Thermal Properties of Matter

Heat: The energy associated with configuration and random motion of

the atoms and molecules with in a body is called internal energy and the
part of this internal energy which is transferred from one body to the
other due to temperature difference is called heat.
 As it is a type of energy, it is a scalar.
 Dimension : [ML2 T 2 ] .

 Units : Joule (S.I.) and calorie (Practical unit)

One calorie is defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of one gm of water through 1°C (more specifically from
14.5oC to 15.5°C).

 As heat is a form of energy it can be transformed into others and

vice-versa.
For Example: Thermocouple converts heat energy into electrical
energy, resistor converts electrical energy into heat energy. Friction
converts mechanical energy into heat energy. Heat engine converts
heat energy into mechanical energy.
Here it is important that whole of mechanical energy i.e. work can
be converted into heat but whole of heat can never be converted into
work.

 When mechanical energy (work) is converted into heat, the ratio of

work done (W) to heat produced (Q) always remains the same and
constant, represented by J.
W
J or W = JQ
Q
J is called mechanical equivalent of heat and has value 4.2 J/cal. J is
not a physical quantity but a conversion factor which merely express
the equivalence between Joule and calories.
1 calorie = 4.186 Joule ≃ 4.12 Joule
 Generally, the temperature of a body rises when heat is supplied to
it. However the following two situations are also found to exist.
 When heat is supplied to a body either at its melting point or
boiling point, the temperature of the body does not change. In this
situation, heat supplied to the body is used up in changing its state.
 When the liquid in a thermos flask is vigorously shaken or gas in a
cylinder is suddenly compressed, the temperature of liquid or gas
gets raised even without supplying heat. In this situation, work
done on the system becomes a source of heat energy.
 The heat lost or gained by a system depends not only on the initial
and final states, but also on the path taken up by the process i.e.
heat is a path dependent and is taken to be positive if the system
absorbs it and negative if releases it.

 Temperature is defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a

body. The natural flow of heat is from higher temperature to
lower temperature.
Two bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium with each other,
when no heat flows from one body to the other. That is when both
the bodies are at the same temperature.
 Temperature is one of the seven fundamental quantities with
dimension [ ].
 It is a scalar physical quantity with S.I. unit kelvin.
 When heat is given to a body and its state does not change, the
temperature of the body rises and if heat is taken from a body its
temperature falls i.e. temperature can be regarded as the effect of
cause “heat”.
 Although the temperature of a body can to be raised without limit,
it cannot be lowered without limit and theoretically limiting low
temperature is taken to be zero of the kelvin scale.
 Highest possible temperature achieved in laboratory is about 108K
while lowest possible temperature attained is 10–8 K.
 Temperature of the core of the sun is 107 K while that of its surface
is 6000 K.
 Normal temperature of human body is 310.15 K (37°C = 98.6°F).
 NTP or STP implies 273.15K (0°C = 32°F)

 Scales of Temperature:
The Kelvin temperature scale is also known as thermodynamic
scale. The S.I. unit of temperature is kelvin and is defined as
(1/273.16) of the temperature of the triple point of water. The triple
point of water is that point on a P-T diagram where the three phases
of water, the solid, the liquid and the gas, can coexist in equilibrium.
In addition to kelvin temperature scale, there are other temperature
scales also like Celsius, Fahrenheit, Reaumer, Rankine etc.
To construct a scale of temperature, two fixed points are taken. First
fixed point is the freezing point of water; it is called lower fixed
point. The second fixed point is the boiling point of water; it is
called upper fixed point.

Name of Symbol for Lower fixed Upper fixed Number of

the scale each point (LFP) point (UFP) divisions on the
degree scale
Celsius °C 0°C 100°C 100
Fahrenheit °F 32°F 212°F 180
Reaumer °R 0°R 80°R 80
Rankine °Ra 460 Ra 672 Ra 212
Kelvin K 273.15 K 373.15 K 100
Temperature on one scale can be converted into other scale by using the
following identity.

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 − 𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 − 𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

C 0 F  32 K  273 .15 R 0 Ra  460

   
100 212  32 373 .15  273 .15 80  0 672  460
C F  32 K  273 R Ra  460
or    
5 9 5 4 10 .6

 Thermometry:
An instrument used to measure the temperature of a body is called a
thermometer.
The linear variation in some physical property of a substance with
change of temperature is the basic principle of thermometry and
these properties are defined as thermometric property (x) of the
substance.
x may be (i) Length of liquid in capillary
(ii) Pressure of gas at constant volume.
(iii) Volume of gas at constant pressure.
(iv) Resistance of a given platinum wire.
In old thermometry, two arbitrarily fixed points ice and steam point
(freezing point and boiling point at 1 atm) are taken to define the
temperature scale. In celsius scale freezing point of water is assumed
to be 0°C while boiling point 100°C and the temperature interval
between these is divided into 100 equal parts.
So if the thermometric property at temperature 0°C, 100°C and T c°C
is x0, x100 and x respectively then by linear variation (y = mx + c) we
can say that
 0  ax 0  b …..(i) 100  ax 100  b …..(ii)

Tc  ax  b …..(iii)
Tc  0 x  x0
From these equations 100  0

x 100  x 0
x  x0
 Tc   100 centigrade
x 100  x 0
In modern thermometry instead of two fixed points only one reference point is
chosen (triple point of water 273.16 K at which ice, water and water vapours co-
exist, the other is itself 0 K where the value of thermometric property is assumed to
be zero.
So if the value of thermometric property at 0 K, 273.16 K and TK K is 0, xTr
and x respectively then by linear variation (y = mx + c) we can say that
0  a0  b …..(i) 273 .16  a  x Tr  b …..(ii)

TK  a  x  b …..(iii)
TK x

From these equation 273 . 16 x Tr
 x 
TK  273 .16   kelvin

 x Tr 

Thermometers:
A thermometer is an instrument used to measure the temperature of a body. It
works by absorbing some heat from the body, so the temperature recorded by it is
lesser than the actual value unless the body is at constant temperature. Some
common types of thermometers are:
(1) Liquid thermometers: In liquid thermometers mercury is preferred over
other liquids as its expansion is large and uniform and it has high thermal
conductivity and low specific heat.
  Range of temperature:  50  to 350 C
(freezing point) (boiling p oint)

 Upper limit of range of mercury thermometer can be raised upto 550°C by

filling nitrogen in space over mercury under pressure (which elevates boiling
point of mercury).
 Mercury thermometer with cylindrical bulbs are more sensitive than those
with spherical bulbs.
 If alcohol is used instead of mercury then range of temperature measurement
becomes – 80°C to 350°C
l  l0
 Formula : c l  l  100 C
T 
100 0

(2) Gas thermometers : These are of two types

(i) Constant pressure gas thermometers
(a) Principle V  TK (if P = constant)
Vt  V0 V
(b) Formula : Tc   100  centigrade or TK  273 .16 kelvin
V100  V0 VTr

(ii) Constant volume gas thermometers

(a) Principle P  TK (if V = constant)
P  P0 P
(b) Formula : Tc   100 centigrade or TK  273 .16 kelvin
P100  P0 PTr
(c) Range of temperature : Hydrogen gas thermometer – 200 to 500°C
Nitrogen gas thermometer – 200 to 1600°C
Helium gas thermometer – 268 to 500°C
(d) These are more sensitive and accurate than liquid thermometers as expansion of gases is
more than that of liquids.
(3) Resistance thermometers : Resistance of metals varies with temperature
according to relation.
R  R0 (1  Tc ) where  is the temperature coefficient of resistance.
Usually platinum is used in resistance thermometers due to high melting point and
large value of .
R  R0 R
(i) Formula : Tc   100 centigrade or TK  273 .16 kelvin
R100  R0 RTr
(ii) Temperature range : Platinum resistance thermometer = – 200°C to 1200°C
Germanium resistance thermometer = 4 to 77 K
(4) Thermoelectric thermometers : These are based on “Seebeck effect” according
to which when two distinct metals are joined to form a closed circuit called
 thermocouple and the difference in temperature is maintained between their junctions,
an emf is developed. The emf is called thermo-emf and if one junction is at 0°C, it varies
with temperature as e  aTc  bTc2 where a and b are constants.
Temperature range : Copper-iron thermocouple 0°C to 260°C
Iron-constantan thermocouple 0°C to 800°C
Tungsten-molybdenum thermocouple 2000oC to 3000°C
(5) Pyrometers: These are the devices used to measure the temperature by
measuring the intensity of radiations received from the body. They are based on the fact
that the amount of radiations emitted from a body per unit area per second is directly
proportional to the fourth power of temperature (Stefan’s law).
(i) These can be used to measure temperatures ranging from 800°C to 4000°C.
(ii) They cannot measure temperature below 800°C because the amount of radiations
is too small to be measured.
(6) Vapour pressure thermometer : These are used to measure very low
temperatures. They are based on the fact that saturated vapour pressure P of a liquid
depends on the temperature according to the relation
c
log P  a  bT K 
TK
The range of these thermometers varies from 120 K to 0.71 K for different liquid
vapours.
Sample problems based on Thermometry
Q The graph AB shown in figure is a plot of temperature of a body in degree
celsius and degree Fahrenheit. Then
(a)Slope of line AB is 9/5
100° C B
(b)Slope of line AB is 5/9
Centigrade

(c)Slope of line AB is 1/9

32° F 212°F Fahrenheit
A
(d)Slope of line AB is 3/9

S C F  32
(b) Relation between Celsius and Fahrenheit scale of temperature is 
5 9
5 160
By rearranging we get, C = F
9 9
By equating above equation with standard equation of line
5 160
y  mx  c we get m  and c 
9 9
5
i.e. Slope of the line AB is .
9
Q The freezing point on a thermometer is marked as 20° and the boiling point
at as 150°. A temperature of 60°C on this thermometer will be read as
(a)40° (b) 65° (c) 98° (d) 110°

S (c)Temperature on any scale can be converted into other scale by

X  LFP
= Constant for all scales
UFP  LFP
X  20  C  0 C  130  60   130 
  o X=
 20  =  20   98 
150   20  100   0 100  100 

Q A thermometer is graduated in mm. It registers – 3mm when the bulb

of thermometer is impure melting ice and 22mm when the thermometer is
in steam at a pressure of one atm. The temperature in °C when
the thermometer registers 13mm is
13 16 13 16
(a)  100 (b)  100 (c)  100 (d)  100
25 25 22 22

S (b)For a constant volume gas thermometer temperature in °centigrade

is given as
P  P0 13  (3) 16
Tc   100 C  Tc   100 C   100
P100  P0 22  (3) 25

Q. The temperature coefficient of resistance of a wire is 0.00125 per °C. At 300K

its resistance is 1. The resistance of wire will be 2 at
(a)1154K (b) 1100K (c) 1400K (d) 1127K
S. (d) Resistance of wire varies with temperature as R = R0 (1  Tc )
where  is temperature coefficient of resistance
R 27 R 0 (1  27 ) 1
 R  R (1  T )  2 
Tc 0 c

1  54  1  54  0 . 00125
Tc = = = 854°C
 0 . 00125
 TK = (854  273 )  1127 K = 1127 K.

Thermal Expansion:
When matter is heated without any change in state, it usually
expands. According to atomic theory of matter, symmetry in
potential energy curve is responsible for thermal expansion. As with
rise in temperature the amplitude of vibration and hence energy of
atoms increases, hence the average distance between the atoms
increases. So the matter as a whole expands.

 Thermal expansion is minimum in case of solids but maximum in

case of gases because intermolecular force is maximum in solids
but minimum in gases.
 Solids can expand in one dimension (linear expansion), two
dimension (superficial expansion) and three dimension (volume
expansion) while liquids and gases usually suffers change in
volume only.
 The coefficient of linear expansion of the material of a solid is
defined as the increase in its length per unit length per unit rise in
its temperature.
L 1
 
L T
A 1
Similarly the coefficient of superficial expansion   A  T
V 1
and coefficient of volume expansion   V  T
The value of ,  and  depends upon the nature of material. All
have dimension [ 1 ] and unit per °C.
L 1 A 1 V 1
 As    ,   and   
L T A T V T
 L  LT , A  AT and V  VT
Final length L  L  L  L(1  T ) …..(i)
Final area A   A  A  A(1  T ) …..(ii)
Final volume V   V  V  V(1  T ) …..(iii)
 If L is the side of square plate and it is heated by temperature T,
then its side becomes L'.
The initial surface area A  L2 and final surface A   L  2
A  L   L(1  T ) 
2 2

      (1  T )  (1  2T )
2
A L  L 
[Using Binomial theorem]
 or A   A(1  2T )
Comparing with equation (ii) we get  = 2
Similarly for volumetric expansion
V   L   L(1   T ) 
3 3
     (1   T )3  (1  3 T )
V L  L 
[Using Binomial theorem]
or V   V(1   T )
Comparing with equation (iii), we get   3
So  :  : 1: 2 : 3
 Hence for the same rise in temperature
Percentage change in area = 2  percentage change in length.
Percentage change in volume = 3  percentage change in length.
 The three coefficients of expansion are not constant for a given
solid. Their values depend on the temperature range in which they
are measured.
 The values of , ,  are independent of the units of length, area
and volume respectively.
 For anisotropic solids    x   y   z where x, y, and z
represent the mean coefficients of linear expansion along three
mutually perpendicular directions.

Material  [K–1 or (°C)–1]  [K–1 or (°C)–1]

Steel 1.2  10–5 3.6  10–5
Copper 1.7  10–5 5.1  10–5
Brass 2.0  10–5 6.0  10–5
Aluminium 2.4  10–5 7.2  10–5
  Variation of Density with Temperature:
Most substances expand when they are heated, i.e., volume of a
given mass of a substance increases on heating, so the density
 1
should decrease  as   .
 V
m 1
 or 
V V
 V V V 1
  
  V  V  V V  VT 1  T (For a given mass)

or    1  T   (1   T )1 =  (1   T )
[As  is small  using Binomial theorem]
  '   (1   T )
Sample problems based on Thermal expansion of solid
Problem 5. The design of a physical instrument requires that there be a constant difference in
length of 10 cm between an iron rod and a copper cylinder laid side by side at all
temperatures. If  Fe  11  10 6 C 1 and cu  17  10 6 C 1 , their lengths are
(a) 28.3 cm, 18.3 cm (b) 23.8 cm, 13.8 cm (c) 23.9 cm, 13.9 cm (d) 27.5
cm, 17.5 cm
Solution : (a) Since a constant difference in length of 10 cm between an iron rod and a copper
cylinder is required therefore
L Fe  LCu  10 cm .....(i)
or L Fe  LCu  O  LFe  LCu
i.e., Linear expansion of iron rod = Linear expansion of copper cylinder
L  17 L 17
 L Fe   Fe  T  LCu   Cu  T  Fe  Cu   Fe  .....(ii)
L Cu  Fe 11 L Cu 11
From (i) and (ii) L Fe  28 .3cm, LCu  18 .3cm .
Problem 6. Two rods of length L2 and coefficient of linear expansion  2 are connected freely
to a third rod of length L1 of coefficient of linear expansion 1 to form an
isosceles triangle. The arrangement is supported on the knife edge at the midpoint
of L1 which is horizontal. The apex of the isosceles triangle is to remain at a
constant distance from the knife edge if
L1  2 L1 2 L1  L1 
(a)  (b)  (c) 2 2 (d) 2 2
L 2 1 L2 1 L2 1 L2 1
Solution : (d) The apex of the isosceles triangle to remain at a constant distance from the knife
edge DC should remains constant before and after heating.
2
L 
Before expansion : In triangle ADC (DC ) 2  L22   1  .....(i) A L1/2 D L1/2 B
 2 
2
L  L2 L2
After expansion : (DC ) 2  [L 2 (1   2 t)]2   1 (1   1 t) .....(ii)
 2 
C
 2 2
L  L 
Equating (i) and (ii) we get L22   1   [L 2 (1   2 t)] 2   1 (1   1 t)
 2  2 
L12 L2 L2
 L22   L22  L22  2 2  t  1  1  2 1  t [Neglecting higher terms]
4 4 4
L12 L 
 (2 1 t)  L22 (2 2 t)  1  2 2
4 L2 1
Problem 7. A iron rod of length 50 cm is joined at an end to an aluminium rod of length 100
cm. All measurements refer to 20°C. The coefficients of linear expansion of iron
and aluminium are 12  10 6 / C and 24  10 6 / C respectively. The average
coefficient of composite system is
(a) 36  10 6 / C (b) 12  10 6 / C (c) 20  10 6 / C (d)
48  10 6 / C
o
Solution : (c) Initially (at 20 C) length of composite system L = 50 + 100 = 150 cm
Length of iron rod at 100°C  50 [1  12  10 6  (100  20 )]  50 .048 cm
Length of aluminum rod at 100°C  100 [1  24  10 6  (100  20 )]  100 .192 cm
Finally (at 100 C) length of composite system L' = 50 .048  100 .192  150 .24 cm
o

Change in length of the composite system L = L' – L = 150.24 –150 = 0.24 cm

L 0 . 24
 Average coefficient of expansion at 100 C
o
 = =
L  T 150  (100  20 )
20  10 6 / C
Problem 8. A brass rod and lead rod each 80 cm long at 0°C are clamped together at one end
with their free ends coinciding. The separation of free ends of the rods if the
system is placed in a steam bath is (brass  18  10 6 / C and lead  28  10 6 / C)
(a) 0.2 mm (b) 0.8 mm (c) 1.4 mm (d) 1.6 mm
Solution : (b) The Brass rod and the lead rod will suffer expansion when placed in steam bath.
 Length of brass rod at 100°C L'brass  Lbrass (1   brass T ) = 80[1  18  10 6  100 ]
and the length of lead rod at 100° C L'lead  Llead (1   lead T ) =
6
80[1  28  10  100 ]
Separation of free ends of the rods after heating = L'lead  L'brass = 80[28  18 ]  10 4
 8  10 2 cm  0.8mm
Problem 9. The coefficient of apparent expansion of a liquid in a copper vessel is C and in a
silver vessel S. The coefficient of volume expansion of copper is  C . What is the
coefficient of linear expansion of silver
(a) (C   C  S ) / 3 (b) (C   C  S ) / 3 (c) (C   C  S ) / 3 (d)
(C   C  S ) / 3
Solution : (c) Apparent coefficient of volume expansion for liquid  app   L   s 
 L   app   s
where s is coefficient of volume expansion for solid vessel.
When liquid is placed in copper vessel then L = C + copper ....(i)
[As app. for liquid in copper vessel = C]
When liquid is placed in silver vessel then L = S + silver ....(ii)
[As app. for liquid in silver vessel = S]
From equation (i) and (ii) we get C + copper = S + silver
  silver  C   copper  S
 Coefficient of volume expansion = 3 × Coefficient of linear expansion
 C   copper  S
  silver  silver 
3 3
Problem 10. A uniform solid brass sphere is rotating with angular speed  0 about a diameter. If
its temperature is now increased by 100°C. What will be its new angular speed.
(Given  B  2.0  10 5 per C )
(a) 1.1 0 (b) 1.01 0 (c) 0.996 0 (d)
0.824  0
Solution : (c) Due to increase in temperature, radius of the sphere changes.
Let R0 and R100 are radius of sphere at 0 C and 100 C R100  R 0 [1    100 ]
o o

2
Squaring both the sides and neglecting higher terms R100  R 02 [1  2  100 ]
By the law of conservation of angular momentum I11  I 2 2
2 2
 MR 02  1  MR 100
2
2  R 021  R 02 [1  2  2  10 5  100 ] 2
5 5
1 0
 2  3
  0 .996  0
[1  4  10 ] 1 .004

 Expansion of Liquid:
Liquids also expand on heating just like solids. Since liquids have
no shape of their own, they suffer only volume expansion. If the
liquid of volume V is heated and its temperature is raised by 
then
VL'  V(1   L  )
[L = coefficient of real expansion or coefficient of volume
expansion of liquid]
As liquid is always taken in a vessel for heating so if a liquid is heated,
the vessel also gets heated and it also expands.
VS'  V(1   S  )
[S = coefficient of volume expansion for solid vessel]
So the change in volume of liquid relative to vessel.
VL'  VS'  V[ L   S ] 
Vapp  V  app 

[  app   L   S  Apparent coefficient of volume expansion for

liquid]
 L S  app  0 Vapp  positive Level of liquid in vessel will rise on heating.

L S  app  0 Vapp  negative Level of liquid in vessel will fall on heating.

L S  app  0 Vapp  0 level of liquid in vessel will remain same.

 Effect of Temperature on Upthrust:

The thrust on V volume of a body in a liquid of density  is given by
Th  Vg
Now with rise in temperature by  C°, due to expansion, volume of
the body will increase while density of liquid will decrease
according to the relations V   V(1   S  ) and     /(1   L  )
So the thrust will become Th  V  g

T h  V  g (1   S  )
  
Th Vg (1   L  )
and apparent weight of the body Wapp = Actual weight – Thrust
As  S   L  Th  Th with rise in temperature thrust also decreases
and apparent weight of body increases.

 Anomalous Expansion of Water:

 Generally matter expands on heating and contracts on cooling. In case of
water, it expands on heating if its temperature is greater than 4°C. In the
range 0°C to 4°C, water contracts on heating and expands on cooling, i.e. 
is negative. This behaviour of water in the range from 0°C to 4°C is called
anomalous expansion.
 The anomalous behaviour of water arises due to the fact that water has three
types of molecules, viz., H 2 O, (H 2 O)2 and (H 2 O)3 having different volume per
unit mass and at different temperatures their properties in water are different.
 At 4°C, density of water is maximum while its specific volume is minimum.
During winter when the water at the surface of a lake cools below 4°C by
cool air, it expands and becomes lighter than water below. Therefore the
water cooled below 4°C stays on the surface and freezes when the
temperature of surroundings falls below 0°C. Thus the lake freezes first at
 the surface and water in contact with ice has temperature 0°C while at the
bottom of the lake 4°C [as density of water at 4°C is maximum] and fish and
other aquatic animals remain alive in this water.

max
min

Anomalous
behaviour

Anomalous
behaviour
vol/mas

Density
s
0°C 4°C Temperatur 0°C 4°C Temperatur
e e

Sample problems based on Thermal expansion of liquid

Problem 11. A glass flask of volume one litre at 0°C is filled, level full of mercury at this
temperature. The flask and mercury are now heated to 100° C. How much mercury
will spill out, if coefficient of volume expansion of mercury is 1.82  10 4 / C and
linear expansion of glass is 0.1  10 4 / C respectively [MNR
1994; CEEE 1994]
(a) 21.2 cc (b) 15.2 cc (c) 1.52 cc (d) 2.12 cc
Solution : (c) Due to volume expansion of both liquid and vessel, the change in volume of liquid
relative to container is given by V = V[ L   S ]
Given V = 1000 cc, g =
–4
0.1×10 /°C 
 g  3 g  3  0.1  10 4 / C  0.3  10 4 / C
 V = 1000 [1.82 × 10
–4 –4
– 0.3 × 10 ] × 100 = 15.2 cc
Problem 12. Liquid is filled in a flask up to a certain point. When the flask is heated, the level of
the liquid
(a) Immediately starts increasing (b) Initially falls and then rises
(c) Rises abruptly (d) Falls abruptly
Solution : (b) Since both the liquid and the flask undergoes volume expansion and the flask
expands first therefore the level of the liquid initially falls and then rises.
Problem 13. The absolute coefficient of expansion of a liquid is 7 times that the volume
coefficient of expansion of the vessel. Then the ratio of absolute and apparent
expansion of the liquid is
1 7 6
(a) (b) (c) (d) None
7 6 7
of these
Solution : (b) Apparent coefficient of Volume expansion app. = L – s = 7 s – s = 6s (given
L = 7 s )
L 7 7
Ratio of absolute and apparent expansion of liquid  s  .
 app . 6 s 6
Problem 14. In cold countries, water pipes sometimes burst, because
(a) Pipe contracts (b) Water expands on freezing
(c) When water freezes, pressure increases (d) When water freezes, it takes
heat from pipes
Solution : (b) In anomalous expansion, water contracts on heating and expands on cooling in the
range 0°C to 4°C. Therefore water pipes sometimes burst, in cold countries.
Problem 15. A solid whose volume does not change with temperature floats in a liquid. For two
different temperatures t 1 and t 2 of the liquid, fractions f1 and f2 of the volume of
the solid remain submerged in the liquid. The coefficient of volume expansion of
the liquid is equal to
f1  f2 f1  f2 f1  f2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
f2 t1  f1 t2 f1 t1  f2 t2 f2 t1  f1t 2
f1  f2
f1 t1  f2 t 2
Solution : (a) As with the rise in temperature, the liquid undergoes volume expansion therefore
the fraction of solid submerged in liquid increases.
Fraction of solid submerged at t1 C  f1 = Volume of displaced liquid  V0 (1   t1 )
.....(i)
and fraction of solid submerged at t 2 C  f2 = Volume of displaced liquid
 V0 (1   t 2 ) .....(ii)

f1 1  t1 f f
From (i) and (ii)     1 2
f2 1  t 2 f2 t1  f1 t 2

Expansion of Gases:

Gases have no definite shape, therefore gases have only volume expansion.
Since the expansion of container is negligible in comparison to the gases,
therefore gases have only real expansion.
Coefficient of volume expansion: At constant pressure, the unit volume of
a given mass of a gas, increases with 1°C rise of temperature, is called
coefficient of volume expansion.
V 1
   Final volume V   V (1  T )
V T
P 1
Coefficient of pressure expansion :   
P T
 Final pressure P   P(1  T )
For an ideal gas, coefficient of volume expansion is equal to the coefficient
of pressure expansion.
1
i.e.   C 1
273

Application of Thermal Expansion:

 Bi-metallic strip : Two strips of equal lengths but of different materials
(different coefficient of linear expansion) when join together, it is called “bi-
metallic strip”, and can be used in thermostat to break or make electrical
contact. This strip has the characteristic property of bending on heating due
 to unequal linear expansion of the two metal. The strip will bend with metal
of greater  on outer side i.e. convex side.

Steel Bras Bimetalli

s c strip

Room
temperature Higher High Room
temperature temperature temperature

 Effect of temperature on the time period of a simple pendulum : A

pendulum clock keeps proper time at temperature . If temperature is
increased to  (  ) then due to linear expansion, length of pendulum and
hence its time period will increase.

T  2
L T L L(1    )
Time period     (1    )
g T L L

 1  1 T  T 1
T   T  1      T    T or   
 2  2 T 2
T 1
   
T 2
 Due to increment in its time period, a pendulum clock becomes slow in
summer and will lose time.
1
Loss of time in a time period T    T
2
1
 Loss of time in any given time interval t can be given by  t    t .
2
 The clock will lose time i.e. will become slow if     (in summer)
and will gain time i.e. will become fast if     (in winter).
 The gain or loss in time is independent of time period T and depends on the
time interval t.
 Time lost by the clock in a day (t = 86400 sec)
1 1
t    t    (86400 )  43200   sec
2 2
 Since coefficient of linear expansion () is very small for invar, hence
pendulums are made of invar to show the correct time in all seasons.

 Thermal stress in a rigidly fixed rod: When a rod whose ends are rigidly
fixed such as to prevent expansion or contraction, undergoes a change in
 temperature, due to thermal expansion or contraction, a compressive or
tensile stress is developed in it. Due to this thermal stress the rod will exert a
large force on the supports. If the change in temperature of a rod of length L
is  then
L  L 1 
Thermal strain     As   L   
L  
 stress 
So Thermal stress  Y   As Y  strain 
 
or Force on the supports F  YA  

 Error in scale reading due to expansion or contraction : If a scale gives

correct reading at temperature , at temperature  (  ) due to linear
expansion of scale, the scale will expand and scale reading will be lesser
than true value so that,
True value = Scale reading [1   (    )]
i.e. TV  SR [1    ] with   (    )
However, if     , due to contractions of scale, scale reading will be more
than true value, so true value will be lesser than scale reading and will still
be given by equation with   (    ) negative.

0 a 0 SR a 0 a SR

at  at  >  at  < 
TV = SR TV > SR TV < SR

 Expansion of Cavity: Thermal expansion of an isotropic object may be

imagined as a photographic enlargement. So if there is a hole A in a plate C
(or cavity A inside a body C), the area of hole (or volume of cavity) will
increase when body expands on heating, just as if the hole (or cavity) were
solid B of the same material. Also the expansion of area (or volume) of the
body C will be independent of shape and size of hole (or cavity), i.e., will be
equal to that of D.

a A r r a D
B

C
b b
Expansion of A = Expansion of B Expansion of C = Expansion of D
 A solid and hollow sphere of same radius and material, heated to the same
temperature then expansion of both will be equal because thermal expansion
of isotropic solids is similar to true photographic enlargement. It means the
expansion of cavity is same as if it has been a solid body of the same
material. But if same heat is given to the two spheres, due to lesser mass,
  a 
rise in temperature of hollow sphere will be more  As     . Hence its
  mc 
expansion will be more.

 Practical application:
 When rails are laid down on the ground, space is left between the ends of
two rails.
 The transmission cable are not tightly fixed to the poles.
 Pendulum of wall clock and balance wheel of wrist watch are made of invar
(an alloy which have very low value of coefficient of expansion).
 Test tubes, beakers and crucibles are made of pyrex-glass or silica because
they have very low value of coefficient of linear expansion.
 The iron rim to be put on a cart wheel is always of slightly smaller diameter
than that of wheel.
 A glass stopper jammed in the neck of a glass bottle can be taken out by
warming the neck of the bottle.
Sample problems based on Application of thermal expansion
Problem 16. A bimetallic strip is formed out of two identical strips, one of copper and other of
brass. The coefficients of linear expansion of the two metals are  C and  B . On
heating, the temperature of the strip goes up by T and the strip bends to form an
arc of radius of curvature R. Then R is [IIT-JEE (Screening) 1999]
(a) Proportional to T (b) Inversely proportional to T
(c) Proportional to |  B  C | (d) Inversely
proportional to |  B  C |
Solution : (b, d)On heating, the strip undergoes linear expansion
So after expansion length of brass strip L B  L0 (1   B T ) and length of copper
strip LC  L0 (1   C T )
From the figure L B  (R  d ) ......(i) d

and L c  R ......(ii) R

 [As angle = Arc/Radius]
Rd L 1   B T
Dividing (i) by (ii)  B 
R LC 1   C T

d
 1  (1   B T )(1   C T ) 1 = (1   B T )(1   C T ) = 1  ( B   C )T
R
d d
  ( B   C ) T or R  [Using Binomial theorem and
R ( B   C )T
neglecting higher terms]
1 1
So we can say R  and R 
( B   C ) T
Problem 17. Two metal strips that constitute a thermostat must necessarily differ in their
(a) Mass (b) Length
(c) Resistivity (d) Coefficient of linear
expansion
Solution : (d) Thermostat is used in electric apparatus like refrigerator, Iron etc for automatic cut
off. Therefore for metallic strips to bend on heating their coefficient of linear
expansion should be different.
Problem 18. A cylindrical metal rod of length L0 is shaped into a ring with a small gap as
shown. On heating the system X

(a) x decreases, r and d increase

r
(b) x and r increase, d decreases
(c) x, r and d all increase
d
(d) Data insufficient to arrive at a conclusion
Solution : (c) On heating the system; x, r, d all increases, since the expansion of isotropic solids is
similar to true photographic enlargement
Problem 19. Two holes of unequal diameters d1 and d 2 (d1  d 2 ) are cut in a metal sheet. If the
sheet is heated
d2
(a) Both d1 and d 2 will decrease
(b) Both d1 and d 2 will increase d1

(c) d1 will increase, d 2 will decrease

(d) d1 will decrease, d 2 will increase
Solution : (b) If the sheet is heated then both d1 and d2 will increase since the thermal expansion
of isotropic solid is similar to true photographic enlargement.
Problem 20. An iron tyre is to be fitted onto a wooden wheel 1.0 m in diameter. The diameter of
the tyre is 6 mm smaller than that of wheel. The tyre should be heated so that its
temperature increases by a minimum of
(Coefficient of volume expansion of iron is 3.6  10 5 / C )
(a) 167°C (b) 334°C (c) 500°C (d) 1000°C
Solution : (c) Initial diameter of tyre = (1000 – 6) mm = 994 mm, so initial radius of tyre
994
R  497 mm
2
6
and change in diameter D = 6 mm so R   3 mm
2
After increasing temperature by T tyre will fit onto wheel
Increment in the length (circumference) of the iron tyre
  
L = L    T  L   T [As   ]
3 3
  3 R 3 3
 2 R  2 R   T  T   [As R = 3 mm and
3  R 3 .6  10 5  497
R = 497 mm]
 T  500 o C
Problem 21. A clock with a metal pendulum beating seconds keeps correct time at 0°C. If it
loses 12.5 seconds a day at 25° C, the coefficient of linear expansion of metal of
pendulum is
1 1 1
(a) per o C (b) per C (c) per C (d)
86400 43200 14400
1
per C
28800
Solution : (a) Loss of time due to heating a pendulum is given as
1 1 1
T = T  12.5 =    (25  0)C  86400    per C
2 2 86400
Problem 22. A wire of length L 0 is supplied heat to raise its temperature by T. If  is the
coefficient of volume expansion of the wire and Y is the Young’s modulus of the
wire then the energy density stored in the wire is
1 2 2 1 2 2 3 1  2T 2
(a)  T Y (b)  T Y (c) (d)
2 3 18 Y
1 2 2
 T Y
18
Solution : (d) Due to heating the length of the wire increases.  Longitudinal strain is produced
L
    T
L
1 1
Elastic potential energy per unit volume E =  Stress  Strain =  Y  (Strain ) 2
2 2
2
1  L  1
 Y     Y    T
2 2
E=
2  L  2
2
1   1 2
or E=  Y     T2 =  YT 2
[As   3 and T = T (given)]
2 3 18
Problem 23. Span of a bridge is 2.4 km. At 30°C a cable along the span sags by 0.5 km. Taking
  12  10 6 per o C , change in length of cable for a change in temperature from
10°C to 42°C is
1200 m O
P Q
P O Q
(a) 9.9 m 500
m
(b) 0.099 m
(c) 0.99 m R
(d) 0.4 km
Solution : (c) Span of bridge = 2400 m and Bridge sags by 500 m at 30° (given)

From the figure LPRQ = 2 1200 2  500 2  2600 m

But L  L0 (1   t) [Due to linear expansion]

 2600  L0 (1  12  10 6  30 )  Length of the cable L0  2599 m

o o
Now change in length of cable due to change in temperature from 10 C to 42 C
 L  2599  12  10 6  (42  10 ) = 0.99m

Thermal Capacity and Water Equivalent:

 Thermal capacity: It is defined as the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of the whole body (mass m) through 0°C or
1K.
Q
Thermal capacity  mc  C 
T
The value of thermal capacity of a body depends upon the nature
of the body and its mass.
Dimension : [ML2 T 2 1 ] , Unit : cal/°C (practical) Joule/k (S.I.)

 Water Equivalent : Water equivalent of a body is defined as the

mass of water which would absorb or evolve the same amount of
heat as is done by the body in rising or falling through the same
range of temperature. It is represented by W.
If m = Mass of the body, c = Specific heat of body,
T = Rise in temperature.
Then heat given to body Q  mc T ….. (i)
If same amount of heat is given to W gm of water and its
temperature also rises by T
Then heat given to water Q  W  1  T [As c water  1 ] ….. (ii)
From equation (i) and (ii) Q  mc T  W  1  T
 Water equivalent (W) = mc gm
 Unit : Kg (S.I.)
0 0
 Dimension : [ML T ]
 Unit of thermal capacity is J/kg while unit of water equivalent
is kg.
 Thermal capacity of the body and its water equivalent are
numerically equal.
 If thermal capacity of a body is expressed in terms of mass of
water it is called water-equivalent of the body.
 Specific Heat:
 Gram specific heat: When heat is given to a body and its
temperature increases, the heat required to raise the temperature of
unit mass of a body through 1°C (or K) is called specific heat of
the material of the body.
If Q heat changes the temperature of mass m by T
Q
Specific heat c .
m T

Units : Calorie/gm  °C (practical), J/kg  K (S.I.)

Dimension : [L2 T 2 1 ]

 Molar specific heat: Molar specific heat of a substance is defined

as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram
mole of the substance through a unit degree it is represented by
(capital) C.
By definition, one mole of any substance is a quantity of the
substance, whose mass M grams is numerically equal to the
molecular mass M.
 Molar specific heat  M  Gram specific heat
or C  Mc
Q 1 Q
CM 
m T  T
 Q m
 As c  m T and   M 
 
Q
 C
T
Units : calorie/mole  °C (practical); J/mole  kelvin (S.I.)
Dimension : [ML2 T 2 1  1 ]
 Important points:
 Specific heat for hydrogen is maximum 3.5 cal / gm o C  and for
water, it is 1cal / gm  C .
For all other substances, the specific heat is less than 1cal / gm  C
and it is minimum for radon and actinium ~ 0.022 cal / gm  C  .
 Specific heat of a substance also depends on the state of the
substance i.e. solid, liquid or gas.
For example, c ice  0.5 cal / gm  C (Solid), c water  1 cal / gm  C
(Liquid) and c steam  0.47 cal / gm  C (Gas)

 The specific heat of a substance when it melts or boils at constant

temperature is infinite.
Q Q
As C   [As T = 0]
m T m  0
 The specific heat of a substance when it undergoes adiabatic
changes is zero.
Q 0
As C  0 [As Q = 0]
m T m T
 Specific heat of a substance can also be negative. Negative specific
heat means that in order to raise the temperature, a certain quantity
of heat is to be withdrawn from the body.
Example. Specific heat of saturated vapours.

Specific Heat of Solids:

When a solid is heated through a small range of temperature, its volume
remains more or less constant. Therefore specific heat of a solid may be
called its specific heat at constant volume Cv.
From the graph it is clear that at T = 0, Cv tends to zero Y 3R

With rise in temperature, C v increases and becomes Cv

constant = 3R
= 6 cal/mole  kelvin = 25 J/mole  kelvin T Debye X
temp.
at some particular temperature (Debye Temperature)
For most of the solids, Debye temperature is close to room temperature.
Specific Heat of Water:
The variation of specific heat with temperature for water is shown in the figure.
Usually this temperature dependence of specific heat is neglected.

Sp. heat cal/g

1.00
89
1.00

C°
4
1.00
0
0.99
6 20 40 60 80 100
Temp. in
°C
From the graph :
Temperature (°C) 0 15 35 50 100
Specific heat (cal/ gm  °C) 1.008 1.000 0.997 0.998 1.006

As specific heat of water is very large; by absorbing or releasing large amount

of heat its temperature changes by small amount. This is why, it is used in hot
water bottles or as coolant in radiators.
Note :  When specific heats are measured, the values obtained are also
found to depend on the conditions of the experiment. In general
measurements made at constant pressure are different from those at
constant volume. For solids and liquids this difference is very small
and usually neglected. The specific heat of gases are quite different
under constant pressure condition (cP) and constant volume (cV). In
the chapter “Kinetic theory of gases” we have discussed this topic in
detail.
Sample problems based on Specific heat, thermal capacity and water equivalent
Problem 24. Two spheres made of same substance have diameters in the ratio 1 : 2. Their
thermal capacities are in the ratio of
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 1 : 8 (c) 1 : 4 (d) 2 : 1
Solution : (b) Thermal capacity = Mass × Specific heat
Due to same material both spheres will have same specific heat
4 3
r1 r 
3 3
m V 1
 Ratio of thermal capacity  1  1  3   1      1 : 8
m 2 V2  4 3  r2  2
r2
3
Problem 25. When 300 J of heat is added to 25 gm of sample of a material its temperature rises
from 25°C to 45°C. the thermal capacity of the sample and specific heat of the
material are respectively given by
o
(a) 15 J/°C, 600 J/kg °C (b) 600 J/°C, 15 J°/kg C
(c) 150 J/°C, 60 J/kg °C (d) None of these
Q 300 300
Solution : (a) Thermal capacity = mc =    15 J / C
T 45  25 20
Thermal capacity 15
Specific heat = =  600 J / kg C
Mass 25  10  3
Problem 26. The specific heat of a substance varies with temperature t(°C) as
c  0.20  0.14 t  0.023 t 2 (cal/gm C)
The heat required to raise the temperature of 2 gm of substance from 5°C to 15°C
will be
(a) 24 calorie (b) 56 calorie (c) 82 calorie (d) 100
calorie
Solution : (c) Heat required to raise the temperature of m gm of substance by dT is given as
dQ = mc dT  Q  mc dT 
 To raise the temperature of 2 gm of substance from 5°C to 15°C is
15 15
 0 .14 t 2 0 .023 t 3 
Q  2  (0 .2  0 .14 t  0 .023 t )dT  2  0 .2 t  
2
 = 82 calorie
5
 2 3  5