UNIVERSITY OF MINES AND TECHNOLOGY (UMaT),

TARKWA, GHANA

SCHOOL OF RAILWAYS AND INFRAUSTRUCTURE

DEVELOPMENT (SRID), ESSIKADO -TAKORADI

COURSE: Elementary Fluid Mechanics

CV 271: FLUID MECHANICS

COURSE CODE: CV 271

COURSE INSTRUCTOR: EUNICE E. ATTAFUAH (PE-GhIE)

EMAIL: eeattafuah@umat.edu.gh 1
Mode of Delivery and Assessment

Class Delivery Assessment methods

❖Lectures (Face to Face/ ❖Quizzes (In Class)

Online) ❖Take Home Assignments

CV 271: FLUID MECHANICS

❖Group Works ❖Research Assignments
❖Group Assignments
❖End of Semester Examination

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NOTE
• Attendance to lectures is compulsory
• Punctuality is key
• In Class assignments/tests will be unannounced

CV 271: FLUID MECHANICS

3
 TENTATIVE SCHEDULE
Chapter Topic Week Date
st th th
1 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics 1 week 20 to 24 January
nd th st
2 Fundamental Concepts in Fluid Mechanics: Characteristics and 2 week 27 to 31 January
Properties of fluids
rd rd th
3 Fluid Statics: Basic Equation of hydrostatics 3 week 3 to 7 February
th th st
4 Hydrostatic Force on plane and curved surfaces 4 week & Week 5 10 to 21 February
th th
5 Piezometers and Manometers Week 6 24 to 28 February
Test 1 (1hour)
th rd th
6 Floatation, Buoyancy and Stability 7 week 3 to 7 March
th th th
7 Kinematics of fluid motion (Velocity, acceleration, streamlines, 8 Week 10 to 14 March

CV 271: FLUID MECHANICS

stream-tube, etc)
th th st
8 Continuity Equation (Differential and Integral form) 9 week 17 to 21 March
Test 2 (1 hour) Week 10
th th th
9 Circulation, Rotational and Irrotational flow 11 week 24 to 28 March
th st th
10 Stream function and velocity potential 12 week 31 March to 4 April
th th th
11 Dimensional Analysis 13 week 7 to 11 April
th
Test 3 (1 hour) 13 Week

4
th th
Revision 7 to 11 April
Objectives
Engineering fluid mechanics is aimed at introducing students to the fundamentals
governing the behavior of static fluids and fluids in motion and how this affects flow in
pipes and ducts. Also, solutions to dimensional analysis

CV 271: FLUID MECHANICS

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 INTRO LECTURE
Fluid Mechanics (Introduction)

Focus
• Fluid

• Fluid Mechanics
• Dimensions and units

CV 271: FLUID MECHANICS

• Applications of Fluid Mechanics
• Properties of fluids

6
 What is a Fluid?
• In everyday life, we recognize three states of matter: solid, liquid
and gas.
• A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as a fluid.
• Although different in many respects, liquids and gases have a
common characteristic in which they differ from solids
• . The distinction between a solid and a fluid is made on the basis of
the substance’s ability to resist an applied shear (or tangential)
stress that tends to change its shape.

CV 271: FLUID MECHANICS

• A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming, whereas a
fluid deforms continuously under the influence of shear stress, no
matter how small.
• In solids stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids stress is
proportional to strain rate. When a constant shear force is applied,
a solid eventually stops deforming, at some fixed strain angle,
whereas a fluid never stops deforming and approaches a certain
rate of strain.
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What is a Fluid?
WHAT IS A FLUID? Cont.
⚫ Fluids are composed of molecules with relatively larger
distances between molecules and therefore the attractive forces
between molecules are smaller than in solids.

⚫ A fluid is a substance that is capable of flowing and has no

definite shape but rather assumes the shape of the container in
which it is placed

⚫ A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when acted

upon by a shear stress of any magnitude

⚫ Examples of fluids: Air, Water, LPG, Diesel, etc

SOLIDS, LIQUIDS
AND GASES
⚫ An elastic solid is deformable as well;
however, its deformation stops in
balance with a force acting on it. Once
the body is released from the force, it
recovers to its original state. Elastic
Waistband. Rubber Bands.

⚫ A plastic solid is deformed continuously

during the application of a force. Once
the body is free from the force, it stops
deformation(nominally at least)

⚫ In contrast, fluid keeps deforming even

when it is free from force
SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND
GASES CONT.
⚫ Liquids are relatively incompressible. As a result, a given mass of
liquid will occupy a definite volume of space if it is not subjected to
extensive external pressures

⚫ Gas molecules are widely spaced with relatively small cohesive

forces.

⚫ Therefore if a gas is placed into a container and all external pressure

removed, it will expand until it fills the entire volume of the
container.

⚫ Gases are readily compressible. A gas is in equilibrium only when it

is completely enclosed. The volume (or density) of a gas is greatly
affected by changes in pressure or temperature or both.

⚫ It is therefore necessary to take account of changes of pressure and

temperature whenever dealing with gases.
SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES CONT
 Fluid Mechanics
• Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids either in motion (fluid dynamics) or at rest
(fluid statics) and the subsequent effects of the fluid upon the boundaries, which
may be either solid surfaces or interfaces with other fluids.

• Both gases and liquids are classified as fluids.

• The analysis of the behaviour of fluids is based upon the fundamental laws of
applied mechanics that relate to the conservation of mass–energy and the force–

CV 271: FLUID MECHANICS

momentum equation, together with other concepts and equations with which the
student who has already studied solid-body mechanics will be familiar.

• Also takes into account the forces within the fluid and their interaction between
the fluid and its boundaries.
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Fluid Mechanics
The study of fluid mechanics subdivides into:

❖ Fluid statics is the study of the behaviour of fluids at rest. Since for a
fluid at rest there can be no shearing forces all forces considered in fluid
statics are normal forces to the planes on which they act.

❖ Fluid kinematics deals with the geometry (streamlines and velocities)

of motion without consideration of the forces causing the motion.

CV 271: FLUID MECHANICS

Kinematics is concerned with a description of how fluid bodies move

❖ Fluid dynamics is concerned with the relations between velocities

and accelerations and the forces causing the motion.

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 WHY FLUID MECHANICS IS
IMPORTANT
⚫ Civil Engineering: Transport of river sediments, Pollution of air and water, Design of
piping systems, Flood control systems
⚫ Mechanical Engineering: Design of pumps, turbines, air-conditioning equipment,
pollution-control equipment, etc.
Petroleum engineering is the application of engineering to the exploration and production of
petroleum. Movement of oil in the ground involves flow through a porous medium. Petroleum
extraction involves flow of oil through passages in wells. Oil pipelines involve pumps and
conduit flow.
Hydraulics is the study of the flow of water through pipes, rivers, and open channels.
Hydraulics includes pumps and turbines and applications such as hydropower. Hydraulics is
important for ecology, policymaking, energy production, recreation, fish and game resources,
and water supply.
Hydrology is the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water throughout the
earth. Hydrology involves the hydraulic cycle and water resource issues.
Aerodynamics is the study of air flow. Topics include lift and drag on objects (e.g., airplanes,
automobiles, birds), shock waves associated with flow around a rocket, and the flow through a
supersonic or deLaval nozzle. Aerodynamics is important for the design of vehicles, for energy
conservation, and for understanding nature.
 UNITS, DIMENSIONS AND PHYSICAL
QUANTITIES
Physical quantities are used in all engineering disciplines. Such quantities have dimensions and units

A dimension is a category that represents a physical quantity such as mass, length, time, momentum,
force, acceleration, and energy. Secondary dimensions or derived dimensions such as momentum and
energy can be related to primary dimensions by using equations.

A unit assigns a number so that the dimension can be measured. For example, measurement of volume
(a dimension) can be expressed using units of liters.

All physical quantities are given by combining a few fundamental quantities. The units of such
fundamental quantities are called based units. A combination of two or more based units gives derived
units

The system in which length, mass, and time are adopted as basic quantities and from which the units of
other quantities are derived is called the absolute system of units. In the absolute system of units
length, mass and time are expressed respectively as L, M and T

All other quantities can be expressed in terms of these basic dimensions

 ABSOLUTE SYSTEM OF UNITS
MKS system of units
This is the system of units where the metre (m) is used for the unit of length, kilogram
(kg) for the unit of mass, and second (s) for the unit of time as the base units

CGS system of units

This is the system of units where the centimetre (cm) is used for length, gram (g) for
mass, and second (s) for time as the base units.

International system of units (SI)

There are seven fundamental SI units, namely: metre (m) for length, kilogram (kg) for
mass, second (s) for time, ampere (A) for electric current, kelvin (K) for
thermodynamic temperature, mole (mol) for mass quantity and candela (cd) for
intensity of light. Derived units consist of these units.
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

Some Fundamental Quantities

Some Derived Quantities

 SYSTEM AND CONTROL
VOLUME
In the study of fluid mechanics, we make use of the basic laws
in physics namely:
⚫ The conservation of matter (which is called the continuity
equation)
⚫ Newton’s second law (momentum equation)
⚫ Conservation of energy (1st law of thermodynamics)
⚫ Second law of thermodynamics and
⚫ Numerous subsidiary laws
 SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME
CONT
In employing the basic and subsidiary laws, either one of the following models of
application is adopted:

The activities of each and every given mass must be such as to satisfy the basic
laws and the pertinent subsidiary laws – SYSTEM.

A system is a predetermined identifiable quantity of fluid. It could be a particle or a

collection of particles. A system may change shape, position and thermal conditions but
must always contain the same matter

The activities of each and every volume in space must be such that the basic and
the pertinent subsidiary laws are satisfied – CONTROL VOLUME

A control volume refers to a definite volume designated in space usually with fixed shape.
The boundary of this volume is known as the control surface. A control volume mode is
useful in the analysis of situations where flow occurs into and out of a space.
SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME
CONT

A system
Control volume

Control surface
 CONTINUUM

A fluid is composed of molecules which may be widely spaced

apart, especially in the gas phase. Yet it is convenient to
disregard the atomic nature of the fluid and view it as
continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes, that is, a
continuum
The continuum idealization allows us to treat properties as
point functions and to assume that the properties vary
continually in space with no jump discontinuities.
This idealization is valid as long as the size of the system we
deal with is large relative to the space between the molecules
 FORCES ACTING ON FLUIDS
⚫ The force distributions which act on matter without the
requirement of direct contact are called body forces.
Examples are acceleration due to gravity, magnetic, inertia,
etc. Body forces are given on the basis of the force per unit
mass of the material acted on

⚫ Forces on a body that arise from direct contact of the body

with other surrounding media are called surface forces.
Examples pressure force, frictional force, surface tension
CLASS ASSIGNMENT 1: fundamentals of
Fluid Mechanics
1. is a substance that deforms continuously when acted upon by a shear stress of any .(1)
2. is the study of the behaviour of fluids at rest whiles is concerned with the relations between
velocities and accelerations and the forces causing the motion.(1)
3. What are the basic dimensions of Pressure (note: Pressure = Force/Area). (3)

4. State whether the following statements are True of False

5. A system is a predetermined identifiable quantity of fluid.(1)
6. Forces on a body that arise from direct contact of the body with other surrounding media are called
body forces.(1)
7. A combination of two or more based or fundamental units gives derived units.(1)
8. The force distributions which act on matter without the requirement of direct contact are called body
forces.(1)
9. Length (L), Mass (M) and Time(T) are not fundamental quantities.
 FLUID PROPERTIES: Extensive
and Intensive
⚫ Property : Is a characteristic of a substance which is invariant when the substance
is in a particular state

⚫ In each state the condition of the substance is unique and is described by its
properties. The properties of a fluid system uniquely determine the state of the
system

⚫ Extensive Properties: those properties of the substance whose measure depends

on the amount of the substance present (weight, momentum, volume, energy)

⚫ Intensive Properties: those properties whose measure is independent of the

amount of substance present (temperature, pressure, viscosity, surface tension,
mass density etc. volume per unit mass v and energy per unit mass e)
 FLUID PROPERTIES
Each fluid property is important in a particular field of application

⚫ Viscosity plays an important role in the problems of hydraulic

friction

⚫ Mass density is important in uniform flow

⚫ Compressibility is a factor in water hammer

⚫ Vapour pressure is a factor in high velocity flow

 DENSITY AND UNIT (SPECIFIC)
WEIGHT
Density and unit weight are the two important parameters that indicate the
heaviness of a substance. Density is the mass per unit volume. Mathematically
expressed as;
𝒎
𝝆 = , 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
𝒗
At standard atmospheric pressure (760 mmHg or 101.3kPa) and temperature (4o
C), ρw = 1000 kg/m3

Specific volume: Is the reciprocal of the density ie. the volume occupied per
unit mass of fluid.
𝒗 𝟏 𝒎𝟑
𝑽𝒔 = = ,
𝒎 𝝆 𝒌𝒈
 DENSITY AND UNIT (SPECIFIC)
WEIGHT Cont.

Specific (unit) weight: γ (gamma) : Is the weight per unit

volume of the substance (is indication of how much a unit
volume of a substance weighs.)

𝒘 𝒎𝒈 𝟑
𝜸= = = 𝝆𝒈, 𝑵/𝒎
𝒗 𝒗
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Specific Gravity: Is the ratio of the weight density of a
substance to the weight of density of standard liquid
(water). SG of mercury is 13.6. This simply means that
mercury is 13.6 times heavier than water

𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲𝐨𝐟𝐒𝐮𝐛𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝜸𝒔
𝐒𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲, 𝐒𝐆 =
𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲𝐨𝐟𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝜸𝒘
𝝆𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
=
𝝆𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
 IDEAL GASES

Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature, and

density (or specific volume) of a substance is called an
equation of state
The simplest and best-known equation of state for substances in
P𝑣ideal-gas
the gas phase is the = 𝑅𝑇 𝑜𝑟equation
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇of state, expressed as
where P is the absolute pressure, v is the specific volume, T is
the thermodynamic (absolute) temperature, 𝜌 is the density, and
R is the gas constant.
Relates thermodynamic properties
 VISCOSITY
⚫ Viscosity is the property of a fluid that offers internal resistance
to flow.
⚫ Fluids offer resistance to a shearing force
⚫ Viscosity is a property of a fluid that determines the amount of
resistance
⚫ Viscosities of liquids vary inversely with temperature, while
viscosities of gases vary directly with temperature
VISCOSITY CONT.
𝜏

Shear stress is defined as 𝜏 (tau)

𝐹
𝜏=
𝐴
 VISCOSITY CONT.
Newton’s Law of Viscosity
𝑥
Thus, the shear stress at any point in the
Shear strain ( ∅) = fluid,
𝑦

𝑥 𝑑𝑢
Rate of shear strain =
𝑦𝑡 𝜏=𝜇
𝑥
𝑑𝑦
V elocity(u) =
𝑡

𝑢 where μ (dynamic viscosity) is the

∴ R𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 sℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑦 proportionality factor
𝜏 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∗
𝑢 μ depends on the fluid under
𝑦
consideration
VISCOSITY CONT.
Experiments show that, other quantities being held constant, F (Force) is
directly proportional to the A (area) and the velocity U and inversely
proportional to the distance between the plates Y
 DYNAMIC AND KINEMATIC
VISCOSITY
The constant of proportionality, μ, in the above equation is
called the dynamic viscosity with units Ns/m2

Kinematic Viscosity ∪ (nu) is the ratio of the dynamic

viscosity to the density of 𝜈the fluid.
𝝁
∪= , 𝒎²/𝒔
𝝆
 NEWTONIAN AND NON- NEWTONIAN
FLUIDS
Not all fluids show exactly the same relation between stress and
the rate of deformation

Newtonian fluids: are fluids for which shear stress is directly

proportional to the rate of angular deformation or a fluid for
which the viscosity, 𝝁 is a constant for a fixed temperature and
pressure. eg. Air, water, etc. Petroleum, kerosene, steam.
Non-Newtonian fluids: are fluids which have a variable
proportionality (viscosity 𝝁 ) between stress and deformation
rate. In such cases, the proportionality may depend on the
length of time of exposure to stress as well as the magnitude of
the stress eg. Plastics, paint, blood, ink, etc
 COMPRESSIBLE AND
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS

Compressible fluids are fluids whose specific volume, v or

(density, ρ) is a function of pressure

An incompressible fluid is a fluid whose density is not changed

by external forces acting on the fluid

Hydrodynamics is the study of the behaviour of incompressible

fluids whereas gas dynamics is the study of compressible fluid
COMPRESSIBILITY OF A FLUID
Compressibility of a fluid is a measure of the change in volume of the
fluid when it is subjected to outside force. It is defined in terms of an
average bulk modulus of elasticity, K

𝛥𝑝
𝐾=−
𝛥𝑉
𝑉
 SURFACE TENSION
Surface tension is explained from molecular theory
These forces F tend to pull the surface molecules tightly to the lower
layer and cause the surface to behave as though it were a membrane.
The magnitude of this force per unit length is defined as surface tension σ
(sigma)

The effect of surface tension is to reduce the surface of a free body of a

liquid to the minimum

Consider forces acting on a spherical drop of radius, r

Forces due to internal pressure = pπr
For equilibrium, pπr = 2πrσ
p=2σ/r
RELATIVE MAGNITUDE OF
MOLECULAR SURFACE PRESSURE
COHESIVE AND ADHESIVE
FORCES

Case 1: Convex Meniscus Case 2: Concave Meniscus

COHESIVE AND ADHESIVE
FORCES CONT.
If the intermolecular cohesive forces between two
molecules of the fluid is greater than the adhesive forces
between the molecules of the container and the molecule
of the fluid, - a convex meniscus is obtained

On the other hand if the adhesive force of molecule of the

container and fluid is greater than the cohesive force of
the fluid molecules, case (b) -concave meniscus is
obtained
 CAPILLARITY
⚫ Is the rise or fall of a column of fluid (in a narrow
tube called capillary tube) inserted in the fluid

⚫ In the contact area between the fluid and

container, we can have two cases;
⚫ 1) Convex meniscus
⚫ 2) Concave meniscus
CAPILLARY RISE AND DEPRESSION
 CAPILLARY RISE
The rise or fall in the capillary tube is given by:

𝟒𝛔cos𝜽
𝐡=
𝜸𝒅
Where;
h – capillary rise
σ – surface tension force per unit length
d – diameter
γ – weight density of fluid and