The ozone layer sits in the stratosphere between 15 km and 30 km above the earth and

shields us and other living things from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation. Ozone
layer depletion could have serious effects on human health and the environment.

Key facts
 A significant reduction in the consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) has
been achieved globally since 1986. This reduction has largely been driven by the 1987
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Montreal Protocol.
 The largest historical extent of the ozone hole — 28.4 million square kilometres —
occurred in September 2000. This area is equivalent to almost seven times the territory
of the EU.
 The 2023 ozone hole has been larger compared to 2022.

Depletion of stratospheric ozone occurs over both hemispheres of the Earth.

However, this phenomenon is more pronounced in the Southern Hemisphere
(Antarctica) than in the Northern Hemisphere (Arctic). This is the case because the
formation of the ozone hole is directly linked to the stratosphere's temperature. Once
temperatures drop below -78°C, polar stratospheric clouds tend to form, which
exacerbate ozone depletion. In the Antarctic, long presence of low temperatures in the
stratosphere is stimulating their formation, whereas the Arctic is characterised by
larger year-to-year meteorological variability.

Dobson Units (DU) measure how much ozone is in the air above us. On a global scale,
the average total ozone concentration is typically around 300 DU. Ozone levels tend to
be higher near the poles and lower at the equator. Generally, the ozone hole is defined
as the area for which ozone column values amount to 220 Dobson Units (DU, marked
by the thick contour line in Figure 1) or less (represented in blue colours in Figure 1).
This is only apparent in the southern hemisphere. Here, the largest historical extent of
the ozone hole — 28.4 million square kilometres (Figure 1) — occurred in September
2000. This area is equivalent to almost seven times the territory of the EU.

Figure 1. Maximum ozone hole extent over the southern hemisphere, from
1979 to 2023
Note: Copernicus analyses of total ozone column over the Antarctic (Antarctica-centric Map). The blue
colours indicate lowest ozone columns, while yellow and red indicate higher ozone columns. Ozone
columns are commonly measured in Dobson Units. One Dobson Unit is the number of molecules of
ozone that would be required to create a layer of pure ozone 0.01 millimetres thick at a temperature of
0 degrees Celsius and a pressure of 1 atmosphere. 300 DU corresponds to 3 millimetres of ozone.
More ozone molecules therefore imply a healthier ozone layer.

Data source: Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS).

This year's ozone hole over the Southern Hemisphere had a maximum area of 26.1
million km² at the end of September (Figure 2), making it the sixth largest ozone hole
since the beginning of the observation period (1979). Data from the Copernicus
Atmosphere Monitoring Service already indicated an unusually large and persistent
ozone hole over the Antarctic in the period from 2020 to 2022 for which the drivers are
currently still subject to research. While UNEP's scientific assessment report projects
that global stratospheric ozone will return to 1980 levels around 2040, the behaviour of
the southern ozone layer contrasts with observations in the past 40 years.

When it comes to the identification of drivers of the ozone hole, one aspect could be the
strength of the polar vortex. For instance, the strength of the polar vortex in 2021
exceeded all other years which resulted in a large ozone hole as well. In 2022, however,
the strength of the polar vortex was lower in comparison, and yet, though the
prevalence of ozone-depleting substances in the atmosphere is roughly comparable for
both years, the size of the ozone hole was similar. Another facet which acts as a driver
to the ozone hole’s size is stratospheric temperature, with warmer temperatures leading
to a smaller ozone hole, such as in 2019 (for more information, visit the website of
the Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS)). However, increasing
concentrations of greenhouse gases cannot directly be attributed to a larger ozone hole,
as they exert a dual effect. While greenhouse gases are thought to lead to warmer
temperatures, they tend to have a cooling effect in the middle and upper stratosphere,
which reduces the temperature exchange between the different layers of Earth's
atmosphere. This stratospheric cooling effect is generally positively associated with
ozone recovery, with the exception of the polar regions. Here, very low temperatures
can lead to an increase in the formation of polar stratospheric clouds, which facilitate
ozone depletion. Finally, the ozone hole can also be periodically influenced by volcanic
eruptions and forest wildfires, perturbing chemical and dynamic processes, which in
return affect stratospheric ozone amounts.

Figure 2. Southern Hemisphere ozone hole area

Note: The ozone hole is a region of exceptionally depleted ozone in the stratosphere over the
Antarctic. All figures are in million square kilometres.

Data source: Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS).

In the northern hemisphere, ozone depletion is usually much more limited compared to
the southern hemisphere. In Artic spring 2020, however, ozonesonde measurements
showed ozone depletion that has been explained to occur due to unusually strong, long-
lasting cold temperatures in the stratosphere. The 2019 ozone hole has been a very
small and short-lived one, which was mostly driven by special meteorological
conditions. In particular, August and September 2019 showed exceptionally high
temperatures in altitudes between 20 and 30 km above the ground of the Antarctic,
stopping the formation of icy clouds that usually trap ozone-depleting molecules that,
when released during southern hemispheric springtime, trigger ozone destruction.
Since current observations show that the size and persistence of the ozone hole are
largely dynamically driven, the urgence of continuing global efforts under the Montreal
Protocol to ensure a swift recovery of the ozone layer remains key.

International Actions to Protect the Ozone Layer

The international treaty called The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the
Ozone Layer (Montreal Protocol) is gradually eliminating the production and
consumption of ozone-depleting substances to limit their damage to the earth’s ozone
layer. The Montreal Protocol is signed by 197 countries – the first treaty in the history of
the United Nations to achieve universal ratification – and is considered by many the
most successful environmental global action.

The United States signed the Montreal Protocol in 1987, and has been a leader in
guiding the successes of the treaty. From the beginning, EPA has been a proud
contributor to the broad coalition that developed and implemented flexible, innovative,
and effective approaches to protect the stratospheric ozone layer. In 1995, the United
Nations named September 16 the International Day for the Protection of the Ozone
Layer, also known as World Ozone Day.

The Montreal Protocol celebrated its 35th anniversary in 2022. Learn about the history
of the Montreal Protocol and its implementation in the United States in the 2017 report
Stratospheric Ozone Protection: 30 Years of Progress and Achievements.

International Treaties and Cooperation About the Protection of the Stratospheric

Ozone Layer

This page summarizes the history of international cooperation on the protection of the
ozone layer, including: the Vienna Convention; the Montreal Protocol; past amendments
to the Montreal Protocol including the Kigali Amendment on the phasing down of
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs); and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)’s
Ozone Secretariat.

Recent International Developments under the Montreal Protocol

Learn about recent action to address HFCs (common substitutes for ozone-depleting
substances) under the Montreal Protocol.

Multilateral Fund (MLF)

The Multilateral Fund (MLF) was established in 1991 to assist developing countries
meet their Montreal Protocol commitments. To date, the MLF has approved activities
including industrial conversion, technical assistance, training, and capacity building
worth over US $3.0 billion. The main objective of the MLF is to assist developing
country parties whose annual ODS consumption falls below a specified threshold to
comply with the control measures of the Protocol.

Data Access Centre

The UNEP Ozone Secretariat hosts a Data Access Center that reports on ODS and
HFC data submitted by each country, including the United States.

Climate and Clean Air Coalition

The United States is a founding partner of the Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC),
a global effort focused on reducing short-lived climate pollutants across sectors. CCAC
partners have supported the development of HFC inventories and studies, information
exchange on policy and technical issues, demonstration projects to validate and
promote climate-friendly alternatives and technologies, and capacity-building activities
to disseminate information on emerging technologies and practices to transition away
from high-GWP HFCs and minimize HFC leakages.

Health and Environmental Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion

The Atmospheric and Health Effects Framework (AHEF) model

The AHEF model is used by EPA to evaluate human health effects associated with a depleted
stratospheric ozone layer. An updated report published in May 2020 estimating UV radiation-induced
health effects is available.
The Connection between Ozone Layer Depletion and UVB Radiation

Reduced ozone levels as a result of ozone depletion means less protection from the sun’s rays and more
exposure to UVB radiation at the Earth’s surface. Studies have shown that in the Antarctic, the amount
of UVB measured at the surface can double during the annual ozone hole.

Ozone layer depletion increases the amount of UVB that reaches the Earth’s surface. Laboratory and
epidemiological studies demonstrate that UVB causes non-melanoma skin cancer and plays a major role
in malignant melanoma development. Of the human health effects from sun exposure, melanoma is the
most lethal, causing nearly 7,000 deaths annually in the United States. In addition, UVB has been linked
to the development of cataracts, a clouding of the eye’s lens.

Effects on Human Health

Ozone layer depletion increases the amount of UVB that reaches the Earth’s surface. Laboratory and
epidemiological studies demonstrate that UVB causes non-melanoma skin cancer and plays a major role
in malignant melanoma development. In addition, UVB has been linked to the development of cataracts,
a clouding of the eye’s lens.

UV Protection by the Stratospheric Ozone Layer

Source: Figure Q2-1. UV protection by the ozone layer. The ozone layer is located in the stratosphere
and surrounds the entire Earth. The Sun emits three types of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reach the
top of the ozone layer. Solar UV-C radiation (wavelength range 100 to 280 nanometer (nm)) is extremely
damaging to humans and other life forms; UV-C radiation is entirely absorbed within the ozone layer.
Solar UV-B radiation (280 to 315 nm) is only partially absorbed and, as a result, humans and other life
forms are exposed to some UV-B radiation. Excessive exposure to UV-B radiation increases the risks of
skin cancer, cataracts, and a suppressed immune system for humans and also damages terrestrial plant
life, single-cell organisms, as well as aquatic ecosystems. UV-A (315 to 400 nm), visible light, and other
solar radiation are only weakly absorbed by the ozone layer. Exposure to UV-A is associated with
premature aging of the skin and some skin cancers. Depletion of the ozone layer increases primarily the
amount of UV-B radiation that reaches the surface (Q16). Avoiding ozone depletion that would increase
human exposure to UV-B radiation is a principal objective of the Montreal Protocol. (The unit
“nanometer” (nm) is a common measure of the wavelength of light; 1 nm equals one billionth of a
meter (=10–9 m).) Figure Q2-1 from Ross J. Salawitch (Lead Author), David W. Fahey, Michaela I.
Hegglin, Laura A. McBride, Walter R. Tribett, and Sarah J. Doherty, Twenty Questions and Answers
About the Ozone Layer: 2018 Update, Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2018, World
Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2019.

Because all sunlight contains some UVB, even with normal stratospheric ozone levels it is always
important to protect your skin and eyes from the sun. See a more detailed explanation of health effects
linked to UVB exposure from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

EPA uses the Atmospheric and Health Effects Framework (AHEF) model to estimate the human health
benefits of stronger ozone layer protection. More specifically, it estimates the number of skin cancer
and cataract cases and deaths from skin cancer in the United States that will be prevented by protecting
the ozone layer, which results in a decrease of the UV radiation reaching Earth’s surface that causes
these diseases. Updated information on the benefits of EPA’s efforts to address ozone layer depletion is
available in a 2020 report, Updating the Atmospheric and Health Effects Framework Model:
Stratospheric Ozone Protection and Human Health Benefits. The May 2020 report estimates that full
implementation of the Montreal Protocol on Substances the Deplete the Ozone Layer is expected to
prevent approximately 443 million cases of skin cancer, 2.3 million skin cancer deaths, and 63 million
cases of cataracts for people in the United States born in the years 1890–2100.

Effects on Plants

UVB radiation affects the physiological and developmental processes of plants. Despite mechanisms to
reduce or repair these effects and an ability to adapt to increased levels of UVB, plant growth can be
directly affected by UVB radiation.

Indirect changes caused by UVB (such as changes in plant form, how nutrients are distributed within the
plant, timing of developmental phases and secondary metabolism) may be equally or sometimes more
important than damaging effects of UVB. These changes can have important implications for plant
competitive balance, herbivory, plant diseases, and biogeochemical cycles.

Effects on Marine Ecosystems

Phytoplankton form the foundation of aquatic food webs. Phytoplankton productivity is limited to the
euphotic zone, the upper layer of the water column in which there is sufficient sunlight to support net
productivity. Exposure to solar UVB radiation has been shown to affect both orientation and motility in
phytoplankton, resulting in reduced survival rates for these organisms. Scientists have demonstrated a
direct reduction in phytoplankton production due to ozone depletion-related increases in UVB.
UVB radiation has been found to cause damage to early developmental stages of fish, shrimp, crab,
amphibians, and other marine animals. The most severe effects are decreased reproductive capacity
and impaired larval development. Small increases in UVB exposure could result in population reductions
for small marine organisms with implications for the whole marine food chain.

Effects on Biogeochemical Cycles

Increases in UVB radiation could affect terrestrial and aquatic biogeochemical cycles, thus altering both
sources and sinks of greenhouse and chemically important trace gases (e.g., carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, carbonyl sulfide, ozone, and possibly other gases). These potential changes would contribute
to biosphere-atmosphere feedbacks that mitigate or amplify the atmospheric concentrations of these
gases.

Effects on Materials

Synthetic polymers, naturally occurring biopolymers, as well as some other materials of commercial
interest are adversely affected by UVB radiation. Today's materials are somewhat protected from UVB
by special additives. Yet, increases in UVB levels will accelerate their breakdown, limiting the length of
time for which they are useful outdoors.