R T + P [Vf  Vi] = n R T + nR T
2 2
Above expression gives an idea that to increase temperature by T in isobaric process heat required
is more than in isochoric process.
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 Thermal Properties of Matter
(d) Cyclic Process : In the cyclic process initial and final states are same therefore initial state = final state
Work done = Area enclosed under P-V diagram.
Change in internal Energy U = 0
Q = U + W
 Q = W
If the process on P-V curve is clockwise , then net work done is (+ve) and vice-versa.
The graphs shown below explains when work is positive and when it is negative

(+) work
P

Example. The cylinder shown in the figure has conducting walls and temperature of the sorrounding is T, the
pistion is initially in equilibrium, the cylinder contains n moles of a gas. Now the piston is displaced
slowly by an external agent to make the volume double of the initial. Find work done by external
agent in terms of n, R, T

Solution : 1st Method : Work done by external agent is positive, because Fext and displacement are in the same
direction. Since walls are conducting therefore temperature remains constant.

Applying equilibrium condition when pressure of the gas is P

PA + Fext = Patm A
Fext = Patm A – PA
d


Wext = Fext dx
0

d d

= Patm Adx – PA dx
 
0
0

d 2V
nRT
= Patm A  0
dx – 
V
V
dV

= Patm Ad – nRT ln2

= Patm . V0 – nRTln2 = nRT (1 – ln2)
nd
2 Method
Applying work energy theorem on the piston
k = 0
Wall = k
Wgas + Watm + Wext = 0
Vf
nRT ln V – nRT + Wext = 0
i

Wext = nRT (1 – ln2)

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 Thermal Properties of Matter
Example. A nonconducting piston of mass m and area of cross section A is placed on a nonconducting cylinder
as shown in figure. Temperature, spring constant, height of the piston are given by T, K, h respcetively.
Initially spring is relaxed and piston is at rest. Find
(i) Number of moles
(ii) Work done by gas to displace the piston by distance d when the gas is heated slowly.

(iii) Find the final temperature

 mg 
Solution : (i) PV = nRT   Patm   Ah = nRT
T
 A 

 mg 
 Patm   Ah
 A 
 n=
RT

(ii) 1st method

Applying newton’s law on the piston
mg + Patm A + Kx = PgasA
d

Wgas 
= Pg A dx
0

d
=  (mg + Patm A + Kx) dx.
0

1
 Wgas = mgd + PatmdA + Kd2
2
2nd method
Applying work energy theorem on the pistion
Wall = KE
Since piston moves slowly therefore KE = 0
Wgravity + Wgas + Watm + Wspring = 0

1
– mgd + Wgas + (–Patm Ad) + [–( Kd2 – 0)] = 0
2

1
 Wgas = mgd + PatmdA + Kd2
2

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 Thermal Properties of Matter
THERMAL EXPANSION
Most materials expand when their temperature is increased. Rails roads tracks, bridges all have some means
of compensating for thermal expansion. When a homogeneous object expands, the distance between any two
points on the object increases. Figure shows a block of metal with a hole in it. The expanded object is like
a photographic enlargement. That in the hole expands in the same proportion as the metal, it does not get
smaller

Potential
energy

r0 r1
r2
r
E2
E1

Thermal expansion arises because the well is

not symmetrical about the equilibrium position r0.
As the temperature rise the energy of the atom increases.
The average position when the energy is E2 is not
the same as that when the energy is E1.

At the atomic level, thermal expansion may be understood by considering how the potential energy of the
atoms varies with distance. The equilibrium position of an atom will be at the minimum of the potential
energy well if the well is symmetric. At a given temperature each atom vibrates about its equilibrium position
and its average remains at the minimum point. If the shape of the well is not symmetrical the average position
of an atom will not be at the minimum point. When the temperature is raised the amplitude of the vibrations
increases and the average position is located at a greater interatomic separation. This increased separation is
manifested as expansion of the material.
Almost all solids and liquids expand as their temperature increases. Gases also expand if allowed. Solids can
change in length, area or volume, while liquids change in their volumes.

Example. A rectangular plate has a circular cavity as shown in the figure. If we increase its temperature then
which dimension will increase in following figure.

Solution : Distance between any two point on an object increases with

increase in temperature.
So, all dimension a, b, c and d will increase

Example. In the given figure, when temperature is increased then which of the following increases

(A) R1 (B) R2 (C) R2 – R1

Solution : All of the above
- - - - - represents expanded Boundary
--------- represents original Boundary
As the intermolecular distance between atoms increases on heating hence the inner and outer perim-
eter increases. Also if the atomic arrangement in radial direction is observed then we can say that it also
increases hence all A,B,C are true.

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 Thermal Properties of Matter
LINEAR EXPANSION
When the rod is heated, its increase in length L is proportional to its original length L0 and change in
temperature T where T is in ºC or K.

dL = L0 dT  L =  L0  T If  T << 1
L
= where  is called the coefficient of linear expansion whose unit is ºC1 or K1.
L0  T
L = L0 (1 +  T). Where L is the length after heating the rod.

Variation of  with temperature and distance

(a) If  varies with distance,  = ax + b.

Then total expansion =  (ax + b) T dx.

(b) If  varies with temperature,  = f (T). Then L =  L0 dT

Note : Actually thermal expansion is always 3-D expansion. When other two dimensions of object are negligible
with respect to one, then observations are significant only in one dimension and it is known as linear
expansion.

Example. What is the percentage change in length of 1m iron rod if its temperature changes by 100ºC.  for
iron is 2 × 10–5/ºC.
Solution : percentage change in length due to temperature change

% = × 100 =  × 100

= 2 × 10–5 × 100 × 100
= 0.2% Ans.

Thermal stress of a material:

If the rod is free to expand then there will be no stress and strain. Stress and strain is produced only when an
object is restricted to expand or contract according to change in temperature. When the temperature of the
rod is decreased or increased under constrained condition , compressive or tensile stresses are developed in
the rod. These stresses are known as thermal stresses.

L final length – original length

Strain = = original length
= T ,
L0
Note : Original and final length should be at same temperature.

Consider a rod of length 0 which is fixed between to

//////////////////////////////
//////////////////////////////

rigid end separated at a distance 0 now if the temperature of the rod is F F

increased by  then the strain produced in the rod will be :
0

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 Thermal Properties of Matter

length of the rod at new temperature - natural length of the rod at new temperature
strain 
natural length of the rod at new temperature

 0   0 (1  )  0 
=  0 (1  )
=  0 (1  )
  is very small so
strain = –  (negative sign in the answer represents that the length of the rod is less than the
natural length that means is compressed by the ends.)

Ex.ample. In the given figure a rod is free at one end and other end is fixed. When we change the temperature of
rod by , then strain produced in the rod will be

1
(A)  (B)  (C) zero (D) information incomplete
2
Solution : Here rod is free to expand from one side by so by changing temperature no strain will be produced in
the rod.
Hence ans. is (C)

Example. An iron ring measuring 15.00 cm in diameter is to be shrunk on a pulley which is 15.05 cm in
diameter. All measurements refer to the room temperature 20°C. To what minimum temperature
should the ring be heated to make the job possible? Calculate the strain developed in the ring when
it comes to the room temperature. Coefficient of linear expansion of iron = 12 × 10–6/°C.
Solution : The ring should be heated to increase its diameter from 15.00 cm to 15.05 cm.
Using 2 = 1 (1 +  ),
0.05 cm
= = 278°C
15.00 cm  12  10 6 /º C
The temperature = 20°C + 278°C = 298°C.
 2  1
The strain developed = 1
= 3.33 × 10–3 .

Example. A steel rod of length 1m rests on a smooth horizontal base. If it is heated from 0°C to 100°C, what is
the longitudinal strain developed?
Solution : in absence of external force no strain or stress will be created hear rod is free to move.

Example. A steel rod is clamped at its two ends and rests on a fixed horizontal base. The rod is in natural length
at 20°C. Find the longitudinal strain developed in the rod if the temperature rises to 50°C.
Coefficient of linear expansion of steel = 1.2 × 10–5/°C.
Solution : as we known that strain
change in length 
strain = =
original length 0
 Strain = 
= 1.2 × 10–5 × (50 – 20) = 3.6 × 10–4
here strain is compressive strain because final length is smaller than initial length.
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 Thermal Properties of Matter
Example. A steel wire of cross-sectional area 0.5 mm2
is held between two fixed supports. If the wire is just
taut at 20°C, determine the tension when the temperature falls to 0°C. Coefficient of linear expan
sion of steel is 1.2 × 10–5/°C and its Young’s modulus is 2.0 × 1011 N/m2.
Solution : here final length is more than original length so that strain is tensile and tensile force is given by
F = AY  t = 0.5 × 10–6 × 2 × 1011 × 1.2 × 10–5 × 20 = 24 N

Variation of time period of pendulum clocks:

The time represented by the clock hands of a pendulum clock depends on the number of oscillation performed
by pendulum every time it reaches to its extreme position the second hand of the clock advances by one
second that means second hand moves by two seconds when one oscillation in complete

L0 L
Let T = 2  at temperature 0 and T = 2  at temperature .
g g

T L L 1     1
= = = 1+ 
T L L 2
Therefore change (loss or gain) in time per unit time lapsed is
T´T 1
= 
T 2
gain or loss in time in duration of 't' in
1
t =  t , if T is the correct time then
2
(a)  < 0 , T < T clock becomes fast and gain time
(b)  > 0 , T > T clock becomes slow and loose time

Example. A pendulum clock consists of an iron rod connected to a small, heavy bob. If it is designed to keep
correct time at 20°C, how fast or slow will it go in 24 hours at 40°C? Coefficient of linear expansion of
iron = 1.2 × 10–6 /°C.
Solution : The time difference occurred in 24 hours (86400 seconds) is given by
1
t =   t
2

1
= × 1.2 × 10–6 × 20 × 86400 = 1.04 sec. Ans.
2
This is loss of time as  is greater than 0 . As the temperature increases, the time period also increases. Thus,
the clock goes slow.

Measurement of length by metallic scale:

Case (i)
When object is expanded only
2 = 1 {1 + 0(2 – 1)
1 = actual length of object at 1ºC = measure length of object at 1ºC.
2 = actual length of object at 2ºC = measure length of object at 2ºC.
0 = linear expansion coefficient of object.

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 Thermal Properties of Matter
1
1

2
2

0 2 3
Case (ii)
When only measureal instrument is expaneded actual length of object will not change but measureal value
(MV) decreases.
MV = 1 { 1 – S (2 – 1)}
S = linear expansion coefficient of measuring instrument.
1

1ºC
0 1 2 3 4

2ºC 0 2
1 3
at 1 C MV = 3
at 1 C MV = 2.2
Case (iii)
If both expanded simultaneously
MV = {1 + (0 – s) (2 – 1)
(i) if 0 > s, then measured value is more then actual value at 1ºC
(ii) If 0 < s, then measured value is less then actual value at 1ºC
1
1ºC

2
2ºC

1ºC
0 1 2 3 4 5

2ºC
0 1 2 3 4
at 1ºC MV = 3.4
2ºC MV = 4.1
Measured value = calibrated value × {1 + }
where  = 0 – s
o = coefficient of linear expansion of object material, s = coefficient of linear expansion of scale material
= C
 = temperature at the time of measurement C = temperature at the time of calibration.
For scale, true measurement = scale reading [1 +  (0)]
If  > 0 true measurement > scale reading
 < 0 true measurement < scale reading
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 Thermal Properties of Matter
Example. A bar measured with a vernier caliper is found to be 180mm long. The temperature during the
measurement is 10ºC. The measurement error will be if the scale of the vernier caliper has been
graduated at a temperature of 20ºC : ( = 1.1 × 10-5 °C-1. Assume that the length of the bar does not
change.)
(A) 1.98 × 10–1 mm (B*) 1.98 × 10–2 mm (C) 1.98 × 10–3 mm (D) 1.98 × 10–4 mm
Solution : True measurement = scale reading [1 +  (0)]
= 180 × {1+ (10 – 20) × (–1.1 × 10–5) }
measurement error = true measurment – scale reading
= 180 × {1+ (10 – 20) × (–1.1 × 10–5) } – 180
= 1.98 × 10–2 mm

SUPERFICIAL OR AREAL EXPANSION

When a solid is heated and its area increases, then the thermal expansion is called superficial or areal expansion.
Consider a solid plate of area A0. When it is heated, the change in area of the plate is directly proportional to
the original area A0 and the change in temperature T.

L0
size of object
L0 L at 1 < 2
DL
DL size of object
at  2

dA = A0 dT or  A =  A0  T

A
= Unit of  is ºC1 or K1.
A0  T
A = A0 (1 +  T) where A is area of the plate after heating,

Example. A plane lamina has area 2m2 at 10ºC then what is its areal at 110ºC t’s superficial expansion is
2 × 10–5//C
Solution : A = A0 ( 1 + )
= 2 { 1 + 2 × 105 × (110 – 10) }
= 2 × {1 + 2 × 10–3} Ans.

VOLUME OR CUBICAL EXPANSION

When a solid is heated and its volume increases, then the expansion is called volume expansion or cubical
expansion. Let us consider a solid or liquid whose original volume is V0. When it is heated to a new volume,
then the change V
dV = V0 dT or V =  V0  T
V
= Unit of  is ºC1 or K1.
V0  T
V = V0 (1 +   T) where V is the volume of the body after heating

Example 20. The volume of glass vessel is 1000 cc at 20°C. What volume of mercury should be poured into it at
this temperature so that the volume of the remaining space does not change with temperature? Coef
ficient of cubical expansion of mercury and glass are 1.8 × 10–4/°C and 9.0 × 10–6/°C respectively.

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 Thermal Properties of Matter
Solution : Let volume of glass vessel at 20ºC is Vg and volume of mercury at 20ºC is Vm
so volume of remaining space is = Vg – Vm
It is given constant so that
Vg – Vm = Vg’ – V’m
where Vo' and Vm' are final volumes.
Vg – Vm = Vg {1 + g } – Vm{1 + Hg }
 Vg g = Vm Hg

100  9  10 6
 Vm =
1.8  10 4
Vm = 50 cc.

SPECIFIC HEAT
Specific heat of substance is equal to heat gain or released by that substance to raise or fall its temperature by
1ºC for a unit mass of substance.
When a body is heated, it gains heat. On the other hand, heat is lost when the body is cooled. The gain or loss
of heat is directly proportional to:
(a) the mass of the body Q  m
(b) rise or fall of temperature of the body Q   T
Q  m  T or Q = m s  T

or dQ = m s d T or Q=m  s d T..

Q
where s is a constant and is known as the specific heat of the body s = . S.. unit of s is joule/kg-kelvin
mT
and C.G.S. unit is cal./gm °C.

Specific heat of water : S = 4200 J/kgºC = 1000 cal/kgºC = 1 Kcal/kgºC = 1 cal/gmºC

Specific heat of steam = half of specific heat of water = specific heat of ice

Example. Heat required to increases the temperate of 1 kg water by 20ºC

Solution : heat required = Q = ms
 S = 1 cal/gmºC = 1 Kcal/kgºC
= 1 × 20 = 20 Kcal.

Heat capacity or Thermal capacity :

Heat capacity of a body is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of that body by 1°.
If 'm' is the mass and 's' the specific heat of the body, then

Heat capacity = m s.
Units of heat capacity in: CGS system is, cal ºC1; SI unit is, JK1

Page 14
 Thermal Properties of Matter
Important Points:
Q
(a) We know, s = , if the substance undergoes the change of state which occurs at constant temperature
mT
(T = 0) , then s = Q/0 = . Thus the specific heat of a substance when it melts or boils at constant
temperature is infinite.

Q
(b) If the temperature of the substance changes without the transfer of heat (Q = 0) then s= = 0. Thus
mT
when liquid in the thermos flask is shaken, its temperature increases without the transfer of heat and hence
the specific heat of liquid in the thermos flask is zero.

(c) To raise the temperature of saturated water vapours, heat (Q) is withdrawn. Hence, specific heat of saturated
water vapours is negative. (This is for your information only and not in the course)

(d) The slight variation of specific heat of water with temperature is shown in the graph at 1 atmosphere pressure.
Its variation is less than 1% over the interval form 0 to 100ºC.

Relation between Specific heat and Water equivalent:

It is the amount of water which requires the same amount of heat for the same temperature rise as that of the
object
ms
ms T = mW SW T  mW = s
W
In calorie sW = 1
 mW = ms
mw is also represent by W
so W = ms.

Phase change:
Heat required for the change of phase or state,
Q = mL , L = latent heat.

Latent heat (L): The heat supplied to a substance which changes its state at constant temperature is called
latent heat of the body.

Latent heat of Fusion (Lf ): The heat supplied to a substance which changes it from solid to liquid state at its
melting point and 1 atm. pressure is called latent heat of fusion. Latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 kcal/kg

Latent heat of vaporisation (Lv ): The heat supplied to a substance which changes it from liquid to vapour
state at its boiling point and 1 atm. pressure is called latent heat of vaporization. Latent heat of vaporization
of water is 540 kcal kg1.
If in question latent heat of water are not mention and to solve the problem it require to assume then we
should consider following value.
Page 15
 Thermal Properties of Matter
Latent heat of ice : L = 80 cal/gm = 80 Kcal/kg = 4200 × 80 J/kg
Latent heat of steam : L = 540 cal/gm = 540 Kcal/kg = 4200 × 540 J/kg

The given figure, represents the change of state

by different lines
OA  solid state , AB  solid + liquid state (Phase change)
BC  liquid state , CD  liquid + vapour state (Phase change)
DE  vapour state
When Q = msT,
i.e. for processes OA, BC and DE

T 1 T 1
slope =  
Q ms Q S
where mass (m) of substance constant slope of T – Q graph is inversely proportional to specific heat, if in
given diagram
(slope) OA > (slope) DE
then (s)OA < (s)DE

When Q = mL, i.e. in the processes AB & CD

If (length of CD) > (length of AB)
then (latent heat of CD) > (latent heat of AB)

For water, Lf = 80 kcal/kg, Lv = 540 kcal/kg

Example. Find amount of heat releases if 1 kg steam at 200ºC is converted into –20ºC ice.
Solution : Heat required Q = heat release to convert steam at 200 ºC into 100ºC steam + heat release to convert
100º C steam into 100ºC water + heat release to convert 100º water into 0ºC water + heat release to
convert 0 ºC water into – 20ºC ice.

1 1
Q = 1 × × 100 + 540 × 1 + 1 × 1 × 100 + 1 × 80 + 1 × × 20
2 2
= 780 Kcal.

Page 16
 Thermal Properties of Matter
CALORIMETRY
The branch of thermodynamics which deals with the measurement of heat is called calorimetry.
A simple calorimeter is a vessel generally made of copper with a stirrer of the same material. The vessel is
kept in a wooden box to isolate it thermally from the surrounding. A thermometer is used to measure the
temperature of the contents of the calorimeter. Object at different temperatures are made to come in contact
with each other in the calorimeter. As a result, heat is exchanged between the object as well as with the
calorimeter. Neglecting any heat exchange with the surrounding.

Law of Mixture:
When two substances at different temperatures are mixed together, then exchange of heat continues to take
place till their temperatures become equal. This temperature is then called final temperature of mixture.
Here, Heat taken by one substance = Heat given by another substance

 m1 s1 (T1  Tm) = m2 s2 (Tm  T2)

Example. An iron block of mass 2 kg, fall from a height 10 m. After colliding with the ground it loses 25%
energy to surroundings. Then find the temperature rise of the block. (Take sp. heat of iron 470 J/kg
ºC)
1 10  10
Solution : mS = mgh  =
4 4  470

Zeroth law of thermodynamics :

If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third object C , then objects A and B are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.

Example. The temperature of equal masses of three different liquids A, B, and C are 10ºC 15ºC and 20ºC
respectively. The temperature when A and B are mixed is 13ºC and when B and C are mixed, it is
16ºC. What will be the temperature when A and C are mixed?

Solution :

when A and B are mixed

mS1 × (13 – 10) = m × S2 × (15 – 13)
3S1 = 2S2 .....(1)
when B and C are mixed
S2 × 1 = S3 × 4 ......(2)
when C and A are mixed
S1( – 10) = S3 × (20 – ) ....(3)
by using equation (1), (2) and (3)
140
we get  = ºC
11
Page 17
 Thermal Properties of Matter
Example. If three different liquid of different masses specific heats and temperature are mixed with each other
and then what is the temperature mixture at thermal equilibrium..
m1, s1, T1  specification for liquid
m2, s2, T2  specification for liquid
m3, s3, T3  specification for liquid.
Solution : Total heat lost or gain by all substance is equal to zero
Q = 0
m1s1(T – T1) + m2s2(T – T2) + m3s3 (T – T3) = 0
m1s1T1  m 2 s 2 T2  m 3 s3 T3
so T=
m1s1  m 2 s 2  m 3 s 3

Example. In following equation calculate value of H 1 kg ice at –20ºC = H + 1 Kg water at 100ºC, here H
means heat required to change the state of substance.
Solution : Heat required to convert 1 kg ice at – 20ºC into 1 kg water at 100ºC
= 1 kg ice at – 20ºC to 1 kg ice at 0ºC ice at 0ºC + 1 kg water
at 0ºC + 1 kg water at 0ºC to 1 kg water at 100ºC
1
=1× × 20 + 1 × 80 + 1 × 100 = 190 Kcal. So H = – 190 Kcal
2
Negative sign indicate that 190 Kcal heat is with drawn from 1 kg water at 100ºC to convert it into
1 kg ice at – 20ºC

Example. 1 kg ice at –20ºC is mixed with 1 kg steam at 200ºC. Then find equilibrium temperature and mixture
content.
Solution : Let equillibrium temperature is 100 ºC heat required to convert 1 kg ice at –20ºC to 1 kg water at
100ºC is equal to
1
H1 = 1 × × 20 + 1 × 80 + 1 × 1 × 100 = 190 Kcal
2
heat release by steam to convert 1 kg steam at 200ºC to 1 kg water at 100ºC is equal to
1
H2 = 1 × × 100 + 1 × 540 = 590 Kcal
2
1 kg ice at – 20ºC = H1 + 1kg water at 100ºC ......(1)
1 kg steam at 200ºC = H2 + 1kg water at 100ºC .......(2)
by adding equation (1) and (2)
1 kg ice at –20ºC + 1 kg steam at 200ºC = H1 + H2 + 2 kg water at 100ºC.
Here heat required to ice is less than heat supplied by steam so mixture equillibrium temperature is 100ºC
then steam is not completely converted into water.
So mixture has water and steam which is possible only at 100ºC
mass of steam which converted into water is equal to
1
190  1  100 7
m= 2 = kg
540 27
so mixture content
7 20
mass of steam = 1 – = kg
27 27
7 34
mass of water = 1 + = kg
27 27
Page 18
 Thermal Properties of Matter
NEWTON'S LAW OF COOLING
Newton was the first to study experimentally in systematic manner and derive the relation between heat radiated
by a body in a given enclosure and its temperature based on experimental facts as given below.
The rate of cooling of a body (rate of loss of heat) is directly proportional to the excess of temp. of
the body over the surroundings, provided that this excess is small and loss of heat by radiation only.
If  and 0 are the temperatures of the body and its surroundings respectively,
 dQ 
Rate of loss of heat R =   
 dt 
The negative sign indictates that the amount of heat is decreasing with time.
dQ dQ
–  (   0 ) or –  k (  0 ) ....(1) where k is the constant of proportionality..
dt dt
d
Rate of fall of temperature :
dt
The rate of decrease of temperature with respect to time is known as rate of fall of temperature.
If m is mass and s is specific heat of the body, then, dQ = m s J d
dQ d
 m s J .........(2)
dt dt

d
 msJ  k (   0 ) [From eqn. (1) and (2)]
dt
d k
 Rate of fall of temp. –  (  0 )
dt m . s
d
i.e. –  (  0 ) (m and s are constant.)
dt
Thus, Newton's law of cooling can also be stated as,
The rate of fall of temperature of a body is directly proportional to excess of temperature of the body
over the surroundings, provided that excess is small.
Excess of temperature :
If the temperature of body decreases from 1 to 2 and temperature of surroundings is 0 then average
 1  2 
excess of temperature =   0 
 2 

The graph drawn between the temperature of a body and time is known
as cooling curve. The slope of the tangent to the curve at any point gives


the rate of fall of temperature.

If rate of fall of temperature is plotted against excess temperature, we get

a straight line passing through the origin.
d

dt

(–0)

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 Thermal Properties of Matter
R = k( – 0)
Curve between the rate
or R = k – k0. d
of cooling and body 
d k temperature. dt
   0  
dt msJ

1 k 
 (   ) d   msJ  dt
0

log(–0)
k
or loge ( – 0) =  t + B
msJ
or log ( – 0) = – A t + B t
n
This is equ . of a straight line, hence the curve between log ( – 0) and t will be a straight line.

Ex. A body initially at 80°C cools to 64°C in 5 mirutes and to 52°C in 10 minutes. What will be the
temperature after 15 minutes and what is the temperature of surroundings?
Sol. Let 0 be the temperature of surroundings. According to Newton's law of cooling,
The rate of cooling  excess temperature
Case   Average rate of cooling Case   Average rate of cooling Case  Let  be the temp. at the end of next
5 minutes (or after 15 minutes from start)
80  64 64  52
 C / min  52  
5 5  Average rate of cooling = C / min
5
 80  64  64  52
Mean temperature =   C Mean temperature =  52  
 2  2 Mean temperature
2
 80  64  64  52  64  32  52    52   
 Excess temperature =   0  K   0  ....(2) K   0  .....(3)
 2  5  2 

5  2 
80  64  80  64  Dividing (3) by (1) and putting 0 = 16°C
K   0  16 72  0

5
...(1) Dividing (1) by (2), we get  52  
 2  12 58  0  16
52   2
where K is a constant of proportionality.  Solving, we get  = 43°C
Solving 0 = 16°C 16 72  16

Derivation Newton's law of cooling from Stefan's law of radiation :

Consider a perfectly black body of surface area A whose absolute temperature is T. Let T 0 be the absolute
temperature of the surroundings.
4 T 4 4
By Stefan's law of radiation, = A [T0 (1  T )  T0 ]
0
(Rate of loss of heat) = A (T4 – T04) 4 2 3 4
 T   4 T  T   T   T  
Now, 1    1   6   4     
dQ  T0   T0  T0   T0   T0  
 = A (T4 – T04)
dt As T/T0 is very small, the terms involving its higher
powers can be neglected.
Let T – T 0 = T  T = T0 + T
4
 T  4T
dQ  1    1
 = A [(T0 + T)4 – T04]  T0  T0
dt
dQ   4T  
dQ  A T04 1    T04 
 dt   T  
= 4  A T03 T (Let 4AT03 = const. k) 0
dt
 4 T04 4

= A T0  4T . T  T0  = 4AT
T 03 T
 0 

Page 20
 Thermal Properties of Matter

dQ dQ
  T   ( T  T0 )
dt dt
But, T – T0 = ( + 273) – (0 + 273) = ( – 0)
dQ
  (   0 ) This is Newton's law of cooling.
dt
Ex. A copper sphere cools from 62°C to 50°C in 10 minutes and to 42°C in the next 10 minutes. Calculate
the temperature of the surroundings.

1  2    2 
Sol. By Newton's law of cooling,  k  1  0  ....(1)
t  2 

62  50  62  50 
A sphere cools from 62°C to 50°C in 10 min.  k   0  ....(2)
10  2 

50  42  50  42 
Now, sphere cools from 50°C to 42°C in next 10 min.  k   0  ....(3)
10  2 

56  0 1.2
Dividing eqn . (2) by (3) we get,  or 0.40 = 10.4 hence 0 = 26°C
46  0 0.8
Ex. A man, the surface area of whose skin is 2m², is sitting in a room where the air temperature is 20°C.
If his skin temperature is 28°C, find the rate at which his body loses heat. The emissivity of his skin
= 0.97. This is a surprisingly high rate of heat loss even
Sol. Absolute room temperature (T0) = 20 + 273 = 293 K at a comfortable room temperature of 20°C. The
reason why we do not feel uncomfortable is that
Absolute skin temperature (T) = 28 + 273 = 301 K our body generates energy at a rate of about
4 4 120 W. So our body loses a lot of heat by radiation
Rate of heat loss =  e A (T – T 0) even at 20°C. It is for this reason that people
= 5.67 × 10–8 × 0.97 × 2 × {(301)4 – (293)4} = 92.2 W living in Arctic regions use a special clothing
made with an additional thin shiny metallic layer
next to the skin to reflect the body's radiation.
HEAT TRANSFER
Conduction is that mode of transmission of heat in which heat is transferred from a region of higher
temperature to a region of lower temperature by the aid of particles of the body without their actual
migration.
In conduction atoms or molecules near the hot end absorb energy and hence their amplitude of vibration
about their mean position increases due to which they collide with other neighbouring atoms or molecules
and thus transfer a part of energy, to them and so on. In solids, heat transfer is mainly by conduction.
In metals the conduction of heat takes place by means of free electrons present in the metal.
Steady State :
When one end of a rod is heated, then initially the temperature of various points of the rod changes
continuously and the rod is said to exist in a variable state. After some time, a state is reached, when
the temperature of each cross-section becomes steady. This state is known as steady state. In this state,
any heat received by any cross-section is partly conducted to the next section and partly radiated, i.e.,
no heat is absorbed by the cross-section.
By steady state it does not, imply that the temperature of the whole rod is same. In steady state, the
temperature of the different parts of the rod are different but temperature of the each part remains
constant. The temperature decreases, as we move away from the hot end.
In this state rate of heat flow depends only on the heat conductivity of the meterial of the rod so
it remains constant.
Page 21
 Thermal Properties of Matter
If rod is in contact with atmosphere or surroundings and it is heated at one end
then distance versus temperature curve is as shown in fig. (a)

And if rod is insultated with surroundings then graph is stright line as shown m

temperature
of hot end 
in fig. (b)

Distance
from hot end
Isothermal Surface fig. (b)

In steady state if heat loss due to radiation or convection in negligible then the temperature of of every
transverse section of the rod is same on the whole area of section (Because
the cross-section is perfecdicular to the direction of flow of heat hence there
will be no heat flow from one point to other on the cross-section) . Thus
every transverse section of the rod behaves as on Isothermal surface.
Temperature gradiant :
The rate of change of temperature with distance between two isothermal surfaces is called tem-
perature gradiant.
If the temperature of the isothermal surfaces be  and  –  and perpendicular distance between then
in x
change in temperature (    )   
Temperature gradiant between them  = 
dis tan ce x x
The negative singn show that temperture  decreases as the distance x increases in the directin of heat
flow.
Unit: ºC/meter
Thermal Conductivity
If a steady temperature difference (1 – 2) is to be maintained between the ends of a rod, heat must
be supplied at a steady rate at one end and the same must be taken out at the other end. Suppose
an amount of heat Q flows through the rod in time t
Q
then rate of heat flow or Heat current H 
t
Q
It has been found experimentally that in steady state, Heat current H  will be
t
(a) proportional to the area A of the cross-section of the rod. The larger the cross-sectional area, the greater
will be the number of molecules which conduct heat via collisions.
(b) proportional to (1 – 2). The greater the temperature difference to be maintained, the greater must
be the rate of heat flow.
(c) inversely proportional to , the distance between ends of the rod. The smaller the distance , the greater
must be the rate of heat flow to maintain a given temperature difference.
Thus we find that 

Q A(1   2 ) K A ( 1   2 ) 1 A Q 2
 or H
t  
x=0 x=
Page 22
 Thermal Properties of Matter
where K is a constant of proportionality called the thermal conductivity of the substance. It is a
measure of how quickly heat energy can conduct (flow) through the substance.
Coefficient of thermal conductivity (K) :
The coefficient of thermal conductivity, K, of a material is defined as the amount of heat that flowing
per second through a rod of that material of having unit length and unit area of cross-section in the
steady state, when the difference of temperature between two ends of the rod is 1 ºC and flow of
heat is perpendicular to the end faces of the rod.
Unit of K : CGS = cal/cm-sec-°C MKS = kcal/m-sec-K S = watt/m-K
DIMENSIONS : [M L T–3 –1]
 For a perfect conductor of heat K is infinite and for a perfect insulator K is zero.
In general, solids are better conductors than liquids and liquids are better conductors than gases. (Heat
transfer through process of conduction is possible in liquids and gases also, if they are heated from
the top.) Metals are much better conductors than non-metals.
A GOOD CONDUCTOR OF HEAT IS ALSO A GOOD CONDUCTOR OF ELECTRICITY
The conduction of both heat and electricity is due to the movement of free electrons. Wiedeman and
Franz established a relation between thermal conductivity (K) and electrical conductivity .
Thermal Resistance :
The thermal resistance of a body is a measure of its opposition to the flow of heat through it.
It is defined as the ratio of temperature difference to the heat current (= rate of flow of heat)
Now, temperature difference = (1 ~ 2 )  = Length of rod

Q
heat current, H A = Area of cross section of rod
t

1 ~ 2 1 ~ 2 1 ~ 2 
 R Th    
H (Q / t ) KA(1 ~  2 ) /  KA

 
or R Th  
H KA

UNIT : °C × sec/cal or K × sec/k-calorie.

DIMENSONS : [M–1 L–2 T3 ]

Electricity Heat
Potential V2 – V1` 2 – 1
difference
Current I = q/t H = Q/t
rate of flow of charge rate of flow of heat
V2  V1  2  1
Resistance R = R Th 
I H

 
Conductivity  K
AR    1 
A 2 
 H 

Page 23
 Thermal Properties of Matter
SERIES COMBINATION OF CONDUCTORS
Suppose two conductors of areas of cross-section A1 and A2 , lengths 1 and 2 , coefficients of thermal
conductivities K1 and K2 are connected in series.
Let heat is allowed to flow through this combination after the steady state reached
Let the temperatures of the two outer faces be 1 and 2 and the temperature of the junction be .
A1 R1  R2 A2
The heat current in them will be
H1 2 H2
1
1 2

(1  ) (   2 )
H1  and H2 
R1 R2
But here, i.e., in series H1 = H2 = H
So 1 –  = HR1 and  – 2 = HR2
or 1 – 2 = H(R1 + R2),i.e., H = (1 – 2)/(R1 + R2)
(1  2 )
or H with R = R1 + R2
R
i.e., in series the total thermal resistance is equal to the sum of individual resistances.
This case is similar to two resistances in series. The potential difference is replaced by the temperature
difference, the electrical resistance is replaced by thermal resistance and electrical current (rate of flow
of charge) is replaced by heat current (the rate of flow of heat).
1 
R = R1 + R2 R1  and R2  2
K 1A K 2A

 eq. 1 2
and  
K eq. A eq. K1A1 K 2 A 2
If A1 = A2 = A
1   2 1  2
  1   2
 K eq. K1 K 2 or K eq. 
1  2

K1 K 2
2K1 K 2
If 1 = 2 =  K eq. 
K1  K 2
If we have more than two slabs in the compound slab.
The total thermal resistance of the slabs connected in series.
Req. = R1 + R2 + R3 + ......
PARALLEL COMBINATION OF CONDUCTORS
If the two slabs are connected in parallel (i.e. one placed on top of the other) as shown in fig. the
thermal resistance R of the parallel combination is given by
1 1 1
 
R R1 R 2

1 1 1 1
For more than two slabs, we have     ......
R R1 R 2 R 3
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 Thermal Properties of Matter
Suppose two conductors each of thickness  but with areas of cross-section A1 and A2 are connected
in parallel. Let the temperatures of the first and second faces be 1 and 2. The total heat current Hp
is the sum of heat currents H1 and H2 in the first and second conductors respectively, i.e., Hp = H1
+ H2.

K1A1(1  2 ) K 2 A 2 (1  2 ) K p ( A 1  A 2 )(1   2 )

Now, H1  and H2  and Hp 
  

K p ( A 1  A 2 )(1   2 ) K 1A 1(1   2 ) K 2 A 2 (1   2 )

As Hp = H1 + H2, hence,  
  

K 1A 1  K 2 A 2
or Kp (A1 + A2) = K1A1 + K2A2 or Kp 
A1  A 2

K1  K 2
If A1 = A2, then K p 
2

Ex. Two rods of equal length and area of cross section are kept parallel and logged between the temperature
1 and 2. The ratio of their thermal conductivity is 2 : 3. Find the ratio of effective thermal conductivity
(i) to that of first rod and (ii) to that of second rod.
Steam l1  l2 melting
K  K 2 2K 1  3K 1 5K 1 ice
Sol. K 1   K1 K2
2 2 2  

5K1
(i) ratio of effective coefficient of that of first rod = K = 2K1 = : 2K1 = 5 : 4
2

5
(ii) ratio of effective coefficient to that of second rod = K : 3K1 = K1 : 3K1 = 5 : 6
2

Ex. Two rods of equal area of cross-section and length in ratio 1 : 2 and coefficient of thermal conductivity
in ratio 2 : 1 are joined end to end and logged between steam and melting ice. Find the
(i) ratio of the temperature difference across the two rods.
(ii) temperature of common point in the rods.
Sol. In the present case

1      2 1    1 K1 1 K 1
(i)  / K   / K or     1
1 1 2 2   2 K1  2 2K1 2 4

hence ratio of temperature difference = 1 : 4

1   1
(ii) As     4 or 4(100 – ) =  – 0   = 80°C
2

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 Thermal Properties of Matter
CONVECTION
Convection requires a medium and is the process in which heat is transferred from
one place to other by actual movement of heated substance (usually fluid).
The type of convection which results from difference in densisities is called natural
convection (for example, a fluid in a container heated through its bottom). However,
if a heated fluid is forced to move by a blower, fan or pump, the process is called
forced convection.
A
The rate of heat convection from an object is proportional to the temperature difference
() between the object and convective fluid and the area of contact A, i.e., Flame

 dQ 
 dt  = hA  where, h represents a constant of proportionality called
 convection
convection coefficient and depends on the properties of fluid such as density, viscosity,
specific heat and thermal conductivity, etc.
PHENOMENA BASED ON CONVECTION :
(i) Land and sea breezes -
The heat from the sun is absorbed more rapidly be land than by sea-water. Moreover, the specific heat
of land is low as compared to that of sea-water. Consequently, the rise in temperature of land is higher
as compared to that of sea-water. To sum-up, land is hotter than the sea during day time. As a result
of this, the colder air over the sea blows towards the land. This is called sea-breeze.
At right, air blows from land towards sea. This is called land breeze.
(ii) Formation of trade winds -
The surface of Earth near the equator gets heated strongly. So, the air in contact with the surface of
Earth at the expands and rises upwards. As a result of this, a low pressure is created at the equator.
At the poles, the air in the upper atmosphere gets cooled and comes down. So, a high pressure is
created at the poles.
Due to difference of pressures at the poles and equator, the air at the poles moves towards the equator,
rises up, moves the poles and so on. In this way, a wind is formed in the atmosphere.
The rotation of the Earth also affects the motion of the wind. Due to anti-clockwise rotation of Earth
the warm wind blowing from equator to north drifts towards east.
The steady wind blowing from north-earth to equator, near the surface of Earth, is called trade wind.
(iii) Monosoons -
In summer, the peninsular mass of central Asia becomes more strongly heated than the waters of the
Indian Ocean. This is due to the fact that the specific heat of water is much higher than that of the
soil and rocks.
Hot air from the heated land mass rises up and moves towards the Indian ocean. Air filled with moisture
flows over the Indian ocean on the south towards heated land mass. When obstructed by mountains,
the moist air rushes upwards to great height. In the process, it gets cooled. Consequently, the moisture
condenses and falls as rain.
(iv) Ventilation -
Ventilator of exhaust fan in a room help of remove impure and warm air from a room. The fresh air
from outside blows into the room. This is all due to the convection current set up in the room.
(v) To regulate temperature in the human body -
Heat transfer in the human body involves a combination of mechanisms. These together maintain a
remarkably uniform temperature in the human body inspite of large changes in environmental conditions.
The chief internal mechanism is forced convection. The heart serves as the pump and the blood as
the circulating fluid.

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 Thermal Properties of Matter

Some important points :

 Natural convection takes place from bottom to top while forced convection in any direction.
 In case of natural convection, convection currents move warm air upwards and cool air downwards.
This is why heating is done from base, while cooling from the top.
 Natural convection is not possible in a gravity free region such as a freely falling lift or an orbiting
satellite.
 Natural convection plays an important role in ventilation, in changing climate and weather and in forming
land and sea breezes and trade winds.
 The forced convection of blood in our body by a pump (heart) helps in keeping the temperature of
body constant.
Q. Water in a closed tube is heated with one are vertically placed above the lamp. In what direction water
will begin the circulate along the tube ?
Ans. On heating the liquid at A will become lighter and will rise up. This will push the liquid in the tube
upwards and so the liquid in the tube will move clockwise i.e. from B to A.

RADIATION A B

THERMAL RADIATION
When a body is heated and placed in vacuum, it loses heat even when there is no
medium surrounding it. The heat can not go out from the body by the process of conduction
or convection since both of these process require the presence of a material medium between source
and surrounding objects. The process by which heat is lost in this case is called radiation. This does
not require the presence of any material medium.
It is by radiation that the heat from the sun reaches the earth.
Radiation has the following properties :
(a) Radiant energy travels in straight lines and when some object is placed in the path, it's shadow is
formed at the detector.
(b) It is reflected and refracted or can be made to interfere. The reflection or refraction are exactly as
in case of light.
(c) It can travel through vaccum.
(d) Intensity of radiation follows the law of inverse square.
(e) Thermal radiation can be polarised in the same way as light by transmission through a nicol.
All these and many other properties establish that heat radiation has nearly all the properties possessed
by light and these are also electromagnetic waves with the only difference of wavelength or frequency.
The wavelength of heat radiation is larger than that of visible light.
Radiations have a wavelength greater than that of red colour and they form the infrared region of
the electromagnetic spectrum. The wavelength ranges from 10–6 m to 10–3 m.

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 Thermal Properties of Matter

The electromagnetic spectrum : Radiations Wavelength

range
Cosmic Rays < 10–13 m.
Frequency, Hz
–10
-Rays 10 m–10–14 m.
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 X-Rays From 10–9 m to
10° 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 6 × 10–12 m.
Ultraviolet 3.8 × 10–7 m
Microwaves Gamma rays Rays 6 × 10–10 m
ac power
Visible Visible 7.8 × 10–7 to
waves 3.8 × 10–7 m
AM FM T.V. x-rays
Infra Red 10–3 m to
radio Infrared Ultraviolet waves 7.8 × 10–7 m
Microwaves 0.3 m to 10–3 m
–3 –6 –9 –12 –15
109 106 103 10° 10 10 10 10 10 Radio waves Few Kms
to 0.3 m
Wavelength, m Television 0.1 m – 1 m
waves
The wavelength of the visible spectrum :
Ultraviolet Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red Infrared

400 nm 500 nm 600 nm 700 nm

Wavelength

When the radiant energy is incident on the surface of any body, it is used up in three different ways.
() Part of this energy is absorbed by the body.
When radiant energy is incident on matter, it is partly absorbed and converted into heat.
() Some part is reflected and
() Remaining part is transmitted by the body.
Let Q be the quantity of radiant heat incident on the surface of the body and Qa, Qr and Qt be the
the quantities of heat absorbed, reflected and transmitted by the body respectively.

Quantity of radiant energy absorbed by the body

Absorption coefficient "a" 
Quantity of radiant energy incident on the surface of the body

Qa
a
Q

Quantity of radiant energy reflected

Reflection Coefficient : "r" 
Quantity of radiant energy incident on the surface of the body

Qr
r
Q

Quantity of radiant energy transmitte d by the body

Transmission Coefficient : "t" 
Quantity of radiant energy incident on the surface of the body

Qt
t
Q
Then Qa + Qr + Qt = Q
Q a Qr Q t
   1  a + r + t = 1
Q Q Q
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 Thermal Properties of Matter
Diathermanous substances :
The substances which can transmit the radiant heat incident upon their surfaces are called diathermanous
substances. (t  0)
The best diathermanous solids are rock salt, sylvine, quartz and certain other crystals. Pure air is highly
diathermanous. e.g. glass, quartz, gases etc.
Athermanous substances :
The substances which cannot transmit the radiant heat incident upon their surfaces are called athermanous
substances. (t = 0). e.g. wood, iron, copper etc.
Water vapour and carbon dioxide are athermanous.
Emissive Power (e) :
For a given surface it is defined as the radiant energy emitted per sec per unit area of the surface.
Spectral Emissive Power (e ) :
If we consider emissive power of a surface for a particular wavelength instead of all wavelengths, it
is called spectral emissive power and is represented by e

Total emissive power e   0
e  d .

Emissive power of a surface depends on its nature and temperature.

It is maximum for a perfectly black body and minimum for a smooth shining body.
Unit : W/m²
Absorptive Power (a) :
Absorptive power of a surface is defined as the ratio of the radiant energy absorbed by it in a given
time to the total radiant energy incident on it is the same time.
If Q calories fall on the surface and Q´ calories out of it are absorbed, the absorptive power of the
Q´
surface is given by a 
Q
For a perfectly black body, absorptive power is maximum and unity.
It has no units and dimensions.
Spectral absorptive power "a " :
Spectral absorptive power (a) is defined as the ratio of the radiant energy of a given wavelength absorbed
by a given surface in a given time to the total radiant energy of that wavelength incident in the same
time on the same surface within a unit wavelength range.

Total absorptive power a  0
a  d .

ABSOLUTE EMISSIVITY e
The emissivity e of a surface is defined as the quantity of heat radiated per second by one unit area
of its surface when its temperature is 1°C above the surroundings.
Relative Emissivity (e) :
It is defined as the ratio of radiant energy emitted per unit time per unit surface area of a body at
a given temperature to the radiant energy emitted per unit time per unit surface area of a perfectly
black body at the same temperature i.e.
E
 e .
Eb

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 Thermal Properties of Matter
A perfectly black body :
A black body is defined as one that will completely absorb all the radiation of whatever wavelength
which falls on it. For perfectly black body, a = 1.
A body which can absorb all the quantity of radiant heat incident on it is called a perfectly black
body.
A body which is a good absorber of a radiation of a certain wavelength is also a good emitter of
the radiation of that wavelength. Consequantly, a black body, which absorbs every wavelength, must
also emit every wavelength.
Properties of perfectly black body :
(a) A perfectly black body absorbs all the radiant heat incident upon it. (i.e. a = 1)
(b) A perfectly black body does not reflect or transmit the radiant heat incident upon it. (i.e. t
= 0, r = 0)
(c) The coefficient of emission of a perfectly black body is 1. It is very good emitter of heat.
(d) A perfecrly black body does not exist in nature.
For practical purposes lamp black is treated as a perfectly black body as its coefficient of absorption
is 0.98.
Ferry's black body :
This is shown in fig. it consists of a hollow copper sphere which is blackened
inside with a small fine hole in the surface. The conical projection opposite
the hole is to avoid direct reflection from surface opposite the hole.
If the whole of the sphere (described above) is raised to a uniform very
high temperature, the radiation emerging out from the hole would contain
every possible wavelength. The hole (inside the sphere) would then appear
to be white-hot, if the hole were viewed. These radiations are known
as black body radiations.
"The glowing heart of a furnace is an ideal (black body) raditor, for it is practically a small hole surrounded
by glowing bodies all at one temperature". A hot copper sphere, or the glowing filament of an electric
lamp, are not the black body radiators, as certain wavelengths are missing from their spectra.
KIRCHHOFF'S LAW
At any given temperature and for radiations of the same wavelength the ratio of the emissive power
(e) to the absorptive power (a) is the same for all substances and is equal to the emissive power
of a perfectly black body (E).
e
 const.  E 
a
Proof :
Let us consider a body placed inside a uniformly heated enclosure maintained at temperature T. The
radiation within the enclosure will be independent of the nature of the walls of the enclosure and of
the presence of the body.
Let dQ be the quantity of radiant energy of wavelength laying between  and  + d, falling on the
body per unit area of its surface per second.
Let a be the absorptive power of the body, a is the ratio of the radiant energy absorbed by the body
to the total incident energy at the temperature T and for the wavelength .
Then the amount of radiant energy absorbed by the body per unit area per second = a dQ. The remainder
energy is reflected or transmitted = (1 – a) dQ
If e be the emissive power of the body, the amount of energy radiated per unit area per second under
the same conditions of temperature and wavelength = e d.

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 Thermal Properties of Matter
Hence the total energy given out by the body per unit area per second = (1 – a) dQ + e d.
Since the body is in temperature equilibrium with the enclosure, the radiant enery given out must be
equal to that received.
 dQ = (1 – a) dQ + e d
or a dQ = e d .......(1)
For a perfectly black body, since a = 1 and e has a maximum value, which we may denote by E,
dQ = E d .......(2)
Substituting this value of dQ in (1), we have Good Emitter Good Absorber
a E d = e d Bad Emitter Bad Absorber

e
or  E .......(3)
a

This relation (3) shows that, at any given temperature T and for radiations of the same wavelengths
, the ratio ofthe emissive power to the absorptive power of a substance is constant and equal to the
emissive power of a perfectly black body.
This is Kirchhoff's law which is here proved for bodies inside a uniform temperature enclosure. Since,
however, the emissive and absorptive powers depend only on the nature of the body and not on its
surroundings, it follows that the law is general, holding good under all conditions for pure temperature
radiation.
In the above relation, since E is a constant, if e is larger a also is large and vice versa. The shows
that good emitters are also good absorbers.

APPLICATIONS OF KIRCHHOFF'S LAW

If a body emits strongly the radiation of a particular wavelength, it must also absorb the same radiation
strongly.
(1) Let a piece of china with some dark painting on it be first heated to nerly 1300 K and then examined
in dark room. It will be observed that the dark paintings appear much brighter than the white portion.
This is because the paintings being better absorbers emit also much greater light.
(2) The silvered surface of a thermos flask does not absorb much heat from outside. This stops ice from
melting quickly. Also, the silvered surface does not radiate much heat from inside. This prevents hot
liquids from becoming cold quickly.
(3) A red glass appears red at room temperature. This is because it absorbs green light strongly. However,
if it is heated in a furnace, it glows with green light. This is because it emits green light strongly
at a higher temperature.
(4) When white light is passed through sodium vapours and the spectrum of transmitted light is seen, we
find two dark lines in the yellow region. These dark lines are due to absorption of radiation by sodium
vapours which it emits when heated.

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 Thermal Properties of Matter
STEFAN BOLTZMANN LAW OF RADIATION
A perfectly black body is the best possible emitter of radiation at a given temperature. Stefan's Law
gives the total amount of radiation emitted by a perfectly black body.
According to Stefan's law, the quantity of energy radiated in one second per unit area of a perfectly
black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
Eb  T4 or Eb =  T4
where  is a universal constant known as Stefan-Boltzmann constant and T is its temperature on absolute
scale. The measured value of  is -
 = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m² –K4 or  = 5.67 × 10–5 erg/cm²sK4.
eqn . Eb =  T 4 is called the Stefan-Boltzmann law.
Stefan has suggested this law from experimental data available on radiation and Boltzmann derived it from
thermodynamical considerations. The law is also quoted as Stefan's law and the constant  as Stefan constant.
Qb Q
Now Eb =   b  T 4
A.t A.t
Qb = total energy radiated by the surface of a black body in time t.
or Qb =  A t T4
From eqn., the emissive power E of a non-black body is given by :
E = e Eb or  E = e T4
 Total energy radiated by the surface of a body in time t
Q = e  A t T4

Page 32