Electrical Engineering

ENGR 3400 Fundamental

of Electrical Engineering

Instructors: Dr. Hosam

Department of Electrical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
9/5/2023
3rd Trimester, 2023
 Welcome to ENGR 3400:
• Email: hsalharbi@iu.edu.sa & arshadkv@iu.edu.sa

• Classes: Monday, 4 to 5:50 pm and Wednesday, 4 to 5:50 pm –

Section 1

• Classes: Sunday, 8 to 10 am and Tuesday 8 to 10am-Section 2

• Text book: Electrical Engineering Principles and

Applications by Allan R. Hambley.
 Chapter-2
Resistive Circuits
■■ Solve circuits (i.e., find currents and voltages of
interest) by combining resistances in series and
parallel.
■■ Apply the voltage-division and current-division
principles.
■■ Solve circuits by the node-voltage technique.
■■ Solve circuits by the mesh-current technique.
■■ Find Thévenin and Norton equivalents and apply
source transformations.
■■ Understand and apply the superposition principle.
■■ Draw the circuit diagram and state the principles of
operation for the Wheatstone bridge.
 Resistances in Series
• Using KVL, we can write the equation for Figure 2.1
v = v1 + v2 + v3
v = R1i + R2i + R3i
• Factoring out the current i, we have
v = (R1 + R2 + R3)i
• Now, we define the equivalent resistance Req to be the sum
of the resistances in series: Req = R1 + R2 + R3
v = (Req)*i

Figure 2.1 Series resistances can be combined

 Resistances in Parallel
• Using KCL, we can write the equation for Figure 2.2
i = i1 + i2 + i3
i =v/R1+v/R2+v/R3
• Factoring out the voltage, we obtain i = (1/R1+1/R2+1/R3) v
• Now, we define the equivalent resistance as

Figure 2.2 Parallel resistances can be combined into an

equivalent resistance.
 Resistances in Parallel
• Similarly, for two resistances, we have

This can be put into the form

The product over the sum does not apply for

more than two resistances.
 Combining Resistances in
Series and Parallel
• Find a single equivalent resistance for the network shown
in Figure 2.3(a).

1. Find a series or parallel

combination of resistances.
2. Combine them.
3. Repeat until the network
is reduced to a single
resistance (if possible).

Figure 2.3 Resistive network

 Combining Resistances in
Series and Parallel
• Find the equivalent resistance for each of the networks
shown in Figure 2.4. [Hint for part (b): R3 and R4 are in
parallel.]
Answer a. 3Ω b. 5Ω c. 52.1Ω d. 1.5Ω
 Conductances in Series
and Parallel
• Using this fact to change resistances to conductance's for a
series combination of n elements, we readily obtain

For two conductances in series, we have:

For n conductances in parallel, we can show that

 Series versus Parallel
Circuits
• When we want to distribute power from a single voltage source
to various loads, we usually place the loads in parallel.

• An element such as a toaster or light bulb that absorbs power

is called a load. When we want to distribute power from a
single voltage source to various loads, we usually place the
loads in parallel. A switch in series with each load can break
the flow of current to that load without affecting the voltage
supplied to the other loads
Network Analysis by Using
Series and Parallel
Equivalents
• An electrical network consists of circuit elements such as
resistances, voltage sources, and current sources, connected
together to form closed paths.
• Network analysis is the process of determining →the current,
voltage, and power for each element
 Circuit Analysis Using
Series/Parallel Equivalents
• Steps in solving circuits using series/parallel equivalents:
1. Begin by locating a combination of resistances that are in series
or parallel. Often the place to start is farthest from the source.
2. Redraw the circuit with the equivalent resistance for the
combination found in step 1.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 until the circuit is reduced as far as possible.
Often (but not always) we end up with a single source and a single
resistance.
4. Solve for the currents and voltages in the final equivalent
circuit. Then, transfer results back one step and solve for additional
unknown currents and voltages. Again transfer the results back one
step and solve. Repeat until all of the currents and voltages are
known in the original circuit.
5. Check your results to make sure that KCL is satisfied at each
node, KVL is satisfied for each loop , and the powers add to zero.
 Example

• Find the current, voltage, and power for each element of the
circuit shown in Figure 2.5(a).
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
 Voltage-Divider Circuit

• When a voltage is applied to a series combination of resistances,

a fraction of the voltage appears across each of the resistances.

• Where the summation of the voltage across the resistance equals

to the voltage source.
Voltage-Divider Circuit
Example
 Current-Divider Circuit
The total current flowing into a parallel combination of
resistances divides, and a fraction of the total current
flows through each resistance
 Current-Divider Circuit
The total current flowing into a parallel combination of
resistances divides, and a fraction of the total current
flows through each resistance
Current-Divider Circuit
 Example
Use the voltage-division principle to find the voltage vx
in Figure 2.11(a). Then find the source current is and use
the current-division principle to compute the current i3.
Example
 Example

Now, we can apply the voltage-division principle to

find vx.
 Example

Now, we can use the current-division principle to

find i3.
 Example

As a check, we can also compute i3 another way

 Example
Use the current-division principle to find the
current i1
Node-Voltage Analysis
 Node-Voltage Analysis
The network analysis methods that we have studied
so far are useful, but they do not apply to all
networks. For example, consider the circuit shown.
We cannot solve this circuit by combining
resistances in series and parallel because no series or
parallel combination of resistances exists in the
circuit. Furthermore, the voltage-division and
current-division principles cannot be applied to this
circuit
 Node-Voltage Analysis

Steps:

1. Selecting the reference Node.

2. Assigning Node Voltages.
3. Finding Element Voltages in Terms
of the Node Voltages.
4. Write equations that can be solved
for the node voltages
Node-Voltage Analysis
 Example
Write equations that can be solved for the node
voltages v1, v2, and v3
Example
 Example
Use KCL to write equations at each node
 Example
Write the node-voltage equations in matrix form for
the circuit
Example
 Example
Solve for the node voltages and determine the value of
the current ix.
Example
 Example
Write the equations for the network and put them into
standard form.
Example
Example

v1 = 10.32 V
v2 = 6.129 V.
 Example
Solve for the node voltages v1 and v2 in the circuit

v1 = 6.77 V
v2 = 4.19 V
 Supernode
Another way to obtain a current equation is to form a
supernode. This is done by drawing a dashed line
around several nodes, including the elements connected
between them.
 Supernode

Thus, by enclosing the 10-V source within the

supernode, we have obtained a current equation
without introducing a new variable for the current in
the source.
 Node-Voltage Analysis
with a Dependent Source
 Node-Voltage Analysis
with a Dependent Source
 Example
Write an independent set of equations for the node
voltages
Step-by-Step Node-Voltage
Analysis
1. First, combine any series resistances to
reduce the number of nodes. Then, select a
reference node and assign variables for the
unknown node voltages. If the reference
node is chosen at one end of an independent
voltage source, one node voltage is known at
the start, and fewer need to be computed.
Step-by-Step Node-Voltage
Analysis
2. Write network equations. First, use KCL
to write current equations for nodes and
supernodes. Write as many current equations
as you can without using all of the nodes,
including those within supernodes. Then if
you do not have enough equations because
of voltage sources connected between nodes,
use KVL to write additional equations.
Step-by-Step Node-Voltage
Analysis
3. If the circuit contains dependent sources,
find expressions for the controlling variables
in terms of the node voltages. Substitute into
the network equations, and obtain equations
having only the node voltages as unknowns.
Step-by-Step Node-Voltage
Analysis
4. Put the equations into standard form and
solve for the node voltages.

5. Use the values found for the node voltages

to calculate any other currents or voltages of
interest.
 Example
Use node voltages to solve for the value of ix in the
circuit
Example
Example
 Example
Use the node-voltage technique to solve for the
values of ix and iy

ix = 0.5 A, iy = 2.31 A.
Mesh-Current Analysis
Mesh-Current Analysis
 Example
Write the equations needed to solve for the mesh
currents
Example
Mesh Currents in Circuits
Containing Current
Sources
Example
 Example
Write the equations needed to solve for the mesh
currents
 Example
Write the equations needed to solve for the mesh
currents. Then solve for the currents.
 Mesh-Current Analysis
with Controlled Sources
Solve for the currents in the circuit
Mesh-Current Analysis
 Step-by-Step Mesh-
Current Analysis
1. If necessary, redraw the network without
crossing conductors or elements. Consider
combining resistances in parallel to reduce
circuit complexity. Then, define the mesh
currents flowing around each of the open
areas defined by the network. For
consistency, we usually select a clockwise
direction for each of the mesh currents, but
this is not a requirement.
 Step-by-Step Mesh-
Current Analysis
2. Write network equations, stopping after
the number of equations is equal to the
number of mesh currents. First, use KVL to
write voltage equations for meshes that do
not contain current sources. Next, if any
current sources are present, write
expressions for their currents in terms of
the mesh currents. Finally, if a current
source is common to two meshes, write a
KVL equation for the supermesh.
 Step-by-Step Mesh-
Current Analysis
3. If the circuit contains dependent sources,
find expressions for the controlling
variables in terms of the mesh currents.
Substitute into the network equations, and
obtain equations having only the mesh
currents as unknowns.
 Step-by-Step Mesh-
Current Analysis
4. Put the equations into standard form.
Solve for the mesh currents by use of
determinants or other means.

5. Use the values found for the mesh

currents to calculate any other currents or
voltages of interest.
 Example
Use mesh currents to solve for the value of vx in the
circuit
Mesh-Current Analysis
Mesh-Current Analysis
 Thévenin and Norton
Equivalent Circuits
In this section, we learn how to replace two-terminal
circuits containing resistances and sources by simple
equivalent circuits.
 Thévenin Equivalent
Circuits
One type of equivalent circuit is the Thévenin
equivalent, which consists of an independent voltage
source in series with a resistance.

The Thévenin equivalent circuit consists of an

independent voltage source in series with a
resistance.
Thévenin Equivalent
Circuits
 Example
Find the Thévenin equivalent for the circuit
Example
 Finding the Thévenin
Resistance Directly
First, we zero the sources in the network. In zeroing a
voltage source, we reduce its voltage to zero. A voltage
source with zero voltage is equivalent to a short circuit.

In zeroing a current source, we reduce its current to zero.

By definition, an element that always carries zero current
is an open circuit. Thus, to zero the independent sources,
we replace voltage sources with short circuits and
replace current sources with open circuits.
 Example
Find the Thévenin resistance for the circuit by zeroing
the sources. Then, find the short-circuit current and the
Thévenin equivalent circuit.
Example
Thévenin Equivalent
Circuits
 Thévenin Equivalent
Circuits with Dependent
Source
Find the Thévenin equivalent for the circuit
 Thévenin Equivalent
Circuits with Dependent
Source
 Thévenin Equivalent
Circuits with Dependent
Source
 Norton Equivalent
Circuits
Another type of equivalent, known as the Norton
equivalent circuit, is shown in the Figure. It consists of
an independent current source I in parallel with the
n

Thévenin resistance.

The resistance in the Norton equivalent is the same as

the Thévenin resistance
 Step-by-Step
Thévenin/Norton-
Equivalent-Circuit Analysis
1. Perform two of these:
a. Determine the open-circuit voltage Vt = voc.
b. Determine the short-circuit current In = isc.
c. Zero the independent sources and find the Thévenin
resistance Rt looking back into the terminals. Do not
zero dependent sources.
2. Use the equation Vt = RtIn to compute the remaining value.
3. The Thévenin equivalent consists of a voltage source Vt in
series with Rt.
4. The Norton equivalent consists of a current source In in
parallel with Rt.
 Example
Find the Norton equivalent for the circuit
Example
Example
 Source Transformations
We can replace a voltage source in series with a
resistance by a Norton equivalent circuit, which
consists of a current source in parallel with the
resistance. This is called a source transformation

the two circuits are identical in terms of their external

behavior. In other words, the voltages and currents at
terminals a and b remain the same after the
transformation is made.
 Example
Use source transformations to aid in solving for the
currents i1 and i2
 Example
Use source transformations to aid in solving for the
currents i1 and i2
Example
 Superposition Principle
Use superposition in solving the circuit
Superposition Principle
Superposition Principle
Superposition Principle