CELL ANG THE NUCLEUS Solid portion = organelle

Fluid portion = cytosol

Cytoplasm = organelles + cytosol +

HISTOLOGY - Is the study of tissues, their
inclusion bodies
functions and their arrangement to constitute
an organ. Cell membrane - border of the cell
Nucleus - Largest organelle; situated in the
TISSUES - Group of cells with interrelated center; circular in shape, DNA rich
functions
Nucleolus - another circular
shape in the cell, RNA rich
WHY STUDY CELLS IN A SUBJECT THAT
Cytosol - fluid where organelles are suspended;
IS SUPPOSED TO STUDY Tissues?
- Because since tissues are made up of Cytoplasm - area between nucleus and cell
cells, you can never understand the membrane
characteristic of a tissue without
Organelles - solid structures; functional
understanding the characteristics of its components
individual components, which are the
cells. Cytoplasm = Cytosol + organelles +
inclusions
ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY
CYTOSKELETON - Maintains intracellular
structural support and organization of cells;
participates in cell division; facilitates
movement

Contains three types of polymers:

(1) microtubules 25 nm in diameter;

CELL-TISSUE-ORGAN-SYSTEM-ORGANISM (2) actin filaments or microfilaments
(5-7 nm); and
Cell – the smallest/basic structural functional unit (3) intermediate filaments (8-10 nm).
of the human body. RIBOSOME - are macromolecular machines that
assemble polypeptides from amino acids on
CELL DIFFERENTIATION
molecules of transfer RNA (tRNA) in a sequence
- ALL distinct cell types are derived from specified by mRNA
the zygote
- Blastomeres - first zygotic cellular
differentiation TWO TYPES OF ER:
- Differentiation - specialization ▪ Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
process of stem cells -biosynthesis of LIPIDS.
▪ Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
THE CELL - Cells and extracellular material -biosynthesis of PROTEINS
together comprise the tissues that make up -studded with RIBOSOMES
animal organs. In all tissues, cells are the basic
structural and functional units, the smallest SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
living parts of the body. - Regions of ER that lack bound
Composed of three basic parts: polyribosomes make up the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (SER), which is
1. Cell membrane continuous with RER but frequently
2. Nucleus
less abundant
3. Cytoplasm
 - Also create proteins (enzymes) that INCLUSION BODIES
perform synthesis of phospholipids - Contain accumulated metabolites or
and steroids, allows detoxification, and other substances
sequestration an controlled release of - Little to no metabolic activity
Calcium - Most are stored units or cell product
- May or may not be present in the cell
• Examples: Lipid droplets, Glycogen
GOLGI APPARATUS
granules, Melanin, Lipofuscin,
- Otherwise known as Golgi complex
Hemosiderin
- Completes posttranslational
modifications of proteins produced in ➢ Lipofuscin granules - represent an
the RER and then packages and accumulating by-product of lysosomal
addresses these proteins to their digestion in long-lived cells
proper destinations ➢ Melanin - protect the cell nuclei from
damage to DNA caused by light
SECRETORY GRANULES ➢ Hemosiderin granules - pigment
- Originating as condensing vesicles in deposits that contain the protein ferritin
the Golgi apparatus, secretory (form a large complex with iron)
granules are found in cells that store a
product until its release by exocytosis. At some point in the life of the cell
these inclusion bodies might be
PEROXISOMES present in its cytoplasm or might
- Peroxisomes are small spherical disappear because majority of these
organelles containing enzymes for inclusion bodies are considered to be
various metabolic reactions, notably stored nutrients or stored waste
for oxidation and detoxification, and products.
catalase that breaks down the H2O2 Ex. Liver cell with lipid droplet.
resulting from those reactions.

➢ Vesicles/granules - contains protein PLASMA MEMBRANE

to be secreted via exocytosis - Other names: Cell membrane of
plasmalemma
➢ Lysosomes - Contains enzymes. - Consists of phospholipids, cholesterol,
Binds with endocytosed vesicles for and proteins, with oligosaccharide
digestion. chains
- Forms a selective barrier regulating
➢ Proteosome - Degrade improperly the passage of materials into and out
folded Proteins. of the cell
- Keep constant the ion content of the
MITOCHONDRIA cytoplasm
- Powerhouse of the cell - Membrane phospholipids are
- Are the major sites of ATP synthesis amphipathic
and are abundant in cells or - 2 nonpolar (hydrophobic) long-chain
cytoplasmic regions where large fatty acids
amounts of energy are expended. - Phosphate head/group
- Phospholipids are organized in a
CENTROSOME lipid bilayer
- Amorphous region adjacent to - Hydrophobic fatty acid chains located
nucleus; contains a pair of centrioles
in a middle region, away from water.
- Organizes microtubules; participates in
- Cholesterol insert at varying densities
mitotic spindle formation during cell
division restricting their movement and
modulating fluidity
• Integral proteins - are firmly embedded
in the lipid layers
• Transmembrane proteins - subset of Membrane pumps
integral proteins that completely span the - are enzymes/proteins
bilayer are called engage in active transport utilizes energy
• Peripheral proteins - bound only to one of from ATP against concentration gradients
the two membrane surfaces - They consume ATP hence they are called
LIPID RAFTS ATPase
- Cholesterol has hydrophobic ring
- and Hydrophilic hydroxyl group
- Amphipathic

➢ Phospholipids have the ability to move

around the cell membrane together
with the membrane proteins.
➢ Higher concentrations of cholesterol
and saturated fatty acids which reduce
lipid fluidity.
➢ More cholesterol (Lipid rafts) =
restrict the movement of
phospholipids, reducing membrane
fluidity.

TRANSMEMBRANE PROTEINS AND

MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

Plasma membrane - site where materials are

exchanged between the cell and its
environment.
-Most small molecules cross the membrane
by the general mechanisms as follows: SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORTERS:
• Symporter
• Diffusion - transports small, nonpolar • Antiporter
molecules directly through the lipid
bilayer. fat-soluble molecules diffuse Passive Transport
through membranes readily 1. Simple – without channel/carrier
• Channels - Multipass proteins forming 2. Facilitated - with the aid of
transmembrane pores through which channels or carrier
ions (Na, K, Ca, etc.) or small • Movement of molecule from
molecules pass selectively. higher to lower concentration
- Aquaporins - type of channel that • No need to energy
allows passage of water molecules Consumption

• Carriers - Transmembrane proteins Active Transport

that bind small molecules and • Requires energy consumption
translocate them across the • Pumps transport molecules
membrane via conformational from lower to higher
changes. concentration (against
concentration gradient)
OPERATE PASSIVELY – allows movement
of substances across membranes down a
concentration gradient.
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis
- uses membrane receptors to bind
specific molecules (ligands). When
receptors bind ligands, they cluster
together, and the membrane folds
inward to form a vesicle containing
the receptors and ligands.

Phagocytosis
- the cell extends folds or pseudopodia
to surround and engulf particles like
• Channel-linked
bacteria, forming a cytoplasmic
receptors
vacuole called a phagosome.
• Enzymatic receptors
• G-protein-coupled
Receptors

LIPID RAFTS AND SIGNALING

PLATFORMS
• G-coupled protein composed of 7
transmembrane proteins and alpha,
beta and gamma protein subunits
• Ligands bind to the G coupled
receptor which later cause the
activation of the alpha, beta and
gamma subunits
Pinocytosis • Signal transduction in lipid rafts
- the cell membrane forms folds or occurs more rapidly since proteins
dimples to trap extracellular fluid, are found in proximity to each other.
which then pinches off inside the cell • ANKYRIN, ACTIN - peripheral
as a vesicle containing the fluid.
proteins
• SPECTRIN - a peripheral protein that
will make the ankyrin and actin
interact with each other

HEREDITARY SPHEROCYTOSIS
- Defects in the red cell membrane that
lead to the formation of spherocytes,
nondeformable cells that are highly
vulnerable to sequestration and
destruction in the spleen.
 • PATHOGENESIS NUCLEAR PORE
-Caused by inherited defects COMPLEXES
in the membrane skeleton, a - Connects the inner and outer
network of proteins that stabilizes membranes
the lipid bilayer of the red cell. - Composed of nucleoporins
• Spectrin - major membrane - Regulate the movement of
skeleton protein. macromolecules (e.g., RNA,
proteins) between the nucleus
- Mutations that cause hereditary and cytoplasm.
spherocytosis most frequently
involve ankyrin, band 3, or spectrin. CHROMATIN
- The common feature of the - Chromatin consists of DNA and
pathogenic mutations is that they associated proteins involved in DNA
weaken vertical organization and function.
interactions between the membrane - After DNA replication, each
skeleton and intrinsic red cell chromosome forms two identical
membrane chromatids, held together by cohesin
proteins. proteins.
- Nucleosome: Basic structural unit of
chromatin, consisting of:
THE NUCLEUS - A core of 8 histones (H2A, H2B, H3,
- Command center of the cell H4).
- Contains the molecular machinery - ~150 base pairs (bp) of DNA
to replicate the DNA, and synthesis wrapped
of all types of RNA around the core.
- Resembles "beads on a string."
COMPONENTS OF THE NUCLEUS - Histone H1 binds to wrapped DNA
1.Nuclear envelope and
2.Chromatin the nucleosome surface for stability
3.Nucleoli
2 KINDS OF CHROMATIN:
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
- Forms a selectively permeable barrier • HETEROCHROMATIN
between the nucleus and cytoplasm. - Compact, transcriptionally inactive.
- The outer membrane is continuous - darker staining, transcriptionally
with the inactive areas
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). • EUCHROMATIN
- The inner membrane is supported by -Loosely packed, transcriptionally
the nuclear lamina, a meshwork of active, and gene-rich.
lamins (intermediate filament - Found predominantly in active cells
proteins). like neurons.
- Outer membrane - lighter staining, transcriptionally active
continuous with the RER areas
- Inner membrane supported by
nuclear lamina (Intermediate MEDICAL APPLICATION: BARR BODIES
filaments)
➢ Perinuclear space - space in Heterochromatin:
between the outer and inner • Compact, transcriptionally inactive
membrane • Constitutive heterochromatin:
Repetitive, gene-poor DNA (e.g.,
centromeres, telomeres).
 • Facultative heterochromatin:
Genes variably silenced via epigenetic
mechanisms (e.g., Barr bodies in
females)

• Barr bodies = inactivated X

chromosome, present only in females
(XX)

MITOSIS - CELL DIVISION

Mitosis 4 stages:
➢ 1.Prophase
➢ 2.Metaphase
KARYOTYPE ➢ 3.Anaphase
- A karyotype display chromosomes in ➢ 4.Telophase
pairs by size and by physical landmarks
that appear during mitotic metaphase,
when DNA coils tightly.

PROPHASE
Several changes occur during
Prophase:
1.Chromosomes condense
2.Nuclear envelope
NUCLEOLUS disassembles
- The nucleolus is a spherical, highly 3.Microtubular spindles form
basophilic structure in the nucleus of
cells. METAPHASE
- Its intense basophilia is due to the - Follows prophase
presence of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - Chromosomes attach to the
- It is the site of rRNA transcription, spindle at their centromeres and
processing, and ribosome assembly. align along the center of the cell
called the equator.
THE CELL CYCLE
- The cell cycle is continual, but we divide
it into stages based on what we
observe.
- The two major stages are interphase
(not dividing) and mitosis (dividing)
ANAPHASE
- When they begin to separate
toward the two centrosomes
- Sister chromatids separate and
move toward opposite spindle
poles

TELOPHASE
- The two sets of chromosomes
are at the spindle poles
- Microtubules depolymerize
- Nuclear envelope reassemble

CYTOKINESIS
• (Lewis et. al) Cytokineses occur after
Telophase
• (Junquiera Basic Histology)
Telophase ends with cytokinesis or cell
cleavage into two daughter cells by a
contractile ring of actin filaments and
myosin.
-Organelles and macromolecules are
APOPTOSIS
distributed between the two daughter
cells. o is a process of programmed cell
- the microfilament band contracts like a death that eliminates defective
drawstring, separating the newly formed or unnecessary cells.
cells. o Unlike necrosis, apoptotic cells
do not rupture or release their
contents, avoiding inflammatory
MEIOSIS responses.
- Meiosis is a specialized process o Formation of Apoptotic bodies
involving two unique and closely
associated cell divisions that occurs
only in the cells that will form sperm ~ Controlled by cytoplasmic proteins in the
and egg cells. Bcl-2 family
- germ cells or gametes Proteins induce a process with the following
- “Germ” comes from the latin term features:
germen meaning “seed” or “sprout • Loss of mitochondrial function and caspase
activation
• fragmentation of DNA
Entails two divisions of genetic material • shrinkage of nuclear and cell volumes
1.Reduction division (or meiosis I) “pyknotic nuclei”
• cell membrane changes “blebbing”
2. Equational division (or meiosis II) • formation and phagocytic removal
STEM CELLS AND TISSUE
RENEWAL
• Stem cells are undifferentiated cells
that can renew themselves and
produce differentiated cells to maintain
tissue function throughout life.
• Stem cell divisions are typically
asymmetric:
• One daughter cell remains a stem cell.
• The other becomes committed to
differentiation.

Tissues with Rapidly Renewing Cells:

• Examples: Blood cells, skin cells, and
cells lining the digestive tract.
• Most mitotic activity is from
progenitor cells (transit amplifying
cells), not stem cells.
Tissues with Stable Cell Populations:
• Examples: Most connective tissues,
smooth
muscle, and blood vessel linings.
• Stem cells are less prominent.