Unit-1 - Electric Circuits

Introduction to basic terminologies in DC circuit,

Kirchhoff’s Current law, Kirchhoff’s Voltage law, Mesh
Current Analysis, Nodal Voltage Analysis, Thevenin’s
Theorem, Maximum power transfer Theorem,
Superposition Theorem.
Basic terminologies of AC - RMS and Average value of
halfwave and Full wave alternating quantity,
Fundamentals of single-phase AC circuits- Analysis of R-
L, R-C, R-L-C series circuits- Fundamentals of three
phase AC system, Three-Phase Winding Connections,
Relationship of Line and Phase Voltages, and Currents in
a Delta and Star-connected System.
 Basic circuit elements and sources
The three basic circuit components are
Resistor
It is the property of a substance due to which it opposes the flow
of electricity through it. It is denoted by R and its unit is ohms (Ω).

Capacitor
It is a storage element which can store and deliver energy in
electrical field. It is denoted by C and its unit is Farad (F).

Inductor
Inductor is the element in which energy is stored in the form of
electromagnetic field. It is denoted by L and it is measured in
Henry (H).
 Basic circuit elements and sources
Electric current
The continuous flow of electrons constitutes electric current (or)
It is the rate of flow of charge. It is denoted by ‘I’ and is measured
in amperes (or) coulomb per sec.
i = dq/dt

Voltage
It is an electromotive force or potential difference of charge
between two points in an electric field (or) At any point in an
electric field, the work done in bringing an unit positive charge
(Q) from infinity to that point against the electric field. It is
denoted by ‘V’ and is measured in volts. V = dw/dq
Basic circuit elements and sources
The two types of source are

Voltage Sources
• Represented by (V).
• Series with source Resistor (Rs)

Current Source
• Represented by (I).
• Parallel with source Resistor (Rs)
 Ohm’s law
• Ohm's law states that, At constant temperature the current
through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference or voltage across the two points, and inversely
proportional to the resistance between them.
 Ohm’s law
• Limitations
– Not applicable to non-linear devices such as
diodes, Zener diode, voltage regulators etc.
– Does not hold good for non-metallic conductors
such as silicon carbide.
– Not applicable in variable temperatures.
 Problems based on ohm’s law
A current of 0.5 A is flowing through the resistance of
10Ω.Find the potential difference between its ends.
Given
Current I= 0.5 A, Resistance R=10 Ω

Solution
V = IR
V = 0.5 × 10 = 5V
The potential difference between its ends = 5 V
 Problems based on ohm’s law
A supply voltage of 220V is applied to a 100 Ω resistor.
Find the current flowing through it.

Given
Voltage V = 220V, Resistance R = 100Ω

Solution
Current I = V/R = 220/100
= 2.2 A
The current flowing through the resistor = 2.2 A
 Problems based on ohm’s law
Calculate the resistance of the conductor if a current
of 2A flows through it when the potential difference
across its ends is 6V.

Given
Current I = 2A, Voltage V = 6V

Solution
Resistance R = V/I = 6 / 2
=3Ω
The value of resistance R = 3Ω
 Kirchhoff’s laws
Current Law (KCL)
• The sum of the currents flowing towards any junction in an
electric circuit equal to the sum of currents flowing away from
the junction (or)
• The algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point/junction
is zero.
 Kirchhoff’s laws
Voltage Law (KVL)
• In a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of all the electromotive
forces and the voltage drops is equal to zero (or)
• In a closed circuit, the sum of the potential drops is equal to
the sum of the potential resistance.

IR1+IR2+IR3 = V
 Series and parallel connection of circuit
elements
Resistors in series

R = R1+R2+R3

R1 R2 R3 - resistors connected in series

V - supply voltage; V1 V2 V3 - voltage across each resistor respectively
I - total current flowing through the circuit
V1 = I* R1, V2 = I* R2, V3 = I* R3 (as per ohms law)
V = V1+V2+V3 = IR1+IR2+IR3 = (R1+R2+R3) I
IR = (R1+R2+R3) I = R = R1+R2+R3
 Series and parallel connection of circuit
elements
Resistors in parallel
1/R = 1/R1+1/R2+1/R3
R = R1R2R3 / R1R2+ R2R3 + R1R3

R1 R2 R3 - resistors connected in parallel

V - supply voltage; I - total current flowing through the circuit
I1 I2 I3 - current flowing through each resistor respectively
I = I1+I2+I3 = V/R1+ V/R2 +V/R3
I = V (1/R1+1/R2+1/R3)
V / R = V (1/R1 +1/R2 +1/R3); 1/R = 1/R1+1/R2+1/R3
 Problems
Three resistances of values 2Ω, 3Ω and 5Ω are connected in
series across 20 V, D.C supply .Calculate (a) equivalent
resistance of the circuit (b) the total current of the circuit (c)
the voltage drop across each resistor
Given - R1 = 2Ω, R2 = 3Ω, R3 = 5Ω, V = 20V
Solution
RT = R1+R2+R3 = 2+3+5 RT = 10 Ω
IT = VT / RT = 20 / 10 IT = 2 A
In series connection I1 = I2 = I3 = IT = 2A
V1 = I1*R1 = 2*2 V1 = 4 V
V2 = I2*R2 = 2*3 V2 = 6 V
V3 = I3*R3 = 5*2 V3 = 10V
 Practice Problems
1. The effective resistance of two resistors connected
in series is 100 ohm’s .When connected in parallel,
then effective value in 24 ohm’s. Determine the
value of two resistors.
2. Find the effective resistance between two points A
& B.
 Voltage division rule
To find voltage drop across different resistors connected
in series. Since it is series circuit, current is constant and
voltage differs among different resistors.
Va = Vt * Ra/Rt
 Current division rule
To determine the current in each branch of a circuit
having parallel resistors. Here currents differs and
voltage is constant among different resistors.
Ia = It * Rb/Rt
 Terminologies
Mesh
In a circuit any closed path or loop starting and
ending with the same node, not passing through any
node or branch twice is called mesh.
Node
It is a junction in a circuit where two or more circuit
elements are connected together.
 Steps For Nodal Analysis
• Choose the nodes and node voltages to be obtained
• Choose the currents preferably leaving the node at each
branch connected to each node
• Apply KCL at each node with proper sign convention
• If there are super nodes, obtain the equations directly in
terms of node voltages which are directly connected through
voltage source
• Obtain the equation for the each branch current in terms of
node voltages and substitute in the equations obtained in
step 3
• Solve the equations obtained in step 4 & 5
 Steps For Mesh Analysis
• Choose the various loops
• Show the various loop currents and the polarities of associated
voltage drops
• Before applying KVL, look for any current source. Analyze the
branch consisting current source independently and express the
current source value in-terms of assumed loop currents. Repeat
this for all the current sources
• After the step 3, apply KVL to those loops which do not include
any current source. A loop cannot be defined through current
source from KVL point of view. Follow the sign convention
• Solve the equations obtained in step 3 & 4 simultaneously, to
obtain required unknowns
 Half wave rectifier
• Semiconductor diodes are commonly used to convert
alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), in which case
they are referred to as rectifiers .
• The simplest form of rectifier circuit makes use of a single
diode and, since it operates on only either positive or negative
half-cycles of the supply, it is known as a half-wave rectifier.
•The AC supply at 115 V is applied to
the primary of a step-down
transformer (T1). The secondary of T1
steps down the 115 V 400 Hz supply
to 28.75 V RMS.
•Diode D1 will only allow the current
to flow in the direction shown (i.e.
from anode to cathode).
•D1 will be forward biased during
each positive half-cycle and
will effectively behave like a closed
switch.
•When the circuit current tries to flow
in the opposite direction, the voltage
bias across the diode will be reversed,
causing the diode to act like an open
switch.
The switching action of D1 results in a pulsating output voltage,
which is developed across the load resistor (RL).
 Full wave rectifier
• The half-wave rectifier circuit is relatively inefficient as
conduction takes place only on alternate half-cycles.
A better rectifier arrangement would make use of both positive
and negative half-cycles.
• These full-wave rectifier circuits offer a considerable
improvement over their half-wave counterparts.
• They are not only more efficient but are significantly less
demanding in terms of the reservoir and smoothing
components.
• The AC supply at 115V is applied to the primary
of a step-down transformer (T1). This has two identical
secondary windings, each providing 28.75 V RMS.
• On positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect to
point B. Similarly, point B will be positive with respect to point C.
• In this condition D1 will allow conduction (its anode will be
positive with respect to its cathode) while D2 will not allow
conduction (its anode will be negative with respect to its
cathode). Thus D1 alone conducts on positive half-cycles.
• On negative half-cycles, point C will be positive with respect to
point B. Similarly, point B will be positive with respect to point A.
• In this condition D2 will allow conduction (its anode will be
positive with respect to its cathode) while D1 will not allow
conduction (its anode will be negative with respect to its
cathode). Thus D2 alone conducts on negative half-cycles.
• The rectifier circuit with the diodes replaced by switches.
• In (a) D1 is shown conducting on a positive half-cycle whilst in (b)
D2 is shown conducting on a negative half-cycle of the input.
• The result is that current is routed through the load in the same
direction on successive half-cycles. Furthermore, this current is
derived alternately from the two secondary windings.
 Alternating voltages and current
Alternating voltage may be generated by rotating a coil in a
magnetic field (or) or by rotating a magnetic field within a
stationary coil.
The value of the voltage generated depends upon the number of
turns in the coil, strength of the field and the speed at which the
coil or magnetic field rotates.
 Alternating voltages and current
Alternating voltages e = Em sinwt (where w = 2πf)

Alternating current i = Im sinwt

 Terminologies
Waveforms
The shape of the curve obtained by plotting the instantaneous
values of voltage or current with respect to time.
Time Period
The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is
called its time period T. For example, a 50-Hz alternating current
has a time period of 1/50 second.
T = 1/F
 Terminologies
Frequency
The number of cycles/second is called frequency of the
alternating quantity. Its unit is hertz (Hz) and denoted as F.
F = 1/T
Amplitude
The maximum value, positive or negative, of an alternating
quantity is known as its amplitude.
 Terminologies
Cycle
One complete set of positive and negative values of
alternating quantity is known as cycle. One complete cycle
spreads over 360º or 2π radians.
Phase difference
It is the difference in phase angles of two waveforms.
 Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Value
The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is given by that steady
(d.c.) current which when flowing through a given circuit for a
given time produces the same heat as produced by the
alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for
the same time.
sinusoidal alternating current is i = Im sin ωt = Im sin θ
Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Value
 Terminologies
Average Value
It is expressed by that steady current which transfers across any
circuit the same charge as is transferred by that alternating
current during the same time.

Form factor
It is the ratio of rms value to the average value of sinusoidal AC.

Crest or Peak or Amplitude Factor

It is the ratio of maximum value to the rms value of sinusoidal AC.
 Problems
A generator produces an r.m.s. sine wave output 110 V. What is
the peak value of the voltage?
Vpeak = 1.414*Vr.m.s
= 1.414*110 = 155.5 V
The peak value of the voltage Vpeak = 155.5 V

A sinusoidal current of 40 A peak–peak flows in a circuit. What is

the r.m.s. value of the current?
Ir.m.s = 0.353*Ipeak-peak = 0.353*40 = 14.12 A

The r.m.s. value of current Ir.m.s = 14.12 A

 Alternating current through Resistance &
Inductance
• A pure resistance R and a pure inductive coil of inductance L
are shown connected in series
• Let V = r.m.s. value of the applied voltage, I = r.m.s. value of
the resultant current
• VR = IR -voltage drop across R (in phase with I),
• VL = I . XL –voltage drop across coil (ahead of I by 90°)
• The applied voltage V is the vector sum of the two

• the applied voltage V leads the current I by an angle φ such

that

• Hence, if applied voltage is given by ν = Vm sin ω t, then

current equation is i = Im sin (ω t - φ) where Im = Vm / Z
• The mean power consumed by the circuit is given by the
product of V and that component of the current I which is in
phase with V.
• P = V × I cos φ (r.m.s. voltage × r.m.s. current × cos φ)
The term ‘cos φ’ is called the power factor of the circuit.
• Now P = VI cos φ = VI × (R/Z) = (V/Z)× I. R = I2R (ä cos φ = R/Z)
or P = I2R watt
 Alternating current through Resistance &
Capacitance
• Here VR = IR = drop across R in phase with I. VC = IX
C = drop across capacitor – lagging I by π/2
Applied alternating voltage is
v = Vm sin ωt,
the resultant current is
i = Im sin (ωt + φ)
so that current leads the applied voltage by an angle φ
Alternating current through Resistance,
Inductance & Capacitance