CELL

• To illustrate and observe the morphology of the animal cell.

• To define cell, organelle, and inclusion.

• To identify the following cellular regions and to list the major

functions of each: nucleus, cytoplasm, and cell membrane.

• To identify and list the major functions of the various organelles.

 CELL
• A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms.
• Cell biology or cytology- scientific study of cells
• Main function: maintain a proper homeostasis in the organism
Two major types of cells
SIZE OF CELLS IN HUMANS
 SHAPE OF CELLS

HUMAN RED BLOOD CELLSARE CIRCULAR HUMAN WBCS CAN CHANGE

BICONCAVE FOR EASY PASSAGE THEIR SHAPE TO ENGULF THE
THROUGH HUMAN CAPILLARIES MICROORGANISMS THAT ENTER
NERVE CELLS ARE BRANCHED TO
THE BODY.
CONDUCT IMPULSES FROM ONE
POINT TO ANOTHER
 STRUCTURE OF CELL
• The structure of a cell has been
studied under compound
COMPOUND
microscope and electron MICROSCOPE
microscope. MAGNIFICATION 2000X

• Certain structures can be seen

only under an electron
microscope.

ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
• The structure of a cell as seen MAGNIFICATION 500,000X
OR MORE
under an electron microscope is
called ultrastructure.
CELL MEMBRANE CELL MEMBRANE CELL MEMBRANE

CYTOPLASM

CYTOPLASM
CYTOPLASM
 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A CELL

1. PLASMA MEMBRANE (cell

membrane or plasmalemma or
cytoplasmic membrane)

• forms the cell’s flexible outer surface,

separating the cell’s internal
environment from the external
environment

• Has channels and pores - SELECTIVE

PERMEABILITY
 STRUCTURE OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
• The Lipid Bilayer
• basic structural framework of the plasma
membrane
• made up of three types of lipid
molecules:
• Phospholipids-75% (MAJORITY)
• Cholesterol-20%
• Gycolipids -5%
• amphipathic molecules (have both polar
and nonpolar parts)
• PHOSPHOLIPIDS-
• POLAR: phosphate-containing
head, which is hydrophilic
• NONPOLAR- the two long fatty
acid “tails,” which are
hydrophobic
 STRUCTURE OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
Membrane Proteins
• Integral proteins
• incorporated directly within the lipid
bilayer
• those that completely span the bilayer -
transmembrane proteins
• For transport of molecules across the
membrane – SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY
• Peripheral proteins
• not as firmly embedded in the membrane
• attached to the polar heads of membrane
lipids or to integral proteins at the inner or
outer surface of the membrane
• Maintaining cell shape and structure; cell
signaling
 STRUCTURE OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
• Carbohydrates

• third major component of plasma

membrane

• always found on the exterior surface

of cells where they are either bound
to proteins (forming glycoproteins )
or to lipids (forming glycolipids)
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
TRANSPORT
Types of transport
1
PASSIVE: DIFFUSION
• Dependent on a
concentration gradient
• From [HIGH] → [LOW]
• Equilibrium is achieved
after some time
• Small molecules (O2,
CO2, N2)
2
PASSIVE: FACILITATED DIFFUSION

• Dependent on a
concentration gradient
• From [HIGH] → [LOW]
• Requires a carrier
• Max transport is
dependent on the # of
carriers
3
PASSIVE: OSMOSIS
• Diffusion of water across a
selectively permeable
membrane
• Concentration dependent
• Movement of water from area of
low solute (high water)
concentration to an area of high
solute (low water) concentration
4
ACTIVE: PRIMARY

• Goes AGAINST the concentration

gradient
• Uses up ATP directly (primary)
• Na+/K+ pump, H+/K+ pump
5
ACTIVE: SECONDARY
 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A CELL

2. CYTOPLASM

• consists of all the cellular contents

between the plasma membrane and
the nucleus

• site of most cellular activities

• two components:
• Cytosol-intracellular fluid
• Organelles
 CYTOSOL
• viscous, semitransparent fluid in which
the other cytoplasmic elements are
suspended

• dissolved in the cytosol, which is largely

water, are proteins, salts, sugars, and a
variety of other solutes

• within the cytosol are several different

types of organelles

• site of many biochemical reactions

required for a cell’s existence - glycolysis
 ORGANELLES
• “little organs”
MEMBRANOUS NON-MEMBRANOUS
• specialized cellular ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM CYTOSKELETON
compartments or structures,
GOLGI APPARATUS CILIA/FLAGELLA
each performing its own job
MITOCHONDRIA CENTROSOME/CENTRIOLES
to maintain the cellular
homeostasis and cell life
LYSOSOMES RIBOSOMES

PEROXISOMES
• metabolic machinery of the
cell
 CYTOSKELETON
• network of protein filaments that extends
throughout the cytosol
• consists of:
• microfilaments
• intermediate filaments
• microtubules
 MICROFILAMENTS
• Thinnest/smallest elements of the cytoskeleton
(7nm)

• Composed of the protein actin and are most

prevalent on the peripheral regions of the cell
membrane

• Two general functions (DYNAMIC):

• help generate movement

• Ex. induce muscle contractions

• provide mechanical support

• Ex. for cell extensions called microvilli
 INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
• thicker than microfilaments but thinner than
microtubules (8-12nm)

• help stabilize the position of organelles such as the

nucleus and help attach cells to one another
(STATIC)

• composed of a variety of proteins that are

expressed in different types of cells:
• Epithelial cells - Keratin
• Mesenchymal cells - Vimentin
• Smooth and striated muscles - Desmin
• Nerve cells and their processes - Neurofilament
• Inner layer of the nuclear membrane - Nuclear
lamin
 MICROTUBULES

• Largest of the cytoskeletal components (25nm)

• long, unbranched hollow tubes composed mainly of

the protein tubulin found in almost all cell types
except mature red blood cells

• originate from the microtubule-organizing center, the

centrosome in the cytoplasm

• determine cell shape and function in intracellular

movement of organelles and secretory granules

• essential in cell division

• predominant in cilia and flagella

 CILIA AND FLAGELLA
• motile projections of the cell surface
• contain the motor protein dynein and tubulin in a
circular arrangement termed as the 9+2 ARRAY ->
AXONEME (backbone of cilia and flagella)
• CILIA
• numerous, short, hairlike projections
• sweep or move fluids, cells, or particulate matter
across cell surfaces
• Ex. cells of the respiratory tract, oviducts or
uterine tubes, and efferent ducts in the testes
• FLAGELLA
• similar in structure to cilia but are typically much
longer -> Cellular motility
• Ex. Sperm cell’s tail
 FALLOPIAN TUBE OR
TRACHEA
OVIDUCT
 CENTROSOME
• site for generating new microtubules and
mitotic spindles
• consists of two components

• a pair of centrioles
• cylindrical structures, each
composed of nine clusters of three
microtubules (triplets) arranged in
a circular pattern – “9+0 array”

• pericentriolar material
• surrounds the centrioles, which
contains hundreds of ring-shaped
complexes composed of the
protein tubulin
 RIBOSOMES

• Made up of 60% RNA (rRNA) and 40% proteins

• Eukaryotic ribosomes (80S) contain two different
subunits:
• small subunit (“40S” in eukaryotes) decodes
the genetic message
• large subunit (“60S” in eukaryotes) catalyzes
peptide bond formation
• Prokaryotic ribosomes (70S) = 30S, 50S
• Sites of protein synthesis
 RIBOSOMES
• BOUND RIBOSOMES
• ribosomes attached to the membranes
of rough endoplasmic reticulum or
nucleus
• synthesize proteins destined for specific
organelles, for insertion in the plasma
membrane, or for export from the cell

• FREE RIBOSOMES OR UNATTACHED

RIBOSOMES
• synthesize proteins for use within the
cell cytoplasm
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• network of membranes in the form of
flattened sacs or tubules called cisternae

• ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (RER)

• characterized by numerous flattened,
interconnected cisternae, whose
cytoplasmic surfaces are covered or
studded with dark-staining granules called
ribosomes
• continuous with the nuclear membrane
• can be visualized as masses of material
staining with basic dyes (basophilia) in the
light microscope
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

• SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

• consisting of tubular vesicles devoid of

ribosomes

• continuous with the RER in most cells

• involved in the synthesis and storage of

lipids (estrogen, testosterone and
corticosteroids)

• inactivates or detoxifies drugs and other

potentially harmful substances
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

• Examples of cells with abundant sER:

• sebaceous glands
• gonadal cells involved in producing steroid
hormones (such as Leydig cells in the testis
and follicular cells in the ovary)
• hepatocytes in the liver
• cells of striated muscles (cardiac and
skeletal muscle)
• SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM -
specialized smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
 GOLGI APPARATUS

• also known as Golgi complex or

Golgi body

• composed of a system of
membrane-bound, smooth,
flattened, stacked, and slightly
curved cisternae

• convex entry (cis) face

• faces the rough ER
• concave exit (trans) face
• faces the plasma membrane
PROCESSING AND PACKAGING OF PROTEINS BY THE
GOLGI COMPLEX
 MITOCHONDRIA
• Generate ATP through reactions of aerobic cellular
respiration (“powerhouses” of the cell)
• Role to help maintain the intracellular environment
• store caspases responsible for triggering apoptosis
• able to transiently store calcium contributing to calcium
homeostasis
• Have two special membranes:
• Outer mitochondrial membrane (freely permeable to
small solutes)
• Inner mitochondrial membrane (impermeable to even
small solutes)
• Series of folds called cristae (increases surface area)
• Oxidative phosphorylation (ATP synthesis)
• Small fluid-filled space between the membranes -
Intermembrane space
• Central fluid-filled cavity enclose by the internal
mitochondrial membrane - Mitochondrial matrix
 LYSOSOMES
• membrane-enclosed vesicles that form from
the Golgi complex

• contain many hydrolyzing or digestive

enzymes called acid hydrolases

• very abundant in phagocytic cells as tissue

macrophages and specific white blood cells
(leukocytes) such as neutrophils, monocytes
 LYSOSOMES

• digest microbes or materials

• help recycle worn-out cell structures by

autophagy

• may also destroy the entire cell that contains

them, a process known as autolysis - “suicidal
bags of the cell”
 PEROXISOMES

• also called microbodies

• similar in structure to lysosomes, but smaller

• contain oxidases (oxidative enzymes) and

catalase (decomposes hydrogen peroxide)

• lipid metabolism and detoxifies reactive

oxygen species (O-, H2O2, OH) either
produced by the cell or taken into the cell

• abundant in the cells of the liver and kidney

 INCLUSIONS
• contain accumulated metabolites or other
substances
• have little or no metabolic activity
• LIPID DROPLETS
• accumulations of lipid-filling adipocytes (fat
cells) and present in various other cells
• GLYCOGEN GRANULES
• a storage form of glucose
• visible as irregular clumps of periodic acid–
Schiff (PAS)
• Seen in liver and muscle cells
• PIGMENTED DEPOSITS
• MELANIN
• dark brown granules which in skin
serve to protect cells from ultraviolet
radiation

• LIPOFUSCIN/LIPOCHROME LIPOFUSCIN
• a pale brown granule, a "wear and
tear" pigment that represent materials
remaining after lysosomal degradation
(result of aging)

• HEMOSIDERIN
• dense brown aggregate of denatured
ferritin proteins with many atoms of
bound iron
• prominent in phagocytic cells of the
liver and spleen, where it results from
phagocytosis of red blood cells
SUMMARY OF CELLULAR STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS