INDEX

S. No Topic Page No.

Week 1
1 Magnetic Circuit and Transformer 1
2 Magnetising Current from B-H Curve 11
3 Ideal Transformer, Dot Convention and Phasor Diagram 20
4 Operation of Ideal Operation with Load Connected 30
5 Equivalent Circuit of Ideal Transformer 39
Rating of Single Phase Transformer Rated Current and Rated Voltage
6 with Example 47
7 Transformer with Multiple Coils 56
Week 2
8 Modelling of Practical Transformer - I 66
9 Modelling of Practical Transformer - II 79
10 Modelling of Practical Transformer - III 88
11 Core Loss - Eddy Current Loss 96
12 Factors on Eddy Current Loss Depends 106
13 Hysteresis Loss 117
14 Exact Equivalent Circuit 125
15 Approximate Equivalent Circuit 135
16 Determination of Equivalent Circuit Parameters - No Load Test 143
Week 3
17 Short Circuit Test 156
18 Choosing Sides to Carry Out O.C / S.C Test 165
19 Efficiency of Transformer - Losses 176
20 Efficiency (Contd.) 187
21 Condition for Maximum Efficiency When Load Power Factor Constant 196
Family of Efficiency Curve at Various Power Factor and Energy
22 Efficiency 205
23 Load Description and Energy Efficiency 216
24 Regulation its Expression 224
25 Regulation its Expression (Contd.) 232
Week 4
26 Auto Transformer - Introduction 244
27 AutoTransformer versus Two Winding Transformer 255
28 AutoTransformer versus Two Winding Transformer (Contd.) 264
29 Numerical Problems on Ideal Auto Transformer 274
30 Two Winding Transformer Connected as Auto Transformer 285
31 Practical Auto Transformer 294
32 Equivalent Circuit of an Auto Transformer 305
33 Polarity Test and Sumpner Test 314
Week 5
34 3 Phase Transformer Using 3 Single Phase Transformer 324
35 Various Connections of 3-Phase Transformer - I 333
36 Various Connections of 3-Phase Transformer - II 344
37 Vector Group of 3-Phase Transformer 354
38 Vector Group (Contd.) 362
39 Open Delta Connection 372
40 3-Phase Cone Type and Shell Type Transformer 382
41 Zig Zag Connection 393
42 Effect 3rd Harmonic Exciting Current and Flux 402
43 Choosing Transformer Connection 411
44 Choosing Transformer Connection (Contd.) 423
Week 6
45 Phase Conversion using Transformer Scott Connection 432
46 Scott Connection (Contd.) 443
47 3 Phase to 6 Phase Conversion O.C / S.C Test on 3 Phase Transformer 453
48 Parallel Operation of Transformers - I 464
49 Parallel Operation of Transformers - II 475
50 Parallel Operation of Transformers - III 484
51 Specific Magnetic and Electric Loadings 492
52 Cooling of Transformer and Fillings of Transformer 502
53 Output Equation of 3- Phase Transformer 514
Week 7
54 Introduction to D.C Machine 524
55 Single Conductor D.C Generator / Motor Operation 533
56 Homopolar D.C Generator 547
57 Homopolar D.C Motor 554
58 Introduction to Rotating D.C Machines 564
59 Armature Winding of D.C Machine - I 575
60 Armature Winding of D.C Machine - II 588
61 Armature Winding of D.C Machine - III 596
Week 8
62 Generated Voltage Across the Armature 604
63 Electromagnetic Troque in D.C Machine 615
64 Generator and Motor Operation - Basics 624
65 O.C.C and Load Characteristic of Separately Excited Generators 635
66 Voltage Build Up in Shunt Generator 643
67 Load Characteristic of Shunt Generator 651
68 Qualitative Discussion on Armature Reaction 661
69 Ill Effects of Armature Reaction 671
70 Compensating and Interpoles 680
Week 9
71 Armature Reaction (Contd.) 689
Field Flux Density, Armature Flux Density and Resultant Field
72 Distribution 698
73 Field Patterns for Both Motor and Generators 707
74 Demagnetising and Cross Magnetising mmf for Brush Shifted Machine 717
75 Calculation of Compensating, Interpole and Series Field Turns 726
76 Estimating Armature and Field Resistance from its Rating 734
77 Power Flow Diagram, Rotational Loss 742
78 Shunt Motor Basic Equation 752
Week 10
79 Starting of D.C Motor - 3- Point Starter 761
80 Speed Control of Shunt Motor - I 772
81 Speed Control of Shunt Motor - II 782
82 Speed Control of Shunt Motor - III 792
83 Field Control (Contd.) 801
84 D.C Motor Braking 811
85 Introduction to Series Motor 820
Week 11
86 Series Motor Characteristics 832
87 Series Motor Speed Control 842
88 Universal Motor 852
89 Swinburne Test 861
90 Hopkinson Test 870
Week 12
91 Efficiency Calculation 879
92 Field Test on D.C Series Motor 889
93 Simplex Wave winding 899
94 Wave Winding (Contd.) 909
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 01
Magnetic Circuit and Transformer

Welcome to this course on Electrical Machines – I, where we will discuss about

Transformers and DC machines. These are the two major topics. And we will begin with
transformers.

Transformers as we will see will generally consist of a magnetic core material made of
soft iron, over which there will be at least two coils wound. And one of the coil will be
energized with AC source of known frequency and in the other coil will get voltage of
same frequency, but at different levels. So, that is primarily the job of a transformer is, that
is suppose you have a 200 volt 50 Hertz supply, you require 400 volt 50 Hertz supply, then
I will use a transformer to change the level of the voltage from 200 to 400 volt keeping the
frequency constant.

It can be similarly a step down situation where you have a say 400 volt you want to step it
down to 100 volt level then use a transformer. Transformer is a static device its efficiency
is very large. In case of power transformer efficiency could be as large as 99 percent unlike
a rotating machine efficiency which may be 80 percent, 85 percent. Very good efficiency
because there is no rotating parts in it.

There will be of course, losses which accounts for that 1 percent or 2 percent loss in power,
that is there because of conductors will carry current it will have a 𝑖 2 𝑟 loss. And also core
we will see when it is having a time varying flux then also there will be heat loss inside
the core of the material. Anyway, those things we will discuss in detail.

1
(Refer Slide Time: 02:58)

But it looks like then we have to deal with this situations, that is suppose you have a
magnetic core of this kind ok. And it has got a thickness, like this in 3 dimension I am
trying to draw ok, and it will be like this. So, this is called it is a made of soft iron and I
have drawn it right now as a solid iron block. We will see what is to be done because solid
irons are not used.

But this is the structure of the iron and over which there will be coils wound like this ok.
When there is a single coil and there is a core like this, core material then if this coil carries
current it will produce flux inside the core. So, we start with magnetic circuit ok. We just
review that because that will be essential in understanding the.

Student: (Refer Time: 04:51).

Magnetic circuit because there is a magnetic material, there will be coils wound over it
and the coils are supposed to carry current therefore, they are going to produce flux in the
core. And we know that if this is the direction of the current, suppose DC current first then
the direction of the current will be like this in the coil, I. Suppose we have connected a DC
source this is the current. Then what happens, in the core there will be a flux produced 𝜑.
Direction of the flux will be as you know you wrap your fingers around the coils and thumb
will give you the direction of the flux produced.

2
Of course, if it is a constant DC current whatever flux will be produced inside the core that
too will have constant values; and how to estimate that flux? You know we apply the
ampere circuital law to find out the flux produced in the core. For example, you see if I
draw the sectional view of the core, like this, then if you draw the sectional view the
conductors can be shown to be like this, this is the coil sections. How many coils sections
you will see? As is the number of turns of this one. And the direction of the current as
shown can be shown by cross and dot like this. This will be cross current, cross and these
will be dot, is it not?

Then the flux inside the core what do we do is we take a mean path of the flux which I am
showing by dotted lines. This is the flux and this red one is the length of the mean path,
length of mean path of the flux that length let me call 𝑙. If these are 𝑁 then ampere circuital
laws says that

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑

⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐻

⃗ and 𝑙 are same.

is it. But in this case the direction of 𝐻

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
Therefore, what will come out to be 𝐻 ⃗ and
𝑑𝑙 that dot product because the direction of 𝐻
⃗ , direction of 𝐵
𝑙 as I move they are same, direction of 𝐻 ⃗ , direction of 𝜑 they are all same

and also length is like that, 𝐻 ⃗⃗⃗ means 𝐻

⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 ⃗ into 𝑙 should be equal to the current enclosed.
How much current is enclosed by this path? 𝑁𝐼. We know this, so I will not spend much
of this time. So

𝑁𝐼
𝐻=
𝑙

⃗ then I will calculate

Its unit is ampere turns per meter this will be the case. Once I know 𝐻
⃗.
𝐵

𝑁𝐼
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜇 𝑟 𝐻
𝐵 ⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟
𝑙

⃗
where 𝜇𝑟 is called the relative permeability of the core and if the relationship between 𝐵
⃗ is linear, then 𝜇𝑟 is a constant value and so this will be equal to 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 and for 𝐻
and 𝐻 ⃗ I

3
 𝑁𝐼
can write . Then the then I go here, then the flux produced which is in weber will be
𝑙

equal to:

𝑁𝐼
𝜑 = 𝐵 × 𝐴 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴
𝑙

What is this 𝐴? 𝐴 is this cross sectional area that is this, this, this, this, through which flux
will be flowing, so, this is 𝐴 ok.

So, this cross sectional area is perpendicular to the flux at any sections therefore, flux in
𝑁𝐼
weber will be 𝐵 × 𝐴 and 𝐵 already I have calculated, so I substitute that 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 , this is
𝑙

𝐻 into area. Now, if you see this can be written as 𝑁𝐼 I am sorry, if you see this it will be
1 𝑙
𝑁𝐼 and bring all the other things in the denominator which will become 𝜇 .
0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴

𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝐼
𝜑 = 𝐵 × 𝐴 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴=
𝑙 1 𝑙
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴

Why I have written in this fashion is this, that this is the cause I can identify this, this is
the cause and 𝜑 is the effect, is not? I have supplied with mmf and this magnetic circuit
returns you a flux 𝜑. And how to calculate that flux? Mmf, this is called mmf and you this
is called reluctance. And that is why we name magnetic circuit.

In case of electrical circuit,

𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝐸𝑀𝐹
𝐼= =
𝑅 𝜌𝑙
𝐴

𝜌𝑙
and if you recall 𝐸𝑀𝐹 is 𝐸𝑀𝐹 voltage resistance is 𝐴 . So, there is a striking similarity and

that is why it is called reluctance. Reluctance limits the value of the flux when you apply
an mmf. Although, the mmf and the flux in electrical circuit as you know the circuit is like
𝐸
this resistance and this is your EMF say 𝑅. And this is the current, but in magnetic circuit

this mmf and this flux wherever it is flowing they are totally decoupled, I mean it is not
that flux is in the conductor.

4
But nonetheless this equation prompts us to simplify the matter and say that as so far as
calculation of mmf is concerned you do it like this 𝑁𝐼 and connect it by a reluctance which
is shown by a curly letter ℜ and here you show the flux. Although, in this diagram I show
they are as if connected, but they are not in practice, but only prompted by this relationship
corresponding in the existing in the electrical circuit, it is better, that is why it is called
magnetic circuit.

So, if mmf is known. I will first calculate, what is the reluctance? Reluctance of the
magnetic circuit path depends upon its geometry, what is the length, what is the cross
sectional area, cross sectional area is this one of this, this is the cross sectional area then
𝑁𝐼
you calculate 𝐻 = and then multiply it with 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 to get 𝐵, then multiply with 𝐴 and get
𝑙

that one. Therefore, in a simple excitation with DC current this value of the flux whatever
you will get, if you divide the mmf with reluctance that too will be constant and its
direction will be also fixed in this case it is clockwise ok.

The reverse problem is also very simple. In that case I will say that I want to create a
certain amount of flux what should be the current necessary. So, I will calculate reluctance,
reluctance into flux will give me 𝑁𝐼 and if I know the number of turns I will simply divide
that 𝑁𝐼 with 𝑁 to get the current necessary. Anyway, these are known stuff and we have a
magnetic circuit like this ok. And I will presume that you know about it, so no question of
further telling about it. Now, we will go to next page, next page.

Student: L that keyboard is (Refer Time: 16:21) useful.

Let us go to next page.

5
(Refer Slide Time: 16:42)

Now, I will tell you that what happens if the same magnetic circuit that is this one, this
point you listen very carefully and this is the most interesting thing, sorry, I am sorry. Let
me try to draw another thing here, that is the core I am drawing you must understand. Why
it is getting circle, anyway.

So, suppose this is the core of the material let me draw slowly ok. And suppose you have
the let us consider a single coil same magnetic circuit with 𝑁 turns, but this time what I
will do is this I will connect it to an AC source this is AC source of known voltage.

For example,

𝑣1 (𝑡) = √2𝑉1 cos 𝜔𝑡

𝑉1 is equal to √2 I am sorry will write it like this 𝑣1 (𝑡) is equal to √2𝑉1, some say sin 𝜔𝑡
or cos 𝜔𝑡 I will write it applied voltage to this coil. Now, if you pass a sinusoidal voltage
across the coil, in case of DC circuit magnetic circuit what I was telling when the current
is constant then 𝑁𝐼 you calculate mmf divide it by reluctance get the flux. But in AC circuit
AC magnetic circuit the coil is connected across a AC supply voltage of known frequency,
rms value 𝑉1 and supply frequency is 𝑓.

Then what I am telling, first I will tell this statement the flux in the core gets fixed I mean
no question of once the supply voltage and rms value is known, I mean we do not start

6
telling that I will first calculate current, then calculate mmf, then divide that mmf with
reluctance to get the flux, not like that; it will be the moment you apply a known rms
voltage at certain frequency 𝑓 where 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 and AC voltage across the coil.

The level of flux which will be produced which will be also time varying it is expected
flux gets fixed. Now, what is the reason for that? Reason for that is it is expected whatever
current it draws that will be also sinusoidally varying, because after all it is some sort of
coil or inductance we have connected across an AC supply, some alternating current it will
draw and since current value and magnitude is changing with time the this 𝜑(𝑡) too will
be time dependent, sometimes it will be flowing to clockwise sometimes in the
anticlockwise direction, sometimes it will be 0 when the instantaneous value of the current
will be 0 and so on. But the moment an alternating flux is created inside the core of the
coil, inside the core of this magnetic circuit between these two points there appears an AC
induced voltage.

Suppose the number of turns of this coil is 𝑁 or say 𝑁1 single coil 𝑁1 . Then according to
Faraday if there is a coil if there is a time varying flux in the coil then this coil itself become
𝑑𝜑
a seat of EMF. The value of instantaneous value of which is some −𝑁1 about that sign
𝑑𝑡

it is not necessarily so important, but what I am telling this is the induced voltage the flux
linking the coil is changing with time and therefore, there will be induced voltage across
this coil.

In this case this flux is created by the current carried by the coil itself, but it does not
matter, Faraday says, if there is a change of flux rate of change of flux exists linking a coil
it is time varying then between these two points it will become a seat of EMF. Negative
sign is the Lenz’s law it tells that the polarity of this induced voltage will be such that it
will try to oppose the very cause for which it is due.

For example, this coil can be modeled as here is your AC supply 𝑣1 (𝑡) I have applied.
Then what I am telling across this coil if I neglect the resistance of the coil there appears
another source here and that induced voltage is 𝐸1 and the polarity of this voltage will be
𝑑𝜑
such that if this side is is positive then it will try to oppose the cause, so its polarity will
𝑑𝑡

be like this ok. Or in other words what I am telling, so these thing can be now be modeled
like these applied voltage and there is another induced EMF.

7
In case of DC magnetic circuit DC 1 will not be there, there is applied voltage which is
𝑉
constant. Of course, current will be limited by the resistance of the circuit that is why
𝑅

current gets fixed 𝐼. But here what I am telling the induced voltage in the coil will be same
as the applied voltage, only thing about the polarity its polarity will be such that it will try
to oppose the cause very cause that is the flux it will try to oppose it. What was the reason
for flux existing and increasing? This current it was increasing in the positive direction.
So, it will try to limit reduce that value of the current that was the reason.

Anyway, after this I can say that in this loop KVL equation is to be satisfied. Therefore,
applied rms voltage must be equal to the rms voltage of 𝐸1 what else, is not? Now, you see
this flux

𝜑 = 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜔𝑡

will be some 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 , say let us forget about this cos 𝜔𝑡 sin suppose I start with these one
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 equal to sin 𝜔𝑡. Why I am assuming this? Because the circuit cannot, but draw
sinusoidally varying current let call 𝜑 = 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜔𝑡. If that be the case then the rms value
of the then the induced voltage in the coil

𝑑𝜑1
𝑒1 = 𝑁1 = 𝑁1 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡

ok.

If you differentiate these this will become equal to 𝑁1 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡. This will the value
of the induced voltage, is not? So, what will be the rms value of that voltage? It will be

𝑁1 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜔
𝐸1 = = √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁1
√2

For 𝜔 if you substitute 2𝜋𝑓, so it will become √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁1 . See I am not so much
bothered about this −1, I should not struggle, my intention here is to calculate what is the
rms value of the induced voltage ok. Differentiate it, peak value you get divide it by √2
and that will give you rms voltage.

8
What I am telling is in the circuit KVL equation must be satisfied 𝑅 is vanishingly small.
So, applied rms voltage must be equal to the induced rms voltage it cannot be other than
that. Therefore, if the applied rms voltage is 𝑉1 it must be equal to

𝑉1 = √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁1

it has to be nothing other than that.

So, what I have told you that in case of AC same magnetic circuit which I considered with
DC excitation, if you connect it to an external voltage source which is alternating in nature
sinusoidally and the rms value of that applied voltage is known current whatever flows has
to be sinusoidal therefore, 𝜑 created inside the core of this magnetic material too will be
time dependent and vary sinusoidally. And if this flux vary sinusoidally then Faraday tells
us that across this two points; this two points there will be induced voltage.

What is the magnitude of this induced voltage rms value? That magnitude of this rms
voltage is √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁1 . Applied rms voltage is known 𝑉1, induced rms voltage is known
capital 𝐸1 and these two must be same because KVL is to be satisfied in the primary. If
that be the case in this equation what are the things I know, 𝑉1 is known, supply frequency
is known, 𝑁1 is known number of turns and your

𝑉1
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
√2𝜋𝑓𝑁1

This is the crucial thing.

As I told you see mind you in case of alternating magnetic circuit if you apply an AC
voltage the level of flux 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 is decided, decided by whom? By the supply voltage rms
value by the supply frequency and number of turns; so, is it not something different from
DC circuit; DC circuit you apply some known current, DC current in the circuit calculate
mmf divide by reluctance, get the flux. But here it is somewhat interesting.

The moment you connect an AC voltage 𝑉1 and 𝑓 I can tell you the flux is sinusoidally
varying. What is the maximum value of that flux? It is fixed it is this one. Therefore, this
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 how much will be produced inside the core is decided. I do not have any control
over it. In fact, I will go a step ahead I will tell you. If this core material it has got a

9
permeability of 𝜇𝑟1 you replace this core material with another magnetic material having
relative permeability 𝜇𝑟2 then also 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 is 𝑉1 by these one.

So, no matter what is the kind of magnetic material it is good magnetic material, back bad
magnetic material, the moment supply rms voltage and supply frequency are known 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥
in the core is decided. A very crucial point to go ahead with the concept of transformer.
We will continue with that.

Thank you.

10
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 02
Magnetizing Current from B-H Curve

Welcome to the second lecture on the Electrical Machine - I course, where we will be
primarily discussing about transformers and DC machines. So, we started in our first
lecture about transformers.

Transformer essentially is nothing but at least two coupled coils, wound on a common
magnetic circuit and one coil will be excited with alternating source and will get voltage
in the other coil. Details will discuss. But before that we told you in the last class that a
magnetic circuit essentially comprises of a magnetic core which is a ferro magnetic
material and it is wound by coil, may be by several coils. One of the coil is suppose
carrying current we discussed in our last lecture what will be the flux and what will be its
direction.

If you pass DC current, in case of DC magnetic circuit then we say it is a DC magnetic

circuit, you excite the coil with some constant current and what will be generated is a
constant amount of flux in the core. The amount of flux can be calculated from the equation

𝑁𝐼
𝜑=
ℜ (𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)

if it is a linear magnetic circuit. And also, the direction of the flux whether it will be
clockwise or anticlockwise can be figured out by knowing the direction of the current in
the coil.

So, in case of DC magnetic circuit you excite it with a DC current and there will be flux
produced and to calculate the flux there are two options you can use that formula that is
𝑁𝐼
or alternatively if the B-H curve is available which also encompasses the
ℜ (𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝑁𝐼
non-linearity case. Then you calculate first 𝑁𝐼, then calculate that is 𝐻 from the
𝑙

geometry of the magnetic circuit, you get the mean flux length and from the B-H curve

11
corresponding to that 𝐻 read what is 𝐵 produced and 𝐵 multiplied by the cross sectional
area of the magnetic circuit will give you the flux, that was in DC.

Also in DC if you want to create a definite amount of flux you can go in the reverse way
that is if the flux to be generated is this much then calculate first 𝐵 then from the B-H
𝑁𝐼
curve you get the value of 𝐻 corresponding to that 𝐵 and from that 𝐻 is nothing, but .I
𝑙

will be able to calculate the mmf required.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:52)

In case of AC magnetic circuit that is what we were talking about the interesting thing is
you will excite the coil with a suppose this is the core of the magnetic circuit, this is the
core material and over which there is winding ok. Only one coil let us first understand.
And what I am telling is this coil I will excite it from a sinusoidally time varying voltage
say 𝑣1 (𝑡) which has got an rms value of 𝑉1 , say 𝑉1, 𝑉1 is the rms voltage. And suppose the
number of turns of the coil is 𝑁1 and this is the core of the material. See it is time varying
current and also, we neglect winding resistance which is suppose vanishingly small
winding resistance.

And also let us assume that all the flux; all the flux created is confined to the core only, is
confined to the core that is in other words that is no leakage flux. So, all the flux that will
be produced will be confined to the core. And there will be several lines I have just drawn.
I am so sorry, I forgot to do that.

12
Student: (Refer Time: 06:19).

So, thank you. So, this is the flux path and suppose let us also assume the instantaneous
current is 𝑖(𝑡) ok. So, with winding resistance is neglected without going thinking too
much about it I can only say this much look there is a coil, having no resistance and
therefore, this coil will perhaps act as an ideal inductor and therefore, it will draw some
current 90 degree lagging ok. The value of the current will be decided by the inductance
of the coil. That way one can think, but I will tell the same thing in slightly different way.

Suppose, it draws current and this current will be also sinusoidal. Why not it will be
sinusoidal because your supply voltage is sinusoidal there cannot be anything else. Now,
the moment this sinusoidal voltage is applied, the flux developed direction of the flux will
be also time varying.

When 𝐼 is 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝜑 will be 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 , when 𝐼 is 0 𝜑 will be 0, because current is expected to

be sinusoidal why not and therefore, it will be like this. But one should also remember in
this circuit this flux is time varying therefore, this coil will become, this coil means coil
𝑑𝜑
with 𝑁1 turns will become a seat of EMF that is 𝑁1 because of Faraday’s law. And the
𝑑𝑡

polarity of this induced EMF will be such that it will try to oppose the very cause for which
it is (Refer Time: 08:56).

Let us also tell about one thing about 𝑖(𝑡), let us consider this to be the instantaneous
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝜑
direction of the current and not only that 𝑑𝑡 is positive that is is positive, it is increasing,
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
ok. So, 𝑖(𝑡) is positive and also 𝑑𝑡 is positive. That is current is increasing and also having
𝑑𝜑
a positive slope ok. Therefore, in the direction shown is also positive that is what we
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜑
are attributed to time ok; may be negative, but these will be taken care of by the
𝑑𝑡

equation. But this is the two things I have attributed to 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑖(𝑡) is positive that is what I
𝑑𝑖
have assumed and not only that 𝑑𝑡 is also positive and that is done.

𝑑𝜑
Therefore, is also positive; that means, at this instant flux linkage with turns 𝑁1 is
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜑
positive number it is increasing, is positive. And what is the cause of this induced
𝑑𝑡

voltage in this coil 𝑁1 ? Because 𝑖(𝑡) is increasing, therefore, polarity of this induced EMF
will be such it will try to oppose this increase in current 𝑖(𝑡). That is why it will oppose

13
the supply voltage, mind you I have assumed supply voltage like this. So, this is the thing
a single coil excited by AC will have some induced voltage here 𝐸1 and this without
writing any equations I can tell instantaneous value of this induced voltage ok.

Therefore, applied voltage and induced voltage. And as I told you it is a magnetic circuit
only thing coil is excited by a voltage source AC voltage source. Now, in this case what
happens second argument was that ok, there is expected to be current is varying
𝑑𝜑
sinusoidally therefore, flux will also vary sinsusoidally, fellow will be also sinusoidally
𝑑𝑡

it will be changing therefore, induced voltage 𝐸1 too has to be sinusoidal.

What will be the nature of this induced voltage in relation to 𝑉1? This too will be in same
time phase because KVL is to be satisfied only thing this sense in which 𝐸1 is acting is
opposite to this sense of 𝑉1 applied to this circuit that is if 𝐸1 was allowed to drive current
alone it would have driven current from right to left.

So, this is the Lenz’s law that is the induced voltage will oppose the supply voltage
essentially. But nonetheless this two voltages will have same with respect to time I if you
draw the phasor diagram I will draw this is 𝑉1 and this is also equal to 𝐸1 has to be, that is
both 𝑉1 and 𝐸1 are in phase. In books many of the books they will show 𝑉1 is like this, 𝐸1
is in opposition to indicate that 𝐸1 acts in opposition with 𝑉1, but I will not do that, because
I know time phasor means what with respect to time how 𝑉1 is changing and how 𝐸1 is
changing. When 𝑉1 will be maximum 𝐸1 too will be maximum and so on. So, they are in
time phase.

So, I will go by this way of looking at the things, because time phasor I know if there are
two quantities 𝑖1 (𝑡) and 𝑖2 (𝑡), some currents in two different branch and if there in time
phase there is when 𝑖1 attains maximum 𝑖2 also attains maximum they are in phase. So,
draw along same line why not. So, mind you this is the thing.

In this loop in this coil loop KVL is to be satisfied therefore, the rms value of the applied
voltage at rms value of the induced voltage they are to be same and has to be we have seen
that. Therefore, what is known to me? 𝑉1 is the rms value of the applied voltage. In my
last class I show the rms value of this induced voltage is nothing, but

𝐸1 = √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁1

14
What is 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 ? 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the sinusoidally varying flux peak value of that. So, this is the
equation Therefore, your this equation is true.

𝑉1 = √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁1

This 𝜑(𝑡) can be expressed in terms of say

𝜑(𝑡) = 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos 𝜔𝑡

differentiate that last time we did that. So, the rms value of the applied voltage is equal to
𝑑𝜑
rms value of the induced voltage which I got from 𝑁1 this thing is your 𝑒1 rms value
𝑑𝑡

of that. How did you get? Put 𝜑(𝑡) = 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos 𝜔𝑡 differentiate it and peak value of that
divided by √2. So, this is the thing. This equation implies that this is this a most important
statement that phi max is equal to

𝑉1
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
√2𝜋𝑓𝑁1

In other words, what I am trying to tell, in case of DC circuit excite with DC current 𝑁𝐼 is
known then calculate flux, but in case of the same coil which is excited from an rms voltage
𝑉1
sinusoidally varying 𝑉1 the value of the peak value of the flux is fixed . That is no
√2𝜋𝑓𝑁1

question of trying to calculate current then calculate mmf, then flux unlike DC circuit.
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 gets decided, decided by whom? Decided by this two numbers, rms value of the
supply voltage and applied frequency. Of course, this is the peak value of the flux. How
flux is changing? Sinusoidally.

If you want to describe it as 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 as a sine function then write it 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜔𝑡 or
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos 𝜔𝑡 whichever is convenient to you. And this flux is also sinusoidally varying
with the same supply frequency 𝑓. Therefore, to describe a sinusoidal function completely
what you need is its peak value and the frequency, so 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 . So, we say that if a coil is
excited from a sinusoidal voltage source the value of 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 gets fixed means the value of
flux gets fixed in the core of the machine ok. So, this is the thing one should remember
very carefully ok.

Now, let us go to a new page after learning these. So, in this a magnetic circuit once again
this is the thing, so we now know this is what is going to happen ok. Now, I will ask you

15
I will refer to back these once again re-drawing is not necessary. Now, what I am telling
is suppose I want to know and what is the another important implication of this equation,
that is if this core material is replaced by another core material other things remaining
same, that is same voltage you apply with same number of turns only thing replace these
magnetic material with another magnetic material, then also 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 will remain same.

In other words, if 𝜇𝑟 changes change it by a different magnetic material 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 you cannot
alter, it is solely decided by this 𝑉1 and the supply frequency. They say the last word about
the strength of the flux which will be created inside the core, nobody else definitely not
the relative permeability of the core material. Supply voltage and frequency is fixed 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥
is decided.

Then how to apply the magnetic circuit problem; then rather relevant question will be if
that be the case, I would like to know what will be the current drawn, suppose you connect
an ammeter in series with this line. And I ask you that, it is a magnetic material which has
got a B-H characteristics and I want to know what is 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 . So, let us not make this page
too dirty. Let us go to new page.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:26)

So, if necessary let me draw once again. So, suppose once again the same coil with 𝑁1
turns. Now, I ask I will apply an AC voltage with rms value 𝑉1 and frequency 𝑓 to this two
points with this side plus this side minus and I will connect an ammeter here. I am asking
you what will be the reading of this ammeter? That is the question I am asking.

16
The answer to that question will be you have applied 𝑉1 𝑓1 then I will say this will be time
𝑉1
varying flux and the peak value of the flux is 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 which is equal to , this I know.
√2𝜋𝑓𝑁1

Then what I will do is these I will calculate

𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐴 (𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒)

Suppose it is uniform constant, this is A, this is the cross sectional area. Then I will I have
to calculate the value of the current, I will ask what is the B-H characteristics of this
material, B-H characteristics of the material as you know it remains linear then it goes like
this. This is the B H curve of the material.

Then what I will do. So, what is 𝐼? That is the question asked. So, I will calculate 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 ,
then 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 and B-H characteristics is given to me, given. Then what I will do this 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 I
will come here whatever it is 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 and corresponding to this 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 I will note down how
much 𝐻 is necessary that I will call the 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 and this is nothing but

𝑁𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑙

What is 𝑙? 𝑙 is the mean length of the flux path which I am not drawing I have shown in
the previous. And from this I will say that

𝑙𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑁1

So, maximum value of the rms current is current drawn is known and then ammeter reading
if it is MI meter I will say

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼=
√2

This is the thing.

So, this the now tells me that if a single coil is excited from an alternating voltage source
of frequency 𝑓 and this coil is wound on a magnetic material whose B-H characteristics is
like this. This is known to you; I hope from magnetic circuit analysis. This portion is
saturation zone it is initially linear things like that. But the moment you apply a known

17
voltage and frequency flux peak value of the flux gets fixed and I am asking you what is
the current drawn?

So, what I will do is this I will 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 I will first calculate then I will calculate 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 , if
𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 is known then I will calculate 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 and from that I will be able to calculate 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
that divided by √2 will be the rms value of the current. This you must understand.

Therefore, in AC magnetic circuit everything is sinusoidally varying time varying thing,

𝜑 is time varying, instantaneous quantity is 𝑖(𝑡) is time varying, only thing is 𝑖(𝑡) and
𝜑(𝑡) will be in same phase, when 𝑖 is maximum, 𝜑 is maximum and so on. But the rms
voltage induced in this coil 𝐸1 they will be in phase with this supply voltage. When 𝑉1 is
maximum 𝐸1 too will be maximum and so on ok.

Now, suppose this part if you understand then we really can discuss much more about an
ideal transformer, although I have not used the term ideal yet at least in today’s lecture.
Suppose, I say that this magnetic material and its B-H characteristics is this one. So, this
is suppose material 1, material 1 for which B-H characteristics is known.

Suppose, I say this material I will replace it by a newer magnetic material which is whose
B-H curve is like this. So, material 2, B-H curve is this. Then I apply same voltage and
frequency to this coil, then how much current this coil is going to draw. Then if this is the
material 2 now 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 is fixed no matter whether it is material 1 or material 2.

So, same 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 you read, but now you have to read the value of 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 this is for material
1, this is for this is material 1. If it is material 2, I will say it will take it will draw current
this much only is not corresponding to these that is 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 material 2, this green color is
𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 corresponding to material 2. And 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 is lower therefore, current drawn will be
lesser. Therefore, you see this current which establishes the flux in the core I will use now
another term is called magnetizing current, usually denoted by instantaneous value by 𝑖𝑚
or rms value by 𝐼𝑚 , no maximum it is magnetizing current.

We see that if you go on replacing this core material by better and better material current
drawn ammeter reading will then become smaller and smaller, because another material if
you choose suppose somebody says, ok I will replace these by another material whose B-
H curve is like these material 3. So, this axis is 𝐻 or also 𝐼, let us forget about this constant

18
𝑁
, this axis also represents the current drawn. Therefore, current drawn because 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑙

remains same, so current drawn can be further reduced.

In other words, to establish a given flux if you use better and better material current needed
will be smaller and smaller. So, more efficient way of creating flux provided you use better
and better material. Suppose there is no restriction plenty of better materials are available,
suppose some material is like this very steep material 4, then current needed will be only
this much. Further, you can reduce the magnetizing current. What is this better material?
𝑑𝐵
Better material means this slope of 𝑑𝐻
is 𝜇𝑟 , it is a measure of 𝜇𝑟 . So, we are increasing

relative permeabilities for this different curves essentially I mean.

Therefore, suppose 𝜇𝑟 , is very high tending to infinity what does that mean, it means that
B-H curve will be something like this very high value of. Therefore, to create flux you
require very little current. Therefore, the magnetizing current can be reduced to any extent
provided you have got very good magnetic material. So, we will continue with this in our
next lecture.

Thank you.

19
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 03
Ideal Transformer, dot Convention and Phasor Diagram

Welcome to lecture 3. So, in my last class, I was talking about the magnetizing current
necessary to create a flux.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:31)

The flux is decided by the supply voltage and I will be writing many a times this. So, that
you also become accustomed with this one. So, this is the thing.

𝑉1
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
√2𝜋𝑓𝑁1

So, 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 gets fixed and then from this I will be able to calculate 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 and from 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 then
I will say, where is your B-H curve? What is the core material? B-H curve is like this
suppose then corresponding to 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 , you read 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 . This axis can be for a given value of
number of turns and magnetic length 𝑙, this can be also treated as 𝑖. 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 or 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 . Is not?
𝑁
I can always do that because come as a constant.
𝑙

20
So, corresponding to this 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 , you get 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 , hence 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 hence the current drawn from
this supply and the another important thing I told if you have better and better magnetic
material another material, then the current needed will be only this much not this much
have another better material current will be needed this much. So, essentially this 𝜇𝑟 is
increasing ok. Now, I will be telling you about the ideal transformer ok. Therefore, if the
magnetic material is very highly permeable, if 𝜇𝑟 tends to infinity very large that is this
curve will become almost like a vertical line, then to create a flux current needed will be
vanishingly small to establish the flux ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:50)

Therefore, we can say that, if this material 𝜇𝑟 tends to infinity what will be the ammeter
reading? You think a bit. Ammeter reading will be vanishingly small ok some finite current
is necessary, but that current you can make it as small as possible provided you do not
have any restriction on using better and better magnetic material.

Important thing is flux is finite like this, 𝜇𝑟 tending to infinity means that this ammeter
reading 𝑖𝑚 magnetizing current will tend to 0 that is all, it only means that. No point in
telling why 0 current how it can create flux ok, it takes a current no matter how good your
magnetic material is, it will definitely take a current, but that current is very small and will
see that, it will be very small compared to the rated current of a transformer.

21
So, like that therefore, in a ideal situation; very ideal situation will say that as 𝜇𝑟 attains to
infinity the current drawn that is 𝐼 and this is 𝐵. This magnetizing current drawn can be
made as small as possible. So, we are now in a position to talk about ideal transformer ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:37)

Now, for the first time I am writing this ideal transformer and if the concept of ideal
transformer is clear, you can deal with any situation you can deal with a practical
transformer very nicely, because the concepts are so interesting.

So, ideal transformer let us say that the first two conditions remains same winding or coil
resistance are 0, 2 no leakage flux, that is all the flux is confined to the core or all the flux
or all the flux is mutual flux of course, this mutual flux what it is I will tell write now. And
number 3 is magnetic core material is extremely good 𝜇𝑟 → ∞ I put a this mark also here
means vanishingly small current extremely good.

So, that magnetizing current necessary to create flux is practically 0. These are the 3
properties. Now, it is I will now draw the core of the transformer from my previous
diagram, which I have already drawn that is I come here and copy it and then please bear
with me till that time, because and is the best; this is the thing. So, this was the thing. Now
you see in this it is not a transformer a single coil. So, far I was discussing.

Now what I will do is this; I will draw another coil suppose here is another coil. So, on the
magnetic circuit, now 2 coils are connected and this two terminals of this second coil I

22
have not connected anything. Therefore, whatever I discussed in my previous lectures a
single coil excited with a voltage 𝑉1 from frequency 𝑓 remains intact I mean, because this
coil whether it is present or not no one bothers, because nothing have connected no current
in this coil.

Therefore, you and suppose this has got a 𝑁1 number of turns 𝑁2 is that clear? Therefore,
you have created these then flux is created mind you although you require vanishingly
small current, but 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 is finite and its strength is this one. That is what? But current
needed magnetizing current, it will draw magnetizing current and this current is practically
0. If I assume the magnetic material is of very high quality having very large permeability
and all the flux here is confined to the core.

So, what is mutual flux that is what I have to tell you mutual flux is the flux which is
common to both 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 turns. So, mutual flux will be the flux, which is confined to the
core ok. Therefore, same flux will be linking both the primary coil, this I will call now
primary and in this coil no source is connected, this flux is also changing with respect to
time therefore, with respect to I mean applying Faraday’s law I will then also conclude
that these too will become a seat of emf.

So,

𝑑𝜑
𝑒1 = 𝑁1
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝜑
𝑒2 = 𝑁2
𝑑𝑡

same flux. Rms value of the induced voltage, see polarity of that voltage I have found it
out without I mean thinking so, much about that negative sign. I have applied physical
reasoning and told that if supply voltage at any time is increasing, then flux is increasing
this terminal has to become plus and minus so far as 𝐸1 is concerned.

Similarly, and

𝐸1 = √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁1

23
which of course, happens to be equal to 𝑉1, because KVL is to be satisfied. Similarly, in
the second one; if I say induced voltage in the second coil 𝐸2 in which way it will be
different same flux only 𝑁2 comes in therefore, it will be

𝐸2 = √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁2

That is all. Is not I am not deriving once again differentiating and trying to write. This is
going to be what else. So, rms value of the induced voltage in the primary, which happens
to be equal to 𝑉1, because there is no resistance, no leakage flux, 𝑉1 = 𝐸1.

On the secondary side this will be this one. Now I should not of course, jump to the
conclusion that, this is plus, this is minus will see now that one. So, at a particular instant,
if this is plus this is minus, what will be the polarity of this induced voltage 𝐸2 here;
whether, this is plus this is minus or this is minus this is plus, that I have to decide ok. The
polarity of the induced voltage will be such that, it will try to oppose the very cause for
which it is due, I am repeating the same statement. Means what this flux about this flux,
what I told the flux is positive and it is increasing ok.

Now, there are only two possibilities, either this is plus this is minus or this is minus this
is plus, either of one of this is true correct, that way if you think. Suppose I say that, I am
not sure, suppose this has happened, when this is plus this is minus this has become plus
this is minus; suppose, let us assume it is like that. Now let us verify whether this
assumption is correct or not it has become a seat of emf.

Now you imagine that, this 𝐸2 I will allow it to act; 𝐸2 as it is open circuited nothing
happens no current etc, only thing it has become a seat of EMF and somebody says this is
plus this is minus. Now I am telling you that, if it 𝐸2 is allowed to act on a circuit, then it
will deliver current at that instant and what will be the direction of this current? If you
imagine that you have connected some loads; some resistance here I will connect it some
resistance here.

Then at that instant current supplied by the coil will be like this is not it will go this is the
source like a battery current will go like this and the direction of the current in the windings
will be like this. Now this is what in accordance with Lenz’s law the answer is no why?

24
Because the cause of the voltage induced is that 𝜑 was increasing is not? 𝜑 was positive
𝑑𝜑
and increasing was positive that was our assumption.
𝑑𝑡

Now I find at that instant if current flows the flux in the core produced by this current will
be; flux produced by core in this coil will be also in this same direction; are you getting?
This was the flux created by 𝐼𝑚 , it was going up in this direction now also flux. So, the
flux is strengthened, the cause for which it is due is strengthened, but that is not in
accordance with Lenz’s law.

It will try to oppose the very cause for which it is due. What is the very cause? Phi from
top to bottom was increasing. So, the polarity of this induced voltage will be such that, if
this 𝐸2 is allowed to act, it should pass current through this winding in such a direction,
that it will try to oppose this flux that is what has to be. That is therefore, it looks like this
is not correct no. So, this cannot be like this, what is the other possibility? Other
possibilities is this has become plus, this has become minus.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:12)

Let us see, whether this will be consistent mind you this is the continuous thing I have
been only corrected no.

Student: Ok.

25
What is the other possibility? This is plus this is minus is it consistent? Let us see, if this
emf is allowed to act on its own to an external circuit like 𝑟 you have connected, then at
that instant it will try to send current in this way. Because this is battery it is the source,
current comes current goes current goes current goes like this current goes. So, this coil,
when it delivers current it will create flux in a direction opposite to these 𝜑(𝑡) which has
been created by this one.

So, it is trying to oppose the very cause for which it is due. Therefore, at a given instant of
time, if this terminal is plus this terminal is also plus. Let me repeat this point in a nicer
diagram; it is like this.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:50)

So, let me sketch it that will be faster. So, I sketch because let us spend some time on this;
sorry, I have not selected I will cut it out. See so, let us do it like this, suppose this is your.
Now I had got 2 coils let me repeat this point emphasize this point. This is suppose one
coil having 𝑁1 turns, this is suppose another coil with 𝑁2 turns, you have applied I will not
just simply say that you have applied 𝑉1 rms voltage of frequency 𝑓 with this is plus this
is minus.

𝐸1 has appeared here, it will have polarity like this here also I applied the Lenz’s law and
the flux in the core is 𝜑(𝑡). Then this two terminals also become a seat of emf. The value
of this voltage 𝑉2 is nothing, but 𝐸2 only 𝑉2 is the terminal voltage there is no distinction
between 𝐸2 and 𝑉2 right now.

26
So,

𝑉2 = 𝐸2 = √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁2

and also I know

𝑉1 = 𝐸1 = √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁1

and it is easy to show that

𝑉1 𝐸1 𝑁1
= =
𝑉2 𝐸2 𝑁2

This is one famous formula ok. So, that is the thing, but I was discussing about the polarity
of this induced voltage instantaneous polarity.

If at any instant of time this is plus this terminal has to become plus no way; the other
possibility that at that instant this is plus this is minus will violate Lenz’s law and this ratio
𝑁
of this voltage is this one and from this many things can be told it is merely the ratio of 𝑁1
2

𝑁1
manipulating this ratio 𝑁 you can step up the voltage this is called secondary coil or step
2

down the voltage depending upon, whether 𝑁2 is greater than 𝑁1 or 𝑁1 is greater than 𝑁2
depending on that.

But anyway, this is the thing. Now people use you know some dot marking to communicate
this particular important aspect of a transformer by using known as dot convention. It
merely tells you that any given instant of time, if the polarity of this induced voltage is this
is plus, induced voltage in the other coil instantaneous polarity will be also this is plus and
this is done by dot convention.

Now I must also point out see, I have drawn the core material and drew the coils primary
coils and the secondary coils rather carefully. What do I mean by carefully; that you can
draw suppose you have a magnetic circuit like this as a you draw the coils like these. It is
for better than this, what I mean to say that this coils I have drawn. So, that you know what
is the sense of the winding, you take the coil this way then turn it like that, but from this
sense you cannot figure out, how this coils went somebody draws like this.

27
Then of course, you cannot point out if this is dot which one is dot this side. No out of
question you cannot do that. Perhaps by doing some experiments you will be able to do,
but as such on pen and paper you cannot predict ok, this is plus this will be plus that you
can only do provided you know the sense of the winding; sense of winding the coil. If that
is meticulously shown, then you can figure out. Before I tell some more interesting thing;
also you note that if these two are dots after some time; you know because it is after all
AC supply, it will be better if we say dot terminals are those terminals which have like
polarities of the induced voltage.

For example if you say this is plus this will be plus, you rub this off for the same
transformer I am talking this point you listen, suppose this dot I remove if somebody says
no this is dot. Then also he is correct are you getting like terminals, if it is minus that will
be minus whenever it will become plus because polarity reverses this will be also plus.

In other words, what I am telling no point in showing so many dotteds it is understood

that, wherever you have shown dots; good enough other two terminals are also like
terminals you can put some square brackets to indicate that. They are like terminals they
are like, whenever this is plus this will be plus, whenever this is plus this will be plus,
whenever this is minus this will be minus and so on like that.

So, we have we had discussing about ideal transformer and the ideal transformer is that
transformer, who which requires vanishingly small magnetizing current to create a finite
flux of strength

𝑉1
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
√2𝜋𝑓𝑁1

current necessary, that is magnetizing current is vanishingly small 0.

Since, 𝜇𝑟 is infinitely large, that is the idea. Apart from the fact that all flux is confined to
the core there is no winding resistance, which allows me to write 𝑉1 = 𝐸1 = √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁1
and the last thing I will tell in this class, then if I draw the phasor diagram, what should I
draw this is the applied voltage is not?

Let me just draw it give you some idea, then the current drawn; magnetizing current drawn
although vanishingly small it will be lagging 90°. So, magnetizing current will be along
this line, because after all pure inductance it has got only inductance; inductance value is

28
very large if 𝜇𝑟 is tending to infinity we have shown wrote some expression for inductance,
if 𝜇𝑟 goes to infinity inductance goes to infinity, you can now interpret the things from
different angle inductance point of view very large 𝜇𝑟 , but the current drawn from the
supply will be 90° lagging and this length is pretty small 0, so, this is 𝑉1.

So, primary current is this where is 𝐸1 ? 𝐸1 will be also like this same as these one and
𝑑𝜑
where will be 𝐸2 same, because same 𝑁 𝑑𝑡 . So, 𝐸2 will be also like this, all voltages

induced voltages, applied voltages this is 𝑉1 they will be all in time phase and this is the
direction of 𝜑. Why 𝜑? Because 𝜑 is proportional to 𝐼𝑚 although 𝐼𝑚 is vanishingly small,
but it creates a finite flux. So, flux phasor will be along this line. We will continue with
this in the next lecture.

Thank you.

29
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 04
Operation of Ideal Operation with Load Connected

Welcome to this next lecture that is lecture 4 on Electrical Machines I and we have started
our discussion on transformer and we discussed several important concepts, which is
essential to understand the working principle of transformer.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:43)

For example now, in our last class I told several important things, one is that suppose there
are now 2 coils and we are discussing about ideal transformer. Ideal transformer that is
these winding resistances are 0, both the coils. There is no leakage flux and permeability
of the code is infinitely large, which means that if we energize this primary coil with a
known voltage at a frequency sinusoidal voltage; then, the current drawn is vanishingly
small. And if that with the case then, there will be 𝜑(𝑡), peak value of this 𝜑(𝑡) is 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥
and this 𝜑 being time varying also links this coil and you have induced voltage.

Then, I told you about the dot marking; these are called dot marking., how to find out the
dot markings? By applying Lenz’s law. So that everything is now, I mean in place, one
should not be thinking this way that way apply a given voltage at frequency RMS voltage
of the induced voltage and its polarity with respect to this plus minus all things are now

30
drawn polarity; instantaneous polarity plus minus. Then, the secondary instantaneous
polarity is also this one and 𝑉1 and 𝐸1 will be same, there is nothing in between. Similarly,
𝐸
𝑉2 and 𝐸2 will be same and also we noted that 𝐸2 rms value of then this voltage is:
1

𝐸2 𝑉2 𝑁2
= =
𝐸1 𝑉1 𝑁1

This is the essential thing of a transformer; therefore, you can change the level of voltage.
Simply by manipulating the number of trans ratio ok.

Now, this is the thing and then, in my last class I told you how to draw phasor diagram.
You see, magnetizing current with the assumption that there is no leakage flux and mutual
flux only. So, this coil to these AC supply, this coil will appear as an inductance what else
𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝑖
because no resistance. See, essentially 𝑁1 is nothing, but 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 from your circuit analysis.
𝑑𝑡

You know, if time permits we will dwell upon that, but the point is so, if I want to draw
the phasor diagram I will do it like this; this is my applied voltage. Carefully see, the
current drawn by the circuit will be 0 will it be 0; not really vanishingly small current.

So that current will be lagging this by 90°, a small current, but that current produces the
finite flux 𝜑 getting. These are the phasors. This flux will induced voltage in the primary
coil and 𝐸1 has to be equal to 𝑉1; therefore, primary coil induced voltage will be like this
also equal to 𝐸1 . I told you in some books find 𝐸1 in the 90°, but I know the whole story
now, 𝐸1 only it takes in opposition with supply voltage, but with respect to time they are
in phase when, 𝑉1 attends maximum; 𝐸1 attends maximum. So, I will draw like that.

Similarly, 𝐸2 will be along the same lines its length may be different depending upon if
𝑁2 is greater than 𝑁1 . It will above and this angle will be 90°; 𝐼𝑚 magnetizing current is
vanishingly small. Now, in today’s lecture we will further go that is so far the secondary
circuit nothing is connected except while it deciding about dot convention I told something
you connect very casually I told ok; connect then, the current direction whether you allow
this e m f to act like that. But, now today we will see much more deeply what is going to
happen if you connect something here.

So, I will, what I am trying to tell? You imagine that there is some load which is still now
open circuited that is a switch. Our discussion till now with S opened whatever we

31
discussed with S opened. Now, the question is what happens if I close S; that is very
interesting; mind you with S opened let me write with S opened, open condition S open
condition; what is going to happen? Apply voltage frequency flux is created 𝐸1 𝐸2 , if you
connect a voltmeter you can measure all the voltages and these current if you connect an
ammeter is going to be very close to 0.

Since, it is an ideal transformer and so on. With S is opened, it is a magnetic circuit; single
coil and mmf acting in this magnetic circuit with S opened; mmf acting is equal to 𝑁1 into
this 𝐼𝑚 magnetizing current, which is very close to 0; no doubt, isn’t? That was the net
mmf which was acting and this mmf created a flux 𝜑. This created, this flux 𝜑 inside the
𝑁 𝐼
1 𝑚
core 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 , isn’t? 𝑁1 𝐼𝑚 created the flux 𝜑 in the core. So, 𝑁1 into this flux; so, amount

of mmf necessary to create the flux phi is known to me.

𝑀𝑀𝐹 = 𝑁1 𝐼𝑚

Now, listen carefully what I am telling. You close the switch; imagine, you have closed
the switch. The moment you close the switch, this coil 2 will carry current; isn’t? This coil
2 because there is a source of emf we have connected an impedance 𝑍2 here. So, the
𝐸
magnitude of the current will be 𝑍2 and so on. Therefore, to find out, what is the flux in the
2

core of the transformer?

It looks like that this mmf; this mmf I have to take and then, net mmf I have to calculate
divide it by the reluctance that will decide the flux ok. In fact, that is what is going; we
have to do, but before that I tell you one thing that when, the S was open, what was the
flux? How to tell flux? You tell 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 and frequency ok; 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 was fixed. I am writing it
many a times

𝑉1
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
√2𝜋𝑓𝑁1

that was 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 ; it was fixed and this 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 has to be there in order that KVL will be satisfied
on the primary loop.

Now, what I am telling? Whether the switch is opened or closed the flux in the core cannot
change that is what I am telling; that 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 and its frequency of course, will remain same
flux must prevail; why? Because primary has to satisfy the KVL equation that is

32
 𝑉1 = √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁1 = 4.44𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁1 = 𝐸1

𝑉1 is fixed. So, on the primary winding the KVL is to be satisfied.

Therefore, 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 cannot change; no matter whether you have connected something on the
secondary coil or not. In other words, what I am telling? Even, if you have connected some
load on the secondary side. So that secondary coil is carrying current. Then, flux; this flux
cannot change. What it was? It will remain. Therefore, I will write it whether S is opened
or closed 𝜑 that is core flux will not change; cannot change. If earlier, it was 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜔𝑡
it will be still 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜔𝑡. S is opened or closed, it does not matter, but then, we are
slightly perplexed.

Second coil is carrying current. Primary was initially carrying a very small current. now,
now I will tell you that way you better you think. If flux remains same and these 2 coils
are carrying current now. So, what will be the net mmf necessary to create that original
flux? You must understand this 𝑁1 𝐼𝑚 when, S was opened created this flux in the core.
What I am telling?

With S closed when, both coils carry current; when, both coils when both coil carry current
with s closed net mmf must be once again 𝑁1 𝐼𝑚 because the 𝑁1 𝐼𝑚 created this original flux
and I am telling with S so closed or opened flux remains same; it cannot change. Why it
cannot change? Because, this flux will make the KVL equation valid on the primary side;
what was the mmf; which created this flux 𝜑, 𝑁1 𝐼𝑚 ? Where from we concluded that?
When S was opened?

So, with S closed; I am once again telling that flux remain same, but both the coils perhaps
will carry current, but I am sure the net mmf once again has to be 𝑁1 𝐼𝑚 , it cannot be other
than that because net mmf divided by reluctance; reluctance remain same. We will decide
the flux and flux remain same. So, let us see, what happens? What I mean by these. This
is the most interesting part of it.

33
(Refer Slide Time: 15:47)

So, this is the thing. So, here what I am telling. We are now discussing this a this thing 𝑍2 ;
this is my S and instead of telling that 𝐼𝑚 is 0; I will tell let magnetizing current, A is very
small finite. So, initially 𝑁1 𝐼𝑚 is the magnetizing current magnetizing mmf with S opened,
net mmf with S closed must be also 𝑁1 𝐼𝑚 when, both the coils carry current. Now, how
such a thing can happen? Let us see, suppose you now connect this switch, it has become
a seat of e m f. Therefore, it will deliver some current 𝑖2 ; RMS value of that current is
suppose 𝐼2 , instantaneous current.

Therefore, secondary coil will create and mmf 𝑁2 𝑖2 , instantaneous values or 𝑁2 𝐼2 RMS
value of the current. Primary prior to closing of the switch was carrying a current of 𝐼𝑚
magnetizing current. Now, when the secondary will carry a current 𝐼2 , it will try to create
flux; you will see this one. It will try to create flux in the opposite direction; isn’t? Your
thumb rule it try to creates flux in the opposite direction.

Therefore, when you close the secondary switch like this your primary cannot be a idle
spectator may a spectator to this event that you are doing this. What it will do?
Immediately, the moment you try to draw some current through the dot of the secondary
of the transformer; it will draw additional current say 𝑖2′ of such magnitudes that

𝑁1 𝑖2′ = 𝑁2 𝑖2

34
This 𝑖2′ is called reflected current. Therefore, I want to draw current from the secondary
of the transformer, I know. Then, it has produced 𝑁2 𝐼2 , which is acting in the anti
clockwise direction; it tries to create flux, but I am telling the moment you do that primary
draws extra current. So, what is the primary mmf

𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑚𝑓 = 𝑁1 (𝑖𝑚 + 𝑖2′ ) = 𝑁1 𝑖𝑚 + 𝑁1 𝑖2;

this will be the total that is equal to 𝑁1 𝑖𝑚 which acts to create flux in this direction plus
𝑁1 𝑖2; from the dot current is coming out it also create flux in this direction clockwise
direction flux.

And, on this magnetic circuit apart from this 2 mmf say third fellow occurs, which is 𝑁2 𝑖2
or I will write plus create this way.

𝑀𝑀𝐹 = 𝑁1 𝑖𝑚 + 𝑁1 𝑖2; + 𝑁2 𝑖2

Therefore, in the earlier case when S was opened net mmf acting in the magnetic circuit
was 𝑁1 𝑖𝑚 ; when you close the switch, what is the net mmf acting in the circuit?

Let there be 𝑁1 𝑖𝑚 and this two will cancel out because 𝑁2 𝑖2 creates flux in this one and
𝑁1 𝑖2; create flux in this one and if this two are equal they will cancel out.

𝑁1 𝑖2; = 𝑁2 𝑖2

So, net mmf how much it is acting now? Once again, 𝑁1 𝑖𝑚 ; this is the most crucial point.
And this, the transformer has to do for all the time. That is why; it is true for instantaneous
values also.

So, what is the thing going on? Initially, the net mmf in the transformer was 𝑁1 𝑖𝑚 ; I am
telling with S closed. Once again, the net mmf has to be 𝑁1 𝑖𝑚 . Therefore, if secondary
delivers a current of mmf 𝑁2 𝑖2 ; if it delivers a current 𝑖2 hits mmf. Therefore, this mmf it
will be compensated by the primary by drawing additional current 𝑖2; over an above 𝑖𝑚
such that not any value of 𝑖2; of this value 𝑁1 𝑖2; = 𝑁2 𝑖2

So that this two mmf s once again balance and net mmf will be once again 𝑁1 𝑖𝑚 . That is
why people say the moment you want to draw current or power out of the secondary
terminals of a transformer. Primary cannot be a may are spectator to this event. The

35
moment you do this primary will react. It will draw additional current such that 𝑁1 through
the dot terminals mind you through the dot if you show the current going out; then, only
this two fluxes will mmf.

Therefore, net mmf once again will be 𝑁1 𝑖𝑚 ; these two will cancel out because from
physical directions I know. So, this will be the thing. Later, I will a tell you about this
whole lot of physic physical way of understand in the thing; there is easier way of
understanding that a look here if you draw power output from the secondary of the
transformer. Primary current must increase; how it can? Because this is the only two points
where I am pumping power into the system and you are taking power out of the system
between these two.

Therefore, if you consume power here; ultimately, power has to come from this place;
from this place here. Therefore, this power must balance. We will discuss about those
things later, but I hope you have understood. So, what I am trying to tell because this is so
important a point in understanding the transformer.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:51)

So, what I told? Let me review this because this is so important. There I connected a switch
and a load; isn’t? I am trying to understand what is going to happen when the switch is
closed because after all you cannot just step up or step down the voltage without
connecting not connecting anything across this secondary; we have to deliver this power
to some load.

36
So, this is the thing. So, initially with S opened; S opened I am concluding that S opened.
Net mmf acting is 𝑁1 𝑖𝑚 . With S closed; once again, I am telling. In this case, this was also
net mmf; secondary current was 0 net mmf was this. With S closed net mmf 𝑁1 𝑖𝑚 must be
net mmf.

Why? Because flux level cannot change, but mmf is contributed by this coil current and it
is number of turns; this coil current and this number of turns. So, net mmf of the primary
coil is

𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑚𝑓 = 𝑁1 (𝑖𝑚 + 𝑖2′ ) = 𝑁1 𝑖𝑚 + 𝑁1 𝑖2;

and this is in the clockwise direction flux it creates. Net mmf of the I mean mmf
contributed by secondary, if u show this is the current; it is 𝑁2 𝑖2 and it creates flux in the
opposite direction. Therefore, this two mmf s

𝑁1 𝑖2; = 𝑁2 𝑖2

if this two things are equal for all the time mind you 𝑖2 is wearing sinusoidally.

Then, everything is fine; this two will cancel out. So, if I; if I draw the magnetic circuit
like this suppose magnetic equivalent circuit magnetic circuit. It will be; there are two
mmfs plus minus 𝑁1 𝑖𝑚 and here also plus minus 𝑁1 𝑖2; . Here is the reluctance of the
magnetic circuit and here is another mmf acting in the opposite direction; what is that?
𝑁2 𝑖2 and this is 𝑖2; .

What is the net mmf acting?

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑀𝑀𝐹 = 𝑁1 𝑖𝑚 + 𝑁1 𝑖2; − 𝑁2 𝑖2

and this has to be equal to 𝑁1 𝑖𝑚 . How this can happen? If this were equal; this must vanish
to 0, that is why the moment you want to draw some current 𝑖2 primary will immediately
react and draw additional current 𝑖2; on top of 𝑖𝑚 which was vanishingly small that is fine.
So, it will draw a current of 𝑖2; .

So, please go through these particular topic discus among yourselves with your friends;
the arguments put here to conclude that no matter whether the switch is opened or not flux
level in the core of the transformer is remains fixed and it is decided by only 𝑉1 and 𝑓 no

37
matter whether this is closed this is opened. Because, the moment S is closed it will draw
current, but flux level in the core has to remain same because it has to satisfy. It has a duty
to satisfy the KVL equation on the primary loop. You cannot have circuit KVL is not
satisfied.

Therefore, it must be 𝐸1 and 𝐸1 = √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁1. So, 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 cannot change. The moment
you close; then, what happens? Initial mmf was 𝑁1 𝑖𝑚 with S opened. Final net mmf has to
be 𝑁1 𝑖𝑚 ; if these two are equal; these and these are equal, these two mmfs will cancel each
𝑁1 𝑖𝑚
other and flux remains that was the idea. Please, go through it; hope you have
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

understood.

Thank you.

38
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 05
Equivalent Circuit of Ideal Transformer

Welcome to lecture 5 on Electrical Machines - I, where we were discussing about

transformers. And in fact, we were discussing about Ideal Transformer, ok, so ideal
transformer.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:27)

So, ideal transformer is that transformer where magnetizing current required is vanishingly
small, there is no winding resistance, there is no leakage flux. And another thing I did not
tell, but right now I can also add that there is no core loss, there is no core loss in the
magnetic material in the core.

We will see what core loss is later which comprises of eddy current and hysteresis loss.
And those losses are neglected, winding resistance neglected and magnetizing current
required is very small because the permeability of the core going to change to going to be
very high. So, to establish the flux you practically do not require any magnetizing current.

In my last class this was the thing I did this is the ideal transformer, ideal transformer and
therefore, under no load condition the phasor diagram I drew it was like this, this is the

39
applied voltage 𝑉1 and this is the induced voltage in the primary which is also of same
length as that of 𝑉1 and that is 𝐸1 . Secondary induced voltage 𝐸2 having 𝑁2 turns and this
is 𝑁1 turns secondary induced voltage will be also in phase with this. Of course, its length
will be different maybe more than 𝑉1, maybe less than 𝑉1 depending upon whether 𝑁2 is
greater than 𝑁1 or not. So, this is the applied voltage.

And the magnetizing current will be lagging 90°, but in this case it is 0, there is no
magnetizing current. And in my last class, so this is the open circuit phasor diagram, OC
phasor diagram. Of course, magnetizing current is 0, but flux is here, is not. Why? Because
after all purely inductive circuit whatever little magnetizing current drawn that will be 90°
lagging the applied voltage and therefore, 𝜑 will be here, 𝜑 is finite nothing like that
because you are using very best material having newer tending to infinity. So, this is the
open circuit phasor diagram.

Then I told you, so to establish this flux 𝜑 mmf necessary was equal to 𝑁1 𝐼𝑚 which is
vanishingly small, ok. Let it be there, but that mmf was necessary to establish this flux.
Then when you close the switch here is a EMF available and there is an impedance here
𝑍2 therefore, there will be current in the circuit, instantaneous current is 𝑖2 or phasor
representation is capital 𝐼2 . This current will be delivered to the load.

But the moment some current is drawn from the secondary primary cannot remain silent
cannot see it idle. The moment it does, so primary will also draw an extra current whose
𝑁
value will be 𝐼2 𝑁2 . This current it will draw and the direction of the current are like this.
1

Therefore, two extra a mmfs come in to play in this magnetic circuit. What is the mmf of
this coil? 𝑁2 𝑖2 . In which direction? Anti-clockwise direction. And what is the mmf
produced by this coil? It is also 𝑁2 𝑖2 , but in this direction. Therefore, these two mmfs
cannot result into flux and primary original that vanishingly magnetizing current will
produce that necessary flux, is that clear.

Therefore, secondary if you load primary will draw extra current and this is called reflected
current drawn from the supply. Mind you, all the EMFs this dot conventions also we
discussed like polarity we fact in instant this is plus this would be plus. So, through the
potential of this point with respect to this; I will define potential of this point with respect
to this. And secondary current I will think it is leaving the dot that is the convention I have
adopted, and if the current leaves through the dot it must invite current from the source

40
into the dot on the primary side, so that these two mmfs balance off. Therefore, this was
the open circuit phasor diagram with S opened.

Now, with S closed the phasor diagram will be the currents I have to draw. So, current will
be, first I draw the secondary current. Secondary current will be lagging this 𝑉2 voltage
𝑉2 = 𝐸2 mind you, by the power factor of the load current this will be your 𝐼2 , ok. So, this
𝐼2 will lag 𝑉2 by the power factor angle of the impedance which is 𝜃𝑍 . So, this will be 𝐼2 .
And what will be the primary current? Primary current will be let me use other colour, it
will be in same phase with that of 𝐼2 , but its length will be different because it is multiplied
𝑁
with the ratio 𝑁2.
1

So, if a 𝑁2 is greater than 𝑁1 , it will be like this will be your 𝐼2 ′ , but with respect to time
they are co-phasor. The mmf produced by because it has to be, because that all times it has
to balance of these two mmfs. So, that the flux does not change. Therefore, whether the
switch is opened or closed flux in the core remain same, same flux. And this flux to create
this flux you require a vanishingly small magnetizing current into 𝑁1 that is the mmf
necessary. So, everything is now in place.

So, this is the phasor diagram with this red things with S opened, S closed or we say phasor
diagram of the ideal transformer phasor diagram with load, with load on secondary side.
Load only can be connected on the secondary side that is the thing. So, so this in simple
terms is the phasor diagram of an ideal transformer under no load and loaded condition.

Now, after we have learned these what I will do I will tell you one very interesting thing.
Therefore, in this ideal transformer when S will be opened what will be the ammeter
reading suppose somebody has connected an ammeter? With S opened what will be the
ammeter reading? 0, because ideal transformer no magnetizing current is necessary. When
you close the switch what will be the ammeter reading? It will be 𝐼2 ′ that is decided by the
𝑁
secondary current 𝐼2 . Now, also we define one thing 𝑁1 henceforth I will call that is called
2

the turns ratio I will denote it by this small letter 𝑎, ok. Therefore, this 𝐼2 ′ is nothing, but
𝐼2
, ok. So, this is the thing.
𝑎

𝑁1
=𝑎
𝑁2

41
 𝐼2
𝐼2 ′ =
𝑎

Now, I will tell you about one very important thing that is what is the equivalent circuit of
this ideal transformer. So, equivalent circuit I will now tell. Now, equivalent circuit
generally we say with respect to the referred to the primary side one is referred to the
primary side primary or supply side. And secondly, also equivalent circuit referred to the
secondary side secondary or load side. I will tell you what does all this means.

See, here is a supply and then you have connected a transformer then on the secondary of
the transformer there is 𝑍2 and this two coils are not electrically connected. They are
magnetically coupled, so energy is transferred from the source to the load side via this
flux, flux communicates with the second coil time varying flux and you get voltage and
power in this secondary side. Now, if you look from the supply end supply side supply
does not know whether you have connected a transformer and then across this secondary
side you have connected a load.

What it only knows is that here is a supply and I am supplying a current 𝐼2 ′ when S is
closed and this 𝐼2 ′ I will call it 𝐼1 in this case, primary current. If 𝐼2 is 0 with S opened 𝐼1
also vanishes. So, supply will always, supply is totally unaware of the fact that there is a
transformer and the load connected across the secondary. It will interpret that as if across
the supply 𝑉1 you have connected a load and it is delivering a current 𝐼1 that is all.

𝐼2
𝐼1 =
𝑎

Therefore, from the supply side that is this one I will I can draw it like this, here is a 𝑉1
AC rms voltage it is supplying a current 𝐼1 when S is closed. Therefore, it will interpret
that you have connected an impedance, impedance seen by the supply, impedance seen by
𝑉1
the supply is equal to . He will say oh, somebody has connected across me a an
𝐼1

impedance and that is why I am delivering a current 𝐼1 , that is all.

Now, what I can do is this I know that let me be on this page only let it be a bit dirty, but
we are following logically. So, it will be easier for me to establish this important
𝑉
relationship 𝐼1 . But I know that
1

42
 𝑉1 𝑁1
= =𝑎
𝑉2 𝑁2

this I know. Therefore, I can say that

𝑉1 = 𝑎𝑉2

𝐼2
Similarly, I can express 𝐼1 in terms of 𝐼2 because 𝐼1 = 𝑎

𝐼 𝑉 𝑉2
So, I will write it as a 𝐼1 = 𝑎2 . And this then becomes equal to 𝑎2 𝐼2 . But it is 𝐼2
= 𝑍2 , is
2

𝑉
not, this 𝑍2 = 𝐼2. So, this is very interesting. Therefore, in this transformer if you connect
2

a load across the secondary of magnitude 𝑍2 that load will appear to be different impedance
across the source 𝑉1.

𝑉1 𝑎𝑉2 𝑉2
= = 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 𝑍2
𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼2
𝑎

What is the value of that impedance? 𝑎2 𝑍2 , suppose we have connected 10Ω impedance,
trans ratio is say 10, small 𝑎 is 10 then 𝑎2 means 100, so 100 into 10 it will appear to be
an 1kΩ resistance across the supply.

So, the equivalent circuit referred to the supply side it means that across the supply what
is the effective impedance that has been connected 𝑎2 𝑍2 . In other words, what I am telling
is that, this supply you make a circuit like this your supply will not be able to distinguish
between this simple circuit and this whole circuit. So, for as supply side is concerned,
because here also 𝑉1 applied voltage current supplied by it is 𝐼1 then transformer then load
𝑉2, then 𝑍2 etcetera, but in simple terms it is as if you have connected an impedance across
𝐼
the source whose impedance value is 𝑎2 𝑍2 and this 𝐼1 = 𝑎2 .

So, this is called the equivalent circuit of the ideal transformer your actual circuit is these,
but you can to simplify matter. So, coupling circuit drawing this that to find out the currents
in the circuit. You draw the equivalent circuit referred to the source side primary side, if
you have connected an impedance 𝑍2 here, solve this simple circuit where it is 𝑎2 𝑍2 , get
the current 𝐼1 and we have solved the problem. You may only ask that, but my actual circuit
was this, so I have solved for 𝐼1 . But you have solved for 𝐼1 you can easily calculate 𝐼2

43
simply by multiplying these 𝐼1 with this small 𝑎, that is the duty of this particular method
of analyzing the circuit.

So, to analyze this circuit you can leave with the actual circuit and go by this physical
𝐼
argument 𝑎2 mmf balance solve this things you do get the current here, get the current there,

and power also you can calculate if you like all the things you can do. But here is a nicer
way of solving the circuit. What is that? Draw the equivalent circuit referred to primary if
𝑁
there is 𝑍2 any impedance on the secondary side multiply with 𝑎2 . What is 𝑎? 𝑎 = 𝑁1 turns
2

ratio.

𝑉1
And then solve this simple circuit 𝑎2 𝑍2
, you will get 𝐼1 . Then you ask yourself, I have to

solve these circuit currents in every parts of this circuit then what you do. 𝐼1 is known you
can easily say what this 𝐼2 will be because there is a definite ratio between 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 . So, it
is useful to draw the equivalent circuit and solve big networks problems which are using
transformers, ok.

After you have done this then you may also think. So, this is the equivalent circuit referred
to the supply side. Similarly, one can see from the load point of view if you sit on this
impedance you know you have been supplied with a voltage 𝑉2 before that there is a
transformer it is not going to change the current in the circuit.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:45)

44
Therefore in the next page if I go, come to the next page. So, I will now tell you what is
the equivalent circuit referred to the load side. So, this was my 𝑍2 , this was this switch is
𝐼
closed, this is 𝐼2 and recall this current is 𝐼1 = 𝑎2 , this we have done right now and this is

the situation. So, with respect to the supply the equivalent circuit we have just got 𝑉1, and
an impedance 𝑍2 , and this is your 𝐼2 . So, this is referred to primary side.

Similarly, I can think that impedance from the load side here is an impedance 𝑍2 and it is
supplied with AC voltage who bothers about transformer before that I am not concerned.
My current here is decided by this voltage 𝑉2. Then solve this circuit, but how to solve this
𝑁
circuit? Z 2 is known, but 𝑉2 I know this 𝑉2. What is known to me? 𝑉1; so, 𝑉1 𝑁2 = 𝑉2, is
1

𝑉1
it not. So, I will do and get 𝑉2 and then I will solve this simple circuit. Because mind
𝑎

you 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝐸1 𝐸2 they are all in time phase. Therefore, I will there is suppose take the
voltage on reference phasor. So, all are magnitude and angle. So, this divided by 𝑍2 you
do, you will get 𝐼2 then he will ask oh that is fine, but I have to solve for currents this is
𝐼2
the actual thing. So, we have solved for 𝐼2 . The moment we have solved for 𝐼2 your 𝐼1 = 𝑎

that is all, are you getting.

So, you can either draw the, so this is equivalent circuit referred to secondary side,
secondary side or to load side, load side and this is the equivalent circuit referred to primary
side or source side, source side.

So, rule is very clear. Any impedance you bring from the secondary side to the source side,
you multiply it with 𝑎2 𝑍2 , it should not be 𝑍2 , 𝑎2 𝑍2 . And this current is 𝐼1 . And how it is
𝐼
related with this 𝑎2? And any current actual current on this secondary side should be divided

by 𝑎. And any impedance from the secondary to this side is 𝑎2 .

𝑉1 is already here. So, no transformation is necessary for 𝑉1. On the load side when I draw
the equivalent circuit, I am in the secondary circuit, so I should not disturb 𝑍2 , 𝑍2 is 𝑍2 ,
𝑉1
here is 𝐼2 , here is 𝑉2, but the primary applied voltage 𝑉1 gets modified transformed to ,
𝑎

and your this is 𝐼2 , and 𝐼2 = 𝑎𝐼1 . Therefore, a transformer when you connect it will make
some given impedance to appear as impedance of different values. Of course, phase angle
of the impedance does not change that is there. Therefore, this is the important thing and
phasor diagram also I have seen already.

45
Now, one another important thing I will derive from this two is that 𝑉1 𝐼1, suppose you
multiply 𝑉1 𝐼1 and express 𝑉1 and 𝐼1 in terms of 𝐼2 what this product becomes. So, 𝑉1 =
𝐼2
𝑎𝑉2 . And what is 𝐼1 ? 𝐼1 = is equal to 𝑉2 𝐼2 . This is one very interesting results. Therefore,
𝑎

volt ampere that is KVA or volt ampere product of voltage and current on the primary side
is same as product of volt ampere on the secondary side. So, so this is called volt ampere
or KVA remain same on both sides, on both sides. And current and voltages are related by
𝐼
this that 𝑉1 = 𝑎𝑉2 and 𝐼1 = 2 . And what is 𝑎?
𝑎

𝑁
Do not forget, 𝑎 = 𝑁1 . What is 𝑁1 ? Number of trans on the source side and number of trans
2

on the load side. So, KVA of the transformer remain same, and current and voltages are
related of the both sides like this and because of this relations exist the impedance whatever
you have connected across this secondary appears somewhat differently on the primary
side.

𝐼2
𝑉1 𝐼1 = 𝑎𝑉2 × = 𝑉2 𝐼2
𝑎

A lot of simple problems to illustrate this idea can be solved now. I will do in the next
class. But try to understand the meaning of equivalent circuit. It means that ok, it is a
complicated I mean apparently so many things we have to draw in the actual circuit, it is
true you have to find out current, voltages in all the parts of the circuit.

But after knowing this relations exist you can either choose this equivalent circuit from
which you can only get 𝐼1 , and if you wish you can always find out 𝐼2 , then go back to the
actual circuit and say this is 𝐼1 , this is 𝐼2 and so on. Or you can consider this simple circuit
which is much simpler than this apparently complicated circuit here just a source and then
impedance solve for the current 𝐼2 then you come back to 𝐼1 etcetera by noting the
transformation ratio. And lastly, I told you that KVA remain same on the primary and the
secondary side. So, we will continue with this in the next class.

Thank you.

46
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 06
Rating of Single Phase Transformer: Rated Current & Rated Voltage with
Example

(Refer Slide Time: 00:22)

Welcome to 6th lecture. And we were discussing about the Equivalent Circuit of
Transformers, Equivalent Circuit. And equivalent circuit can be drawn equivalent circuit
is a simple model of this whole complicated things you live in one side and get the results,
ok. We discussed with that.

In the last class I told you that product of Voltage and current on the primary and the
secondary side they remain constant, ok. Let us suppose say that, now I will tell you that
it is because of this fact that V A product remain same. Suppose, the rating of a transformer
let me tell you rather in this way rating, how rating should be specified, rating of
transformer. If you look at the rating of a transformer see, what will be the ratings of the
transformer? The Voltage rating of the two sides must be specified how much Voltage
should you apply, how much Voltage should you apply to the secondary side and so on.
And also, what is the current carrying capacity of these coils on both the sides

47
So, you can specify the Voltage rating of the primary side and current, Voltage rating of
the secondary side and the current. For example, somebody says that a transformer, he
writes it like this the Voltage ratings are 200V/100V. Instead of telling that primary side
is V, secondary side is 100V which you we will also use this terminology no doubt, but
more scientific way of telling that this is the Voltage rating this coil I will call HV coils
suppose this is HV.

And this is called low Voltage coil, whichever side has got low Voltage we can also
identify the coils like that because you must be now feeling that no point either of them
can be used as primary.

But, only thing when LV is used as primary you should apply 100V and then you will get
200V there and vice versa. Therefore, it is a sometimes a more scientific to tell in terms of
HV LV to describe a transformer rather than primary secondary. User will decide which
one will become your primary, which one will become your secondary. Suppose, 100V is
available you have this transformer you required 200V, then there is no other way how it
energize the LV side with 100V get 200V to supply your load or vice versa. So, these are
called the Voltage rating.

Then I told you the current ratings of the coils should also be specified. Instead of that
because we know the V A product remain same what is specified current ratings are
specified indirectly. What is specified is a KVA rating, suppose the KVA rating is 1 KVA
and also frequency will be specified 50 Hz. And also, it will be told about what kind of
transformer, it is single phase transformer, got the point. So, a transformer is specified in
this way.

From these numerical values, what we conclude. I will now draw it instead of drawing this
elaborate diagram, I will simply draw two coils like this and core material may be shown
by this vertical line a simplified way of telling all this things, instead of drawing this core
along with coils I will draw it like this two are dots that is important I will specify, and this
is suppose HV winding and this is LV winding. Now, from this I can calculate what is the
rated current of the HV side, it will be this

1000
𝐼𝐻𝑉 (𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑) = 𝐴 = 5𝐴
200

48
Similarly, I will calculate

1000
𝐼𝐿𝑉 (𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑) = 𝐴 = 10𝐴
100

So, the moment of these ratings is known I can draw this diagram and say that, HV side
maximum Voltage you can apply 200V 50 Hz, and you will get 100 V 50 Hz here. And
you will you are going to connect some load, but do not connect any load you connect
such a load such that the current while it will deliver to the load does not exceed these 10
A, it should not exceed. Your load current must be less than equal to 10 A.

So, any impedance you do not connect. And when it will deliver this rated current
𝐼𝐿𝑉 (𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑) , let us assure you do not have to do anything your primary at that time will carry

5 A that is what we have learned. If 10 A goes, what is the value of 𝑎?

𝑁1 𝑉1
𝑎= = =2
𝑁2 𝑉2

that is all therefore, the ratings current ratings of the HV and LV windings are indirectly
given in terms of KVA and Voltages. You have to do a little bit of calculations here to
know exactly what is the rated current.

Let me do something more with this. Suppose, this is the transformer I have applied here
200 V and I have connected an impedance here we will get 100 V immediately if you
apply 200 V 100 V. Suppose, you have somebody connects an impedance of 5 Ω, what is
100
going to happen? 200 V 100 V = 20𝐴 you are trying to draw and you will say oh rated
5

current is 10 A. No, this is not allowed. So, do not connect 5 Ω then. Are you getting? You
must understand this.

100
Therefore, connect what is the minimum impedance you can connect? = 10Ω. Do not
10

connect impedance. If you connect 10 Ω fine, 10 A here, if it is 10 A you be rest assured

it has it will be automatically 5 A, ok. If you are these things I will do quickly, so that
things go to your mind

Suppose somebody connects 20 Ω here impedance then this current will be 5 A and it is
well within the red below the rated current it is allowed, but if it is 5 A this current will
become 2.5 A because it will be always half. So, several simple, but important things; this

49
should be in your mind always playing, ok. You have connected 20 Ω, this current is 5 A,
𝐼
HV side current is always 𝐼1 = 𝑎2 . And here what is 𝑎?

𝑁1 200
𝑎= = =2
𝑁2 100

So, current will be reduced by factor of 2.5 and so on.

With respect to suppose, so I have used HV as my source side, source I have connected to
HV. I could also connect source to the LV side and you can do that you try that. So,
henceforth I will draw this circuit instead of drawing all the time this and getting the
results. So, this will be the thing. Another interesting thing comes out that this ratio of
current whatever impedance you have connected, only you have to see that secondary
impedance you have connected does not make the current in the LV side greater than the
rated current that is only should be your concept.

But, the moment this current is known this current is fixed. What will be the equivalent
circuit of the transformer? It will be a source 200 V very quickly I will do, and across it
you have connected an impedance for this if you have connected 20 Ω I will say you have
connected an impedance of,a is 2, 80 Ω And 200 by 80, so this current is 2.5. So, I will
draw the equivalent circuit oh impedance has.

𝑎2 20 = 80Ω

200
𝑎 = 2, 80 Ω And , so this current is 2.5. So, I will draw the equivalent circuit oh
80

impedance has.

So, sometimes it transfer of impedance people say transformer means it changes the value
of the impedance source you are physically connecting an impedance of 20 Ω, but to the
source it appears to be 80 Ω. You can manipulate the impedance, ok. So, this is the thing.
Then after calculating this I will say I will come back here and say, this current will be
then 2.5 × 2 = 5𝐴.

Now, after going through this, corresponding to this rated current here I am under utilizing
the transformer, the impedance have it can carry deliver a current of 10 A, but I have

50
connected 20 this I can always do. Under full load condition rated condition I should
connect an impedance which is equal to 10. 10.

At rated condition if you want to apply I will connect here 10 Ω and then this current will
be 10 A rated current, and this current will be 5 A and I will say the transformer is operating
at full load condition when the currents are rated. So, at rated condition at rated currents
sorry, at rated currents transformer operates at full load condition. We will discuss much
more with the loading etc full, we have not at full load condition, got the point.

And another thing we immediately come to the conclusion that on the high Voltage side
Voltage is high current will be less compared to the LV side, where Voltage is less current
is high because the product is to remain same. So, if Voltage has reduced current must
increase by the same proportion that is why KVA remain same V A. Kilo V A is a very
practical unit. But what I want to say if you want to see after all while making this coil you
have to use piece of wire, wind it like this. The cross section of this wire gage of the wire
is decided by the magnitude of the current. Therefore, on HV side thicker conductor will
be used, HV side conductor cross section will be thicker I am just drawing symbolically.
LV side conductor cross section will be less, LV side it will be high correct sorry because
LV side conductor, ok.

Thinner wire, means section, thinner section. And the section of the LV side because it has
to carry rated current. When LV side carries rated current HV side has to carry rated current
therefore, if a transformer is given if you look if the windings are available to you, you can
see you can always immediately see the section of this wire this wire will be LV side will
be much higher than the HV side. So, what we have learned till now? We are still
considering mind you ideal transformer it does not matter. This is what happens and based
on that I told you about the ratings of the transformer importance of KVA rating and
Voltage ratings.

On the HV side of course, if you apply instead of 200 V if you apply 100 V what is going
to happen? On this side you will be getting 50 V that you are allowed to do because you
should not exceed the rated Voltage of the winding. So, you should not apply on the HV
side here a Voltage greater than 200 V, less than 200 V you can apply no problem. And
then current ratings I know.

51
If I ask you this question that, this is the actual rating of the transformer suppose on the
HV side I have applied 100 V, how much current you will allow to flow? What will be the
KVA rating then? Current you can go up to rated values, no problem. So, transformer will
then be de rated, that is there. We will see several problems, we will solve. So, this is the
thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:32)

Next thing in this lecture, so that it creates interest in you, I now say that we are continuing
with ideal transformer, mind you, ideal transformer. Suppose, somebody has connected a
transformer here, and the turns ratio of this transformer is suppose 2 and yes connected
another transformer here. And, it is turns ratio is suppose 0.5 suppose somebody has
connected like this, and understood. Suppose, and he has connected an impedance here on
this side 10 Ω, and suppose you have connected a 200 V 50 Hz source here, 200 V AC
rms. Tell me what is the Voltage here? I i want to find out the currents.

So, if you have applied 200 V, if the ratio is this what will be this Voltage? 100 V because
𝑉1 200
will come here; so, this will be = 100𝑉. So, this 100 V is applied to this transformer.
𝑎1 𝑎1
1
And you have suppose let us consider this to be turns ratio, I will this transformer is
4
1 100 100
having a turns ratio of 4. What will be the Voltage here? It will be = 1⁄ = 400𝑉. If I
𝑎2 4

make any mistake you please point me out through your mails or whatever it is.

52
But what I am trying to tell that you can see the nicety of analyzing of circuits involving
transformer, it is so easy I mean in the first place actual transformer there will be equivalent
circuit which will be slightly complicated things like that. But if you even if you assume
that to be ideal you will be getting results very close to the correct values that is why this
exercise, and also it tells you how the ratio of the current, Voltages these are decided.

1 100
Now, now tell me this is 𝑎2 = 4. So, it supplied Voltage 100, = 400𝑉. If you know
𝑎2

this is 400 V this is 10. So, this current will be 40 A. If this is 40 A this and mind you I
𝐼2
should have shown you the dots, ok. If this is 40 A this current will be this secondary
𝑎
40
current is 40. So, this current will be = 160𝐴. If it is 160 A this secondary what will be
𝑎2
160 160
this current? It will be = = 80𝐴, got the point.
𝑎1 2

Now, what I am telling is the equivalent circuit of this whole system with respect to this is
the only source supply. So, this is 200 V equivalent circuit referred to source will be, if
you have solved these I am telling you this impedance will be simply this Voltage by this
200
current = 2.5Ω. How much it is?
80

Student: (Refer Time: 23:55).

2.5 Ω, 2.5 Ω, it is coming 2.5 Ω. You see I will now do what, this 10 Ω to this source I
will I will try to get back this same result This is the original 𝑍 load, discrete value, 𝑍 load
1 2
is this. So, to this here, this impedance will appear to be 10 × 𝑎2 = 10 × (4) this

impedance. This impedance is connected across these and this

1 2
10 × ( ) × 4 = 2.5Ω
4

Therefore, this is the thing therefore, this is the equivalent circuit referred to this source.

Similarly, you can say the equivalent circuit referred to the load is nothing but this 10 Ω
supplied from a 400 V source. So, this simple calculation will make you understand better
what is happening. If you know this current you should be able to calculate this current.
See whether I will just give you a tips. See, 𝑎 I have defined for a transformer, I have

53
 𝑁
defined 𝑎 = 𝑁1 , 𝑎 is this it may be greater than or less than 1, depending upon whether
2

stepping up stepping down Voltage etcetera.

Therefore if you, current should be divided by 𝑎, Voltage should be multiplied by 𝑎,

students get sometimes confused while solve solving numerical problems. But what I am
telling you calculate this a turns ratio, you should always remember current on the LV side
will be higher Voltage on the LV side will be lower.

For example, take this transformer turns ratio is 2, 200 V LV side Voltage will be lower
and 𝑎 is greater than 1. So, you have to divide it by 2. And if you know this current this
side current this side current which is LV side, I know which one is LV, which one is LV,
HV and I am telling you LV side current is always higher therefore, this current 80 A
should be multiplied by 2 then, to get a 160 or if you know 160, it should be divided by
this 𝑎 to get 80. So, I have a lot of practice, so that you can transfer the impedance.

See, these one just to conclude this I am telling you it this whole system can be drawn like
this also. First transformer I will keep, if I go step by step this is the transformer, first
transformer. I am drawing this whole circuit here this is 200 V fine. And here was a
transformer. Treat once transformer at a time, eliminate this transformer first. Then I will
say across this transformer and impedance is connected whose value is 𝑎2 × 10, here this
transformer this transformer I will replace. So, this impedance will appear to be 𝑎2 × 10
1 1
𝑎 = 4. So, it will be 16 × 10, so much Ω if any mistake point out. So, I can do it like that

also.

10 4
And then this 160 and this transformer turns ratio is 2. So, it will be 16. So, then the next
10
step is sub supply and this is 200 V, and this was × 4 = 2 and there are several ways
16

you find out your own convenient way of interpreting the results this time.

Therefore, I so far what I have done is this one that a rating of a transformer this is very
important, KVA remain same on both primary and secondary. And then LV side current
will be very large therefore, cross sectional area of the wire with which you make this LV
winding will be larger compared to the cross sectional area of the wire of the HV side.

Of course, the Voltage ratings I have just taken, so that calculations become easier, 200
V/100 V, but in practice Voltage ratings could be one side of kilo Volts another side may

54
be 220 V or 440 V, ok. So, current ratings decides the cross sectional area of the wires and
Voltage ratings is going to decide the insulation level.

You must have seen transformer from where terminals are coming out with sort of
insulations, bushings, they call it. You have seen distribution transformer on the road side,
3-phase transformer. So, these are bushings through which, so this is the these are
insulation, ok. So, insulation level will be decided by the Voltage rating of the transformer
and cross sectional area of the copper wire with which you make the coils they will be
decided by the rated currents of the transformer. So, have a thorough knowledge about the
topics which I have discussed here which will make our live much simpler in future. We
will continue next class.

Thank you.

55
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 07
Transformer with Multiple Coils

A welcome to this Machine - I course. We are discussing about an ideal transformer, and
in my last lecture I told you how to solve a circuit symbol being several ideal transformers
in the circuit because ideal transformer is so simple. But the problems are interesting.
Actually, what impedance you connect, at the end of the across the secondary coil that
values get transferred and we know how to do it.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:12)

Another interesting problem, I will discuss so that you become really conversant with ideal
transformer. For example, consider this is the core first I will draw, this is necessary to
explain what is happening. Suppose you have this transformer with a, so far two coils I
have considered, ok. What we will do is I connect another third coil, another third coil and
perhaps here also I will connect a one switch and load one.

Another switch this is S1 say S2, this is a S3, there is no S1, S1 may be there. So, this is
suppose 𝑍2 and this is suppose 𝑍3 . See, what I am telling I am slightly greedy, that is I will
energize this with a Voltage 𝑉1 frequency 𝑓 and I want to generate a two levels of Voltage

56
because same flux will be linking this coil to therefore, the induced Voltage here will be
𝑉 𝑉
also 𝑁1 𝑁3 here the Voltage will be, here the Voltage will be 𝑁1 𝑁2 .
1 1

One thing I will tell you in the primary and secondary Voltages are different, currents are
different KVA are same, that is all fine. But also try to understand this one that is suppose
you have a transformer, of turns 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 it is very useful while solving problems and
𝑉2 𝑁
other things. What happens is this = 𝑁2 that is good, but it is also true that
𝑉1 1

𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑁1 𝑁2

This equation is very useful, at least I find it is tells you that in a several coupled coils what
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
remains constant is Voltage per turns. What is 𝑁1 ? Voltage per turn is constant 𝑁1 = 𝑁2 it
1 1 2

has to be.

Therefore, what you do to calculate Voltage induced here, you simply calculate Voltage
per turn then multiply with respective turns to get the Voltages here and there. So, you can
have more than one secondary coils. For example, here so, what is Voltage per turn here
𝑉1 𝑉1
if it is 𝑁1 ? that will remain constant. What will be the Voltage available here? 𝑁3 ,
𝑁1 𝑁1

multiply with actual number of turns.

Here also this Voltage will be 𝑉3 say, 𝑉3 will be equal to Voltage per turn that what where
from I get from the supplied Voltage and its number of turns into 𝑁3 ; Voltage per turn
here, what will be this Voltage? It will be

𝑉1
𝑁
𝑁1 2

Therefore, you can have two sources available to you of different Voltage level and you
can supply two different loads that is what I am trying to tell. Let us take a numerical
numbers, so that things become much more easier.

57
(Refer Slide Time: 05:58)

And this sort of thing I can then draw it like this. Suppose, you have a transformer, I will
draw now simplified diagrams, and you have two separate secondary coils and there is a
common magnetic circuit. This is how I can represent. And suppose the dots are here, this
is dot, this is dot, this is dot. Suppose, I say this number of turns 𝑁1 is equal to say 200 and
here you apply an AC Voltage of 400 V then what I am telling, immediately you know

400
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 = =2
200

2 V per turn.

Now, suppose I say this one is 𝑁2 is equal to 50 turns and this one I say 𝑁3 is equal to say
25 turns then I will immediate say this Voltage will be Voltage per turn 2 × 50 you will
get here 100 V. And 2 × 25 you will get here 50 V. Are you with me? Then this is the
how. So, Voltage per turn is a very useful concept in transformers that remains same in
several coupled coils.

Therefore, suppose the problem is like this is 200 V, 𝑁1 400 V is the applied Voltage 50
Hz, these are the dots and if the secondary terminals are open circuited. So, I can now
supply two loads, one load demanding 50 V I will supply, another load demanding 100 V
I will supply. The question is that, when you supply loads how the primary currents how
do I calculate? Ok. It is slightly not that easy problem, ok.

58
Let me a put me in this way suppose you have a switch here and you have connected a
resistive load here of say 10 Ω, and also I have a switch here and here I will connect a
capacitive load−𝑗5Ω. I have planned to connect these two loads.

So, my problem is find out currents in all the windings and this switch is suppose S1 this
which is S2. Calculate I will indicate the currents as 𝐼2 , this is as 𝐼3 , and this is as 𝐼1 .
Calculate 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 . Part 1, when only S1 is closed S2 opened. Part 2, only S2 closed
and S1 opened. And finally, both S1 and S2 are closed. I to have this find out. And let this
transformer be ideal. What does it mean? If you close the switch and with both the switches
are open no current is drawn magnetizing current necessary is 0. So, that is the problem.

First part of the problem is pretty simple; this one S1 is close. So, it is like primary
secondary. This fellow although you will get Voltage here, but no current no
complications; so, first part of the problem will be Voltage per turn is this. So, here you
will get

𝑉2 = 100𝑉

100
𝐼2 = = 10𝐴
10

𝐼3 of course will be 0, S2 is open. And what will be 𝐼1 ?

𝐼2 𝐼2 100
𝐼1 = = = = 2.5𝐴
𝑎 200⁄ 4
50

And let us also draw the phasor diagram under this ideal transformer. What is the phasor
diagram? Phasor diagram will be like this. This is your 𝑉1, , 400 V, this will be your 𝑉2
100 V. All the induced Voltage will be in phase. 𝑉2 = 100𝑉 and to a slightly practical I
will this is one-forth, so it will be much higher this length. This is 𝑉1 = 400𝑉

All Voltages are in phase 𝑉1, 𝑉2, 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , there is no distinction between 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , 𝐸3 , 𝐸4 .

And what will be 𝐸3 will be there, 𝐸3 is how much? 50 V so, 𝐸3 𝑉3 will be there. 𝑉3 =
50𝑉 these will be the Voltages. Where is your flux? Flux is along this line. Magnetizing
current is also along this line, but that is 0 that is the thing.

59
Now, if S1 is close there will be 𝐼2 , and this 𝐼2 will be in phase with that of a because it is
resistive load. So, the current 𝐼2 will be I have calculated it 10 A it will be in some another
scale, 𝐼2 will be like this. This 𝐼2 will try to upset them in a balance therefore, primary has
𝐼2
to draw extra current. And that value is 𝐼2 ′ = 𝑎

So, what will be the primary current? And this is the H V side. So, H V side current will
400
be less, ratio is = 4,so it should be divided by 4. So, 𝐼2 = 10𝐴. So, primary current
100

𝐼1 = 2.5 𝐴. 𝐼3 nothing is there, your problem is over. If you wish you can calculate the
equivalent impedance in by the source and you can verify it is equal to 𝑎2 × 10. This part
is very simple.

Second part; in the second part this current 𝐼3 , S1 is opened only S2 is closed. So,
everything remains same. So, I will better not to re-draw here only thing what I will do
part 2, I am solving. So, Voltages will be as it is induced, but the only thing is now 𝐼2 is
not there although 𝑉2 will be there open circuited and 𝐼3 is present. How much is 𝐼3 ?

50
𝐼3 = 10𝐴
5

but this current will lead 𝑉3 this is your 𝑉3 ; is not.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:00)

It will lead 𝑉3 by. 90°.

60
And what is the magnitude of this current? So, second part 𝐼3 Voltages remain same it will
be suppose I take Voltage on reference

50∠0°
𝐼3 = = 10∠90°
5∠ − 90°

Therefore, 𝐼3 will be here The moment 𝐼3 flows then will be 𝐼3 ′ and that will be equal to
your 𝐼1 and this is LV side this is HV side, so current will be less. What is the ratio of turns
200
here? =8
25

So, your 𝐼1 and they will be in phase why because they have to balance of the mmfs.

10
𝐼1 = 𝐼3′ = ∠90°
8

Please try to follow me.

So, far I was in the previous examples just telling impedance values to tell you about the
rated current. But now I am in a position to go slightly in advance stage that, impedance
may be complex and how to calculate the currents. Had it been RL circuit the phase angle
of the impedance, I could also take into account. But where ever is your secondary current
the reflected current because of that must be there. So, this is the thing.

Now, the last part which is slightly tricky for this what I will do is this. I will copy this, so
that it is easier to talk.

61
(Refer Slide Time: 20:55)

So, now copy go to the next page, paste it. And this one may be deleted. This part you just
try to see how it is to be done. I am sorry for taking some time, they will be edit it.

Now, listen carefully what I am telling. So, this is the thing now. Now, both the coils
switches are closed what do I do, that is the part 3. Both S2 and S3 are closed. Therefore,
what is going to happen? Thing is that the clue to this problem, once again is that
fundamental thing. What is that fundamental thing? No, matter what is the positions of the
switch either closed or open flux in the core of the transformer cannot change. It has to
remain same. Why? Because KVL is to be satisfied on the primary side either S2 is closed,
S3 is closed or both of them are closed it does not matter this is S3 actually and this is or
S1 S2 I told it whatever it is, both the switches are closed.

Then once again what I will do is this first I will calculating Voltage per turn, Voltage per
turn which is equal 2 which I have already calculated and this Voltage 100 open circuit
Voltage has got. And then I will draw the phasor diagram. Phasor diagram is this one. This
is the 400 V, 𝑉1 400 V; then your 100 V and 50 V. So, this is suppose 100 V 𝑉2. Scale you
forget and this is your 50 V, 𝑉3 = 50𝑉. All are in phase. And suppose this I take as
reference phasor all Voltages are magnitude angle 0 °, 0 °, 0 ° and so on.

Now, you see that this is resistive now both 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 exist.

100∠0°
𝐼2 = = 10𝐴
10∠0°

62
 50∠0°
𝐼3 = = 10∠90°𝐴
5∠ − 90°

both 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 are present, ok. First, I will draw 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 . So, 𝐼2 will be in phase with 𝑉2
because it is resistive load. Suppose this is 𝐼2 phasor and 𝐼3 will be leading 𝑉2 by 90 °, so
of same magnitude mind you I have taken the numbers such that they become, so it will
be 90°.

Now, the big question is what is 𝐼1 . Two ways we can, I will tell you much simpler method,
but I will go by the basic rule. Basic rule is because these two coils carry current extra
mmf is introduced into the transformer that is namely 𝑁2 𝐼2 in this direction 𝑁3 𝐼3 .
Therefore, these extra current drawn from the supply should be such that we it will nullify
both these mmfs. It has to; because applied Voltage is fixed here KVL is to be satisfied.
Therefore, what I will do? I will calculate 𝐼2 ′ , because of this there will be an 𝐼2 ′ , because
of this there will be an 𝐼3 ′ and then these 𝐼2 ′ and 𝐼3 ′ I will add vectorially phasor by phasor
sum.

So, what is this is 𝐼2 , 𝐼2 is how much?

𝐼2 = 10∠0°

𝐼3 = 10∠90°

On the H V side, I am calculating current. So, 𝐼2 ′ will be lesser current It will be how
𝐼2
much? therefore,
𝑎

Student: (Refer Time: 27:51).

10
𝐼2 ′ = ∠0° = 2.5∠0°A
4

Similarly,

10∠90°
𝐼3 ′ = = 1.25∠90°A
8

So, this is 𝐼2 ′ and this is𝐼3 ′ And then I will say

𝐼1 = 𝐼2 ′ + 𝐼3 ′

63
This is one complete this problem you must go through very carefully what are the steps
are because there may be situations you from the same source you want to get on the same
core, you connect a several coils like this 2 coils, may be 3 coils another coil is connected,
get different level of Voltages. Of course, in a two winding transformer only two windings
will be present. But if you do this exercise it will further strengthen your understanding of
reflected current. For this there will be reflected current here. This current divided by this
turns ratio. For this current there will be reflected current here. What will be the reflected
current? These actual current divided by turns ratio between these two and so on.

Now, this I will not do, but I will request you to think, ok. These you have found out, 𝐼1
you will find out. Once you find out 𝐼1 therefore, mathematically you will say equivalent
circuit of all these things across the supply will be this 400 V supply and it is delivering
this 𝐼1 therefore, impedance seen by the transformer 𝑍 ′ will be simply this Voltage by this
current, are you getting. 𝐼1 you have to calculate it will have some magnitude and some
angle.

This Voltage divided by this current will then give you the impedance seen by the
transformer. I will request you to think about it that, this is suppose in general 𝑍2 , this is
in general 𝑍3 , are you getting. That ok, supply sees what impedance what should be
equivalent circuit, I have to draw with respect to the supply side. How this R will appear
here, how this Z will appear here that you think in the next class. Of course, I will discuss
about that that is also very interesting.

So, I hope you have understood that if it is ideal transformer magnetizing current is 0 and
everything is so simple. If any coil secondary coil carriers current, primary coil will
immediately draw reflected current corresponding to that winding current what will be that
reflected current. If it is 𝐼2 on the secondary coil it will be 𝐼2 ′ . And we have also seen that
𝐼 𝑁
how to take any general impedance into account. So, 𝐼2 ′ = 𝑎2. What is 𝑎? 𝑎 = 𝑁1 .
2

Similarly, if there is another coil supplying another load wound on the same magnetic core,
if you know 𝐼3 there will be 𝐼3 ′ here, such that the flux remains same. And how to calculate
𝐼3 ′ ? It will be 𝐼3 by turns ratio between the primary coil and this new another coil that is
𝑁1
whatever it is now. So, these things if you take in to account and coupled with this
𝑁3

phasor diagram; the comfort zone is all the Voltages are in safe phase.

64
So, you have you can take them on reference. And then first calculate the secondary coil
currents, and then calculate reflected currents for each of these components add them up
to get the current which will be draw from the primary side. And then the equivalent
𝑉1
impedance seen by the source can then be calculated easily without because I will do
𝐼1

and say that, these big circuit to the supply is nothing, but this 400 V supply across which
𝑉
you have connected an impedance of 𝐼1 .
1

But what I am asking you to do, in terms of 𝑍2 and 𝑍3 find out that equivalent impedance.
It will be some 𝑎2 𝑍2 this turns ratio square into 𝑍2 , this turns ratio square into 𝑍3 and so
on. You think about it. We will discuss it in the next class.

Thank you.

65
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 08
Modelling of Practical Transfomer - I

Welcome to this lecture number 8 on Electrical Machines I.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:35)

And you remember that in my last lecture; we were considering a problem interesting
problem that is suppose a transformer has got 3 coils wound on it that is like this; this was
the transformer core.

66
(Refer Slide Time: 00:49)

So, one common magnetic circuit what which 3 coils have been wound; then I told volt
per turn is a useful concept; in such cases there are two secondaries; one primary. If you
apply some voltage 𝑉1 number of turns 𝑁1 and it is ideal transformer; no leakage flux no
winding resistance; therefore, 𝑉1 and 𝐸1 are same.

𝑉
Then what you do is you calculate voltage per turn 𝑁1 and you can quickly calculate if that
1

𝑉1 𝑉1
number is known 𝑁 𝑁3 = 𝑉3; 𝑁 𝑁2 = 𝑉2 . And our problem was we know if there is only
1 1

one secondary if I close this what will be the current and how to draw phasor diagram. But
here the problem is when both the switches will be closed, both the secondaries will supply
their respective loads 𝑍2 and 𝑍3 how to calculate the primary current that I told you.

67
(Refer Slide Time: 01:59)

In a simplified way, this previous thing could be drawn; instead of drawing elaborate
diagram involving core; this two lines will indicate core ideal; transformer it is nonetheless
and then I was considering this problem.

So, part 1 and part 2 of the problem were simple, but part 3 was a little bit involved in the
sense that both the switches are closed how to calculate the current. Then what I told that
if 𝑉1 is known then 𝑉2, 𝑉3 all the voltages will be co phasor and they are all shown on the
vertical lines. Then if you know 𝑉2; then you can calculate 𝐼2 , impedance is known it can
be position.

Similarly 𝑉3; 𝐼3 can be known and each of this current 𝐼2 will have its reflected component
𝐼2′ ; 𝐼3 will have its reflected component 𝐼3′ . So, 𝐼1 = 𝐼2′ + 𝐼3′ ; that is what exactly we did.
200
While calculating the reflected current be careful about the turns ratio for this it is with
50
200
that number you have to divide. Similarly, for this it will be we have to divide here;
25

like that you have solve the problem.

Now, one thing of course, should not be; the same problem could be done in a much
simpler way by making the; making use of the energy balance equation or power balance
equation on both the sides ok.

68
(Refer Slide Time: 04:01)

You will know that in any AC circuit suppose air is the source ok; that is power. From
power also it is much more easier and you need not go to the; I mean intricacies of
transformer, flux is constant these that like that. What I am telling is suppose this is 𝑉1; the
same problem here is your transformer ideal transformer primary.

And there are two secondaries and there are impedance is connected here; in general I am
telling now and there is another impedance connected here. Suppose this is 𝑍2 , this is 𝑍3
and I know the number of turns 𝑁1 , 𝑁2 and 𝑁3 . And suppose these are the dots of the
terminals; then what you do is this and my problem is to calculate this currents 𝐼2 then 𝐼3
and the current drawn from the supply. This is the problem and this is the transformer code
which is ideal transformer mind you ideal.

Now, in this case I can also do it in this way; see this is the two points; I have injected
power into the circuit. There is no other source which is pumping power into the circuit
and these are the things; two loads; I am consuming power on the secondary side.
Therefore, the power drawn from the supply must balance the sum of the powers given to
𝑍2 and 𝑍3 ; that is the very simple way of looking at it.

And you know that in AC circuit suppose we have a source and you have an impedance
here; 𝑍 a source is there 𝑉 and this is suppose the current the deduction of the current 𝐼
have assumed. Then I will write it like this; power complex power, delivered by the source
is given by

69
 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑉𝐼 ∗ = 𝑆

See in language I have written complex power delivered; delivered is the keyword because
here is a source through the positive terminal of the voltage; current is leaving. So, like a
battery; so it is really delivering power and take voltage phasor and current phasor multiply
with 𝐼 ∗ . And you must be knowing, but still I am very quickly telling; it is not that it is 𝑉𝐼
do not and this is usually denoted by the letter 𝑆. Real part of it will give you real power,
imaginary part of it will give you reactive power.

But only thing is do not just multiply 𝑉𝐼 take; the real part, it is simply because of the fact
that in general voltage phasor could be 𝑉̅ = 𝑉∠𝛼 and current phasor could be 𝐼 ̅ = 𝐼∠𝛽 and
that is the reference phasor; reference phasor. So, this angle is 𝛼 suppose this angle is 𝛽
therefore, real power as you know it should be

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 cos(𝛼 − 𝛽)

This angle is (𝛼 − 𝛽). That is the reason you should do like this and reactive power will
be

𝑄 = 𝑉𝐼 sin(𝛼 − 𝛽)

So, if you simply; so 𝑉̅ = 𝑉∠𝛼, this is 𝑉 I mean I am omitting this bar all the time, but this
is the phasors. Therefore, if you simply do 𝑉̅ 𝐼 ̅ in this case; that is if you simply multiply
this two complex number; it will be

𝑉̅ 𝐼 ̅ = 𝑉𝐼∠(𝛼 + 𝛽)

And a real part of it is not real power that is the reason for general case; you do not know
voltage might have also angle, current might have also some angle with respect to some
other reference phasor.

Therefore, more correct thing will be; so real part of this

𝑅𝑒(𝑉̅ 𝐼 )̅ ≠ 𝑉𝐼 cos(𝛼 − 𝛽)

Therefore, you should just remember this; anyway so this is just a side remarks of this one.
Therefore, 𝑉𝐼 ∗ you have to take mind you 𝑉 and 𝐼; although I am not putting bars to they
are complex numbers and this gives you the complex power delivered by the source.

70
Now, after calculating this if both real parts and imaginary parts become positive numbers;
then I will tell real power is delivered by the source; reactive power is delivered by the
source. Because in any circuit you know current direction is your choice and if even if you
have to chosen it wrongly then the it will be reflected in this equation.

It might so happen 𝑉𝐼 ∗ after you calculate; it will give you real part becomes becoming
negative. So, I should not be surprise then I am telling complex power delivered by the
source its some minus real power (-100); means it is really absorbing real power, you know
all these things. So, this is the thing equation; I will be using here to balance the power and
I will demand that.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:57)

See what is the power delivered by the source; it is 𝑉1 𝐼1; I am so sorry; this is 𝐼1 ; 𝑉1 𝐼1∗ is
the power delivered by the source to the system. And this must be equal to see to the load
if you see this is the voltage drop because 𝐼2 direction, I have assumed; I cannot then say
and voltage drop then has to be upper one plus, lower one minus.

You can select the direction of 𝐼2 in whichever way you like, but once you select that
direction of 𝐼2 ; remember the voltage drop polarity across that element is decided then plus
minus I can do. Similarly, this fellow voltage drop across 𝑍3 is 𝐼3 𝑍3 upper one plus lower
one minus. And through the dots current come out that way in the transformer you will
assume, so, that MMF will be compensated by the current drawn by the primary through
the dot that is the whole implication.

71
But what I am telling this must be true; 𝑉1 𝐼1∗ must be equal to this voltage is suppose 𝑉2;
this voltage is 𝑉2 this side upper one plus lower one minus. So, power delivered; power
absorbed by 𝑍2 = 𝑉2 𝐼2∗ plus 𝑉3; this is 𝑉3 plus minus 𝑉3 𝐼3∗ very simple; it has to be from
power balance. Even if you do not go into the complexity of transformer how flux remain
same, but this has to be if it works like that you cannot do. So, in this case I know 𝑉1, 𝑉2
and 𝑉3 because number of turns are known, those voltages are known. What else I know?
I know 𝐼2 , I know 𝐼3 therefore, 𝐼1∗ can be calculated.

𝑉1 𝐼1∗ = 𝑉2 𝐼2∗ + 𝑉3 𝐼3∗

Because my problem is what is the current drawn from the supply it will be equal to

𝑉2 ∗ 𝑉3 ∗
𝐼1∗ = 𝐼 + 𝐼
𝑉1 2 𝑉1 3

But 𝑉2, 𝑉1, 𝑉3, 𝑉1 all are co phasor numbers; so this will give you the turns ratio that is it
is essentially another way of showing that reflected current of this one is

𝑉2 ∗ 𝑉3 ∗ 𝐼2∗ 𝐼3∗
𝐼1∗ = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = +
𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉 𝑉
(𝑉1 ) ( 1 )
2 𝑉 3

𝑉 𝑁 𝑉 𝑁 𝐼2
this is nothing, but 𝑉1 = 𝑁1. Similarly this is 𝑉1 = 𝑁1; is this one.
2 2 3 3 𝑎

So, I will get 𝐼1∗ ; is not, but I want to know 𝐼1 ok; if you have calculated 𝐼1∗ once again take
conjugate of both the sides. So, 𝐼1 then will be equal to 𝐼1∗ ; take once again conjugate and
the conjugate of the respective terms it will simply become

𝐼2 𝐼3
𝐼1 = (𝐼1∗ )∗ = +
𝑉 𝑉
(𝑉1 ) (𝑉1 )
2 3

Mind you this 𝐼1 you will get magnitude an angle therefore, what is the effective impedance
𝑉1
seen by the source it will be simply and so on; everything is known now. Therefore,
𝐼1

although it looks like if there are several coils not even 2; there may be 3, 4 coils on the
secondary side and each one of those coils are supplying impedances; here is a simple way
of calculating the current distributions in the transformer. And also the power factor at
which the transformer will be operating and still we are in ideal transformer.

72
So, ideal transformer otherwise is so simple to handle with that is what I want to point out.
And in one stroke you will get both to real and reactive power supplied by the source and
this one. So, it is a very useful method; if you know the transformers are ideal, one way of
calculating the currents is to apply this power balance. Mind you power balance means
both reactive and real power should be balanced like that.

So, here is a nicer way of handling the situation; you have understood this. Only thing is
if I want to draw the equivalent circuit; refer to the primary side what it will be? This
equation will help me out equivalent circuit; refer to source side; what it will be? Source
side, so 𝑉1 will remain 𝑉1 that is there; then this current

𝐼1 = 𝐼2′ + 𝐼3′

𝐼2
𝐼2′ =
𝑉
(𝑉1 )
2

𝐼3
𝐼3′ =
𝑉
(𝑉1 )
3

Therefore, this impedances must appear in parallel such that one is 𝐼2′ and everything will
be this is the 𝐼3′ . And this impedance I will write 𝑍2′ this first one as this one; I will write it
𝑁 2
as 𝑍2′ = (𝑁1 ) 𝑍2 ; this impedance. And this impedance reflected impedance on the primary
2

𝑁 2
side; I will write it as 𝑍3′ = (𝑁1 ) 𝑍3 .
3

So, you see if there are several secondary coils and each one of them is supplying load;
then the equivalent impedances referred to the primary side; they will be not in series they
will be in parallel. So, this a lot of problems; we will be able to handle when ideal
transformers are connected in different ways supplying different kinds of load.

So, this one is very useful power balance; try to use that power balance means complex
power balance, both real and reactive power delivered by the source. That must be equal
to sum of the real powers delivered to 𝑍2 , 𝑍3 plus some of the reactive powers based on
that this equation is written and you get everything. And please go through this concept
the 𝑉1 𝐼1∗ ; solve these get 𝐼1∗ , but do not forget to take once again the complex conjugate so
that it becomes 𝐼1 and in the system ok.

73
So, this is the thing I wanted to tell about ideal transformer. So, after doing this then we
ask ourselves that what about a practical transformer. So, what I will do now? I will now
bring the realities of a practical transformer into an ideal transformer. I will go on adding
the realities what are present in a practical transformer; start thinking that initially it was
ideal transformer; then you have a practical transformer what are the things there.

For example, there will be rotor resistor I mean resistance of primary secondary bindings;
which I assume 0, there may be leakage flux which I assume 0 and there may be core
losses which may be 0 and there will be a finite magnetic magnetizing current.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:17)

So, a practical transformer will start with. Add realities to an ideal transformer. So, first
reality what I will add is suppose magnetizing current; current is finite; is finite and cannot
be neglected.

Suppose it is like this what I mean by this? This is my practical it is somewhat a practical
transformer still lot of ideal qualities are present, still resistances are neglected core loss is
not there, but only I am telling the core material is having a finite 𝜇𝑟 values. So,
magnetizing current cannot be neglected and I want to model it. So, this is a somewhat
practical transformer having a finite magnetizing current.

Now, let us try to understand what is happening with this switch opened; this we discussed
earlier with this switch is opened secondary impedance is 𝑍2 , what will be the ammeter

74
reading now? It will be magnetizing current; in case of ideal transformer absolutely ideal
transformer with secondary no current; primary current will be 0, but with this switch when
even if it is open, primary will draw a current 𝐼𝑚 finite magnetizing current.

So, it is like this then in the phasor diagram if I draw this is suppose 𝑉1; there is now finite
magnetizing current 𝐼𝑚 . And which will be lagging the supply voltage 𝑉1 by 90° after all
inductance and this is the axis along which flux phasor can be shown. So, this is the open
circuit equivalent circuit and if this is 𝑉2; 𝑉2 = 𝐸2 because still drops are neglected 𝑉1 =
𝐸1 .

So, all voltages will be in phase; so this is 𝑉1 = 𝐸1 same phasor and depending upon the
ratio your 𝑉2 phasor will be here; if it is a step down transformer this is your 𝑉2. What is
the secondary current with S opened nothing 𝐼2 ; what is the reflected current? Nothing, but
what I am telling the moment you close it; there will be a secondary current 𝐼2 , what was
the MMF? Acting in the circuit before S was closed, it was 𝑁1 𝐼𝑚 .

What will be the MMF acting when S is closed? Net MMF once again has to be 𝑁1 𝐼𝑚
because flux remains same; therefore, if you close it dependent upon the power factor
angle 𝐼2 will be here. But primary immediately will draw additional current 𝐼2′ ; I have
assumed low voltage side to be this. So, 𝐼2′ will be of lesser length; high voltage side current
is less 𝐼2′ .

And 𝐼2′ is such that 𝑁1 𝐼2′ which produces flux in the clockwise direction, if it is 𝑁2 𝐼2 which
will produce flux in the counter they will balance of and once again MMF will remain
𝑁1 𝐼𝑚 ,

𝑁1 𝐼2′ = 𝑁2 𝐼2

but the question is what will be the current drawn from the supply? So, current drawn from
the supply will now have two components.

So, one is the magnetizing component 𝐼𝑚 plus this 𝐼2′ . And this I must say this will decide
about 𝐼1 are you getting? So, there was 𝐼2′ plus 𝐼𝑚 you add and you get the primary current;
this is a crucial point open the switch ammeter will read 𝐼𝑚 , close the switch ammeter will
read (𝐼𝑚 + 𝐼2′ ) this plus this.

75
 𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑚 + 𝐼2′

Now, the question is this is fine, but how to model this, how to put this to an ideal
transformer I should add something to the ideal transformer so that this model; this
happening whatever is happening in this transformer is correctly modelled in a; what do I
mean by modeling? I means that I will add some parameter some components in an ideal
transformer so that whatever I have seen is happening in a practical transformer.

I will add some components in that ideal transformer which will explain that thing
correctly that is the idea. See it can be very nicely drawn; so this is practical transformer
mind you, this is practical transformer what I will do now?

(Refer Slide Time: 29:15)

I will say consider this is ideal transformer; I will tell, I will put a dotted mark around it.
This is ideal transformer and what I will do across it; I will connect a reactance 𝑗𝑋𝑚 fixed
reactance. Mind you this is not primary coil; this is a reactance added to an ideal
transformer and I am saying it will represent correctly a practical transformer which is
having only finite magnetizing current; still it is not having any resistance, leakage flux,
any core loss.

So, this is a reactance; added by me to an ideal transformer which I have shown in a box
and with same turns ratio 𝑁1 : 𝑁2 like this. So, 𝑗𝑋𝑚 is external to this ideal transformer and
it is no winding I am emphasizing this; this is the primary coil. That is what I am telling

76
that your practical transformer is like this fine and here you observed you; nothing is
connected you will see ammeter you showing magnetizing current connect a load it will
draw a current 𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑚 + 𝐼2′ ; that is what we have seen.

Let us see whether really it can be; it can really faithfully follow the rules of this practical
transformer, it can faithfully represent the happenings whatever is happening in a practical
transformer. So, here is your 𝑉1 fine applied voltage; you see if there is a load connected
like this 𝑍2 with S opened; with S opened this as I told you is a reactance I have model the
transformer thought I will represent.

𝑉
So, what is this current? 𝑗𝑋1 ; that is 𝑉1 is here with S opened I know magnetizing current
𝑚

90° lagging. And this 𝐼𝑚 ; I will choose the value of 𝑋𝑚 means such a way that it is

𝑉1
𝐼𝑚 = ∠90°
𝑋𝑚

So, 𝑋𝑚 is called magnetizing reactance; therefore, how do I find out that? With S opened
𝑉
in a practical transformer with S opened measured 𝐼𝑚 ; 𝐼 1 gives you the value of 𝑋𝑚 and I
𝑚

write it like this with S opened; with S closed listen carefully. Suppose I have closed S;
this current is 𝐼2 fine, but this portion is an ideal transformer with S opened, there was no
current here, there was no current here; this transformer which is ideal has no magnetizing
current. And we know that when S was even opened, current drawn from the supply was
vanishingly small for this transformer 0.

But when I close this; this current has to be 𝐼2′ because it is an ideal transformer we have
I 𝑁
spent so much time on that and this is 𝐼2′ = 𝑎2; where 𝑎 = 𝑁1. I mean it should not disturb
2

you or to anybody that I have applied a voltage; something is connected between these
two; why there is no current when S was opened.

This we have discussed that length previously; this is an ideal transformer whatever little
current I mean ideal means ideal me what is infinitely large; you do not require any
magnetizing current for this portion. And we know ideal transformer how it behaves
connect load there will be reflected current here; 𝐼2′ .

77
And then the current drawn from the supply will be 𝐼𝑚 + 𝐼2′ . And this will be your 𝐼1 you
have to add this and this is exactly correctly representing what I have observed in a
practical transformer with S opened practical. S opened current drawn is 𝐼𝑚 ; is it?

Yes, in this model this is model mind you; this model comprises of an ideal transformer
with a reactance with S opened; current drawn is 𝐼𝑚 because there was no 𝐼2 there is no 𝐼2′ ,
𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑚 . With S closed this current in a practical transformer we have seen it is 𝐼𝑚 + 𝐼2′ .
Yes, it is correctly representing; close the switch from the knowledge all of this portion is
ideal. So, here now we will appear a reflected current 𝐼2′ and 𝐼2′ + 𝐼𝑚 will give you 𝐼1 .

We will continue with this in the next lecture, but please go through this portion very
carefully.

Thank you.

78
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 09
Modelling of Practical Transformer - II

(Refer Slide Time: 00:26)

Welcome to the 9th lecture and you recall we were gradually going towards a practical
transformer. And in my last class, this was the slide, where this is a practical transformer.
Here there is no 𝑋𝑚 connected; you must understand that this is a practical transformer in
the laboratory ok; two secondary, two primary, there was nothing like 𝑋𝑚 connected there.

But it was our thought process, which led us to believe that this whatever is happening to
a practical transformer, what is happening with S opened, current drawn from the supply
is finite, magnetizing current 𝐼𝑚 and when S closed, it must be 𝐼𝑚 + 𝐼2′ , because net MMF
in the circuit has to be 𝑁1 𝐼𝑚 , why? Because flux in the core is decided by supply voltage
and frequency, nobody has any say on that.

But if you are trying to disturb the secondary, I mean if you are trying to pass some current
through the secondary, primary cannot be a mere spectator to this happening. It will react
immediately by drawing an extra current 𝐼2′ , and that 𝐼2′ cannot be of any magnitude; it has

79
 𝐼
to be 𝐼2′ = 𝑎2, so that 𝑁1 𝐼2′ = 𝑁2 𝐼2 , so that net MMF once again is 𝑁1 𝐼𝑚 and this is what we

have discussed last class.

So, this is a reactance, this is an ideal transformer and it correctly models it. So, 𝑉1, 𝐼𝑚 I
have drawn, then I am completing the phasor diagram once again. And suppose, this is 𝑉1
to the ideal transformer applied voltage is 𝑉1, so this is 𝐸1 , this is 𝐸2 and this is 𝑉2; 𝑉2 =
𝐸2 .

So, depending upon the turns ratios your, so this 𝑉1 is nothing but 𝐸1 , they still remains
nothing in between, and your this will be your 𝑉2, which is same as 𝐸2 . And this is suppose
the load power factor decide what is the current here 𝐼2 , then current drawn from the
primary will be 𝐼2′ , 𝐼2 we have got, get 𝐼2 .

And then this 𝐼2′ + 𝐼𝑚 if you add, you will get primary current 𝐼1 , understood. This is how
magnetizing current can be taken into account of a it is somewhat a practical transformer,
still not a full practical transformer. I have neglected, so many other things till now, only
magnetizing current, I have been incorporated and for that an external element 𝑗𝑋𝑚 is to
be selected.

If you like you put 𝑗𝑋𝑚1; side 1 ok, because we have seen parameter value changes from
side this side to that side and so on. Therefore, what will be the equivalent circuit looking
from the primary side, it will be 𝑉1, here is a reactance; no windings this one 𝑗𝑋𝑚 and here
will be the impedance 𝑎2 𝑍2 , you know this will be the equivalent circuit refer to the
primary side 𝑗𝑋𝑚1 .

So, whatever impedance, voltage, this that are there and this current I will show as 𝐼2′
reflected current and this current I will show as magnetizing current and this current is
your 𝐼1 . Mind you I am not drawing, but these are dots that is very important with respect
to this. So, this is the equivalent circuit refer to the primary side.

What will be the equivalent circuit refer to the secondary side, refer to source side; refer
to primary or source side, primary side. And refer to load side or secondary side, it will be
secondary voltage remain secondary voltage; this will be 𝑍2 , secondary things I should not
disturbed, they are already there 𝑍2 , this voltage is 𝑉2, this current is 𝐼2 , I will show it.

80
 ′
And this fellow the transfer of impedance from this to that side will be 𝑋𝑚1 , what is X m1
dashed

′
𝑋𝑚1
𝑋𝑚1 =
𝑎2

what is this 𝑉2?

𝑉1
𝑉2 =
𝑎

So, this is the equivalent circuit refer to the secondary side. So, you solve this you write
′
𝐼𝑚 reflected current. And then you will what current you will get, I will get 𝐼1′ .

So, you either solve this circuit get everything, because if this somewhat practical
transformer, solve this circuit get 𝐼2′ and then predict what will be 𝐼2 . So, people always
refer to work on a equivalent circuit instead of drawing some coupled coils, then
individually calculated. We can do that, but this is a better way of doing things.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:36)

After I have done this, our next reality which is present in a practical transformer is let us
assume, I will assume winding resistance. Till now, I have neglected winding resistances
𝑟 not 0, that is 𝑟1 is present, 𝑟2 is present that is the what is 𝑟1, this winding; one side, side
𝑙
1 resistance and this winding has also got 𝑟2 , because resistance is after all 𝜌 𝑎.

81
So, there is some resistivity of this conducting material, some cross sectional area, so many
turns are there, so many length. Of course, the resistance will be pretty small, it is made of
very good material for example, copper. But none the less there will be some finite
resistances of primary side and secondary side.

And it looks like, this is resistance which is of course, distributed can be considered to be
lumped and I can show it like this. Similarly for this coil, this resistance, I will considered
it to be lumped and represent it like this, this is how I can represent.

Now, the question is how this 𝑟1, 𝑟2 should be shown in this transformer. In this
transformer, there was finite magnetizing current; no resistance, no leakage flux, fine and
this is 𝐼𝑚 magnetizing current taking care of by an 𝑋𝑚 .

So, now once again I will add some parameters to this circuit that is 𝑟1, 𝑟2 in appropriate
place that is very important, so that effect of 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 will be addressed by this model.
Question is where should I put 𝑟1, should I put it here, should I put it there, where that is
an interesting question.

This portion is ideal mind you therefore, if there is winding resistance, what it is going to
do. There will be whenever this coil will carry current your practical transformer, there
will be a voltage drop here in the resistance. Applied voltage minus this drop is going to
create flux, not this full voltage is going to produce your magnetizing current, because a
portion of the voltage will be dropped in 𝑟1, got the point.

Therefore, in this circuit I will spoil this circuit, do not mind; what I will do now if I add
something here, our previous thing will also get disturbed. So, what I am telling is this
what I will do now listen carefully, here I will draw the ideal transformer and I will put a
dotted box around it in order to indicate that and then these are the terminals of the ideal
transformer ok.

And then I am telling to this ideal transformer, this winding is not purely this thing. So, so
you are there will be resistances in series, I will connect it here; which is small resistance
nonetheless 𝑟1, it will come in series.

Now, the question is should I put that magnetizing current branch 𝑋𝑚 , before this or after
this, I must put it after this 𝑗𝑋𝑚 . Similarly here of course, there is no magnetizing branch,

82
𝑟2 is simply comes here. I have shown only one way I am showing not like this resistance;
because these resistances are small, it only indicates that a small resistance in series.
Therefore, you know this is this thing and here is your supply voltage, frequency 𝑓.

So, whatever current it supplies which is decided by it may be the load connected here,
ultimately some current is drawn and when that current flows through the winding, there
will be a voltage drop 𝑟1; and that voltage drop must be subtracted from your supply
voltage and the remaining voltage is responsible for creating flux and giving you the
transformer action, so that is why 𝑟1 should not be shown here, it must be after this.
Therefore, this is 𝑉1, this is ideal transformer, this is 𝑟2 .

Now, the moment 𝑟1 is present I must also distinguish between 𝐸1 and 𝑉1, there will be a
drop here in series. 𝑋𝑚 what do you think; its value will be low or high, its value will be
high you should not choose a magnetic material which requires very large magnetizing
current. See 𝑋𝑚 is what,

𝑉1
𝑋𝑚 ≈
𝐼𝑚

I should not choose a magnetic material which requires very high value of magnetizing
current, then 𝑋𝑚 will be low. Better and better material I use, which is not certainly ideal
its 𝜇𝑟 → ∞, may be 𝜇𝑟 = 5000 quite a large number.

So, 𝐼𝑚 will be small, 𝑉1 is fixed, so 𝑋𝑚 is general high that is why, I have written capital
letter and we so many turns, just to indicate that ok, 𝑟1 is small, small 𝑟2 . Therefore, the
𝑉
magnetizing current which will be flowing here, 𝐼𝑚 is not 𝑋 1 ; 𝑉1 minus this drop divided
𝑚

by 𝑋𝑚 .

And as you know, depending upon the degree of loading the magnitude of the current
drawn from the supply will change. Therefore, drop in this resistance, 𝑉1 minus this drop
is the voltage what is coming here across the ideal transformer. Therefore, the magnitude
of the voltage apply to this ideal transformer is will also we will not remain constant, as
we were thinking in case of ideal transformer apply 𝑉1. I was telling the level of flux 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉1
is equal to applied voltage in an ideal transformer is equal to 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = and if applied
√2𝜋𝑓𝑁1

voltage and frequency is constant, 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 gets decided.

83
But now I come to know ok, the applied voltage to this ideal transformer strictly speaking
will not remain constant because of the presence of 𝑟1, this is constant mind you; 𝑉1 is
constant no doubt, but 𝑉1 minus this drop is what is applied here, what is this drop, this
drop depend on the magnitude of 𝐼1 this your practical transformer is carrying and the
magnitude of 𝐼1 = (𝐼2′ + 𝐼𝑚 ), 𝐼2′ depend on 𝐼2 and depend on 𝑍2 .

So, by as you change 𝑍2 , 𝐼2 is going to change, 𝐼2′ is going to change therefore, 𝐼1 is also
going to change, therefore drop in 𝑟1 is not constant as you change loading. Therefore
applied voltage to this ideal primary winding of this ideal transformer; strictly speaking is
not constant, only consolation is this 𝑟1 is quite small.

Therefore, what people say is this ok, 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 will be approximately constant, because you
have not certainly designed a transformer with high value of 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 , then no one is going
to buy your transformer I mean why, there will be unnecessary power loss in the windings.
Therefore, you must see that very good material is used for example, copper whose
𝑙
resistivity is very low. So, 𝜌 𝑎 the winding resistances are small, so that that way this

assumption that 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 practically remain same from no load to full load is good enough.

Anyway none the less, let us see try to draw the phasor diagram of this one and try to
understand the implication of this. Now, what I will be doing here listen carefully; here I
will start with 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 ok, this voltage and this voltage. Mind you, here is now that 𝑉2
and 𝐸2 will not be same is not, similarly 𝑉1 and 𝐸1 will not be same, because in between
this two sources some 𝐼1 𝑟1 drop here, some 𝐼2 𝑟2 drop here will come, they cannot be same.

But nonetheless, we can do this things. Suppose how to start the phasor diagram drawing,
I will do it like this. Suppose, I draw it will be slightly clumsy, but let it be, but follow my
argument ok; you will draw 𝑉2 first whatever it will be; I draw 𝑉2 arbitrarily, vertically. If
I know 𝑉2, then I can fix up where the 𝐼2 will be is not, because load power factor angle is
known. Suppose, power factor angle of the load is 𝜃2 , 𝑉2 and 𝐼2 , I have drawn with S
closed.

Then I will say, look here your

𝐸2 = 𝑉2 + 𝐼2 𝑟2

84
follow the logic, the diagrams may be a bit clumsy, but this is what is going to happen.
Suppose, 𝑉2 is known, 𝑉2 and 𝐼2 you draw; then I have to add to 𝑉2 , this 𝐼2 𝑟2 drop. Then I
will add it what is there and 𝐼2 𝑟2 drop will be very small, because 𝑟2 is small, 𝐼2 𝑟2 follow
the logic that is all.

If you do that, then what I am telling you will get your 𝐸2 . The induced voltage in this
ideal transformer, which I will draw by a red line here, this will be your 𝐸2 . It is an ideal
transformer, this is 𝐸2 , then you can confidently draw your 𝐸2 . If number of turns of this
side is higher, then it length of 𝐸1 will be higher than 𝐸2 , 𝐸1 is drawn. So, this will be your
𝐸1 .

And if this is 𝐸1 , this is 𝐸2 , your magnetizing current will be perpendicular to 𝐸1 , 90°

𝐸
lagging. Here is your finite magnetizing current, 𝐼𝑚 is not? I have got 𝐸1 , so 𝑗𝑋1 = 𝐼𝑚 , I
𝑚

get; so, this is the magnetizing current. And it is an ideal transformer with S opened, 𝐼2
was 0 this current was 0 with S closed, 𝐼2′ will appear here, nowhere else it is an ideal
transformer this portion.

So, 𝐼2 is known and 𝐼2′ will be in same phase with that so I will get 𝐼2′ ; whether its length
will be higher than 𝐼2 or not that depends upon the ratios. So, this will be your. .

Student: (Refer Time: 23:33).

It will be less. So, what I will do is I will make these as 𝐼2 , and this is 𝐼2′ , because I have
shown 𝐸1 𝐸1 is higher. So, reflected current must be lower 𝐼2′ , so this is your 𝐼2′ .

Then I will say that this current 𝐼1 = 𝐼2′ + 𝐼𝑚 . So, 𝐼𝑚 is known, 𝐼2′ is known; so I will add
this two, mind you I have shown 𝐼𝑚 slightly higher length it is not so, 𝐼𝑚 is small, anyway
whatever I have drawn. So, this will be your 𝐼1 and if this is 𝐼1 , then I will say your 𝑉1 =
𝐸1 + 𝐼1 𝑟1. So, 𝐸1 is known to this add 𝐼1 𝑟1 parallel to this and from this to this, then
wherever you will end up that will be your 𝑉1.

I think you have got the idea, see life will be will not be so much complicated as we
proceed, but what I am telling this is exactly what, how to draw phasor diagram. Start with
I could start with 𝑉1, but it is better you, because the primary current drawn decided by
load, it is much more easier. So, I will quickly go through this step, so that you can
understand.

85
Suppose, switch is closed ok, i will clean this and once again redraw. So, I will just I will
(Refer Time: 26:00), but the idea is very important you must keep this in mind. So, I am
redrawing once again very quickly, what I am telling ok, you have close the switch the
circuit is operating, choose 𝑉2, you start with 𝑉2 ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:26)

Voltage applied across the load is 𝑉2, then no one can contest me, then the current is

𝑉2
𝐼2 =
𝑍2

𝐼2 suppose lagging power factor load, 𝐼2 will lag here, 𝐼2 will be higher low voltage side;
I assumed I mean, while drawing ok, so 𝐼2 . The moment you know 𝐼2 you can find out 𝐸2 ,
because

𝐸2 = 𝑉2 + 𝐼2 𝑟2

These lengths are small.

And then you get this length to be 𝐸1 , I am simply repeating, because for the first time you
𝑁
are doing this you get 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 sorry. If you get 𝐸2 , this ratio of voltage is 𝑁1 absolutely no
2

𝑉 𝑁 𝑁
doubt; mind you this 𝑉1 may not be 𝑁1 strictly speaking, but this induced voltages are 𝑁1.
2 2 2

86
So, 𝐸2 is this, then I know 𝐸2 and 𝐸1 are in phase, so I can get 𝐸1 assuming 𝑁1 is greater
than 𝑁2 , it will be this.

Then once I know 𝐼1 , I know the magnetizing current which will be 90° lagging. And this
current is small, let me draw it now correctly 𝐼𝑚 small current; 𝐼𝑚 and once I know 𝐼𝑚 and
𝐼2 is known. So, 𝐼2′ will be this one here will be your 𝐼2′ . So, current drawn from the source
will be 𝐼1 = 𝐼2′ + 𝐼𝑚 , this is your 𝐼1 ; and if this is 𝐼1 , use this one 𝑉1 = 𝐸1 + 𝐼1 𝑟1, whatever
it is, parallel to this 𝐼1 𝑟1 and you get your 𝑉1.

Anyway I am stopping now, but try to understand. So, this will now truly represent, it is
somewhat practical circuit with the finite magnetizing current and winding resistance. In
the next class, we will bring other realities into an ideal transformer to get a somewhat
better picture of the model.

Thank you.

87
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 10
Modelling of Practical Transfomer - III

Welcome to this 10th lecture on Electrical Machines-I and we were trying to get a realistic
model of a practical transformer. Ideal transformer is real ideal where no winding
resistance, no core loss, no leakage flux and things are very simple and I know how to
calculate secondary current, primary current, draw the equivalent circuit so on. Then what
I started telling you that to an ideal transformer.

If we go on adding some parameters some elements properly then that will be the model
of a practical transformer. We are trying to model a practical transformer. In terms of
model of a practical transformer, I am trying to get by an ideal transformer plus some
circuit elements, we are adding circuit elements.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:19)

And I told you that till now what we have done is, we have added the winding resistance
𝑟1 of the primary and this is my ideal transformer and here is your actual load on the
secondary side 𝑍2 , and here also I showed the secondary resistance 𝑟2 . And then the

88
magnetizing current was also taken into account and it was not a winding, it is 𝑋𝑚 , it is
my thought process which brought me here. This is my applied Voltage.

And these are the current when it is closed it is 𝐼2 , remember this is 𝐼2′ and this is 𝐼𝑚
magnetizing current, which is very small 𝑋𝑚 is high. Mind you I write it here 𝑋𝑚 high, 𝑟1,
𝑟2 are small that is why people do while analyzing suppose this circuit is given practical
transformer ok. Apply the rules of ideal transformer suppose you do not have any
parameter values known 𝑋𝑚 𝑟1 𝑟2 .

You for example, if I say a it is useful to know, so that suppose the same transformers, one
transformer is rated like this 200V 100V 1 kVA 50 Hz transformer is given single phase.
Suppose I say that it is suppose a practical transformer ok. You apply 200 V here you and
I say you connect an impedance say 10 Ω. Practical transformer it is, but what I am telling
suppose you want to quickly calculate. Assume this transformer to be ideal because after
all this 𝑟1 𝑟2 are small 𝑋𝑚 is high.

And then calculate the currents this side 100 V 10 Ω 10 A sorry. This current is 10 A and
say that this current is 5 A and this Voltage is close to 100 V if we have apply 200 V here,
if we have apply 200 V here 200 V.

So, while estimating this is a practical transformer suppose, but for quick calculations you
do this and to this practical transformer you really connected 10 Ω and 200 V what I am
telling is you will not be very far away from this 10 A this 5 A, it will be very close to that.

So, the concept of ideal transformers in many ways help me or very complicated circuit so
many transformer. Each one will have 𝑟1, 𝑟2 , 𝑋𝑚1, 𝑋𝑚2, but I know 𝑋𝑚 is high 𝑟1 𝑟2 are
small neglect them. For getting a quick idea what will be the order of the current, what
will be the order of the Voltage across the load?

It may be in a practical transformer instead of 100 V if you have applied 200 V because of
this drop it may be 96 V. But you care, you get the ideal transformer helps you to calculate
the number so easily and you can always say it is very close to the correct answer, it is not
a main achievement using the concept of ideal transformer wherever possible you do that.

89
So, that is there, but still now let us see whether those parameter values can be taken in to
account. If it can be taken how and to do this I told you this portion is ideal transformer
and go on adding parameters do it like this.

Next thing is I have assumed in the transformer that all the fluxes are leakage, leakage flux
for example, consider the core of the transformer. Suppose we have a transformer this is
the thing and what I have assumed earlier is that here is your some winding, and I assume
that all fluxes were confined to the core. In reality in a practical transformer it is not going
to be like this.

There will be flux lines, most of the flux lines will be confined to the core because it will
be highly permeable material. So, most of the lines of forces will be confined may be 2
percent, 3 percent, 4 percent flux line will complete their path through the air gap.

Therefore when the conductor carry some current, it produces flux a little amount of flux
will be leakage flux. So, this is called the mutual flux, this is called the leakage flux. It is
𝑑𝜑𝑚
this mutual flux which is going to give you transformer action is not this is the Voltage
𝑑𝑡

induced in the coil no leakage flux, the flux which is common to both the windings. So,
this is leakage flux here 𝜑𝑙1 .

𝑑
Therefore the induced Voltage in the coil of the transformer will be 𝑁1 𝑑𝑡 (𝜑𝑚 + 𝜑𝑙1 ) say

this is the induced Voltage in the coil and this can be separated out

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑁1 (𝜑𝑚 + 𝜑𝑙1 ) = 𝑁1 (𝜑𝑚 ) + 𝑁1 (𝜑𝑙1 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Now, this portion this term is not going to transfer energy from the primary to the
𝑑
secondary side. It will simply cause a Voltage drop and it can be written as 𝑁1 𝑑𝑡 (𝜑𝑙1 ) =
𝑑𝑖𝑙1
𝐿𝑙1 . I mean something like that primary current whatever is flowing leakage flux.
𝑑𝑡

A detail analysis I have done it in my machine two course in the first few lectures, electrical
machine two course, in the first 2, 3, 4 lectures in the same NPTEL domain. If you please
go through that it will, I will put a note on that, but it looks like the applied Voltage total
flux created by the winding currents will comprise of two portion, one is the mutual flux
which will be totally on the core, another is the leakage flux. This leakage flux will

90
complete their magnetic path through the primarily through the iron. Their reluctance is
high leakage flux itself will be small.

But nonetheless it will cause an extra Voltage drop. Therefore, it looks like applied Voltage
I have given, there will be a Voltage drop in 𝑟1, but there is a small inductance drop which
will also take place to take care of this Voltage here. In other words what I am telling out
of this total applied Voltage a portion will be drop in the small resistance 𝑟1 and also there
should be a small inductance drop taking place and the remaining Voltage is as if going to
the ideal transformer giving you mutual flux alone.

So, it looks like it should be like this then let me first draw. So, leakage flux the term I
have written leakage flux, you write it leakage flux causes an extra Voltage drop, extra
small Voltage drop in the coil in the practical coil. What does that mean?

(Refer Slide Time: 13:01)

It means that if first I draw the ideal transformer 𝑁1 , 𝑁2 and this portion is suppose ideal
transformer, it is no connection dotted line and then we have seen we have got 𝑟1.

Now, what I am telling in series with 𝑟1 there must be another small inductance 𝑥𝑙1 and
then this is your 𝑗𝑋𝑚 and then this is your ideal transformer this is your 𝐸1 and this is your
𝐸2 . In the secondary side too it will carry current it will produce flux a portion of it may
be leakage flux and therefore, winding resistance as well as leakage reactance 𝑥𝑙2 and then
this two are the terminals and here is the secondary impedance you have connected.

91
Therefore this is ideal transformer here all the fluxes are mutual mind you, all the flux here
𝑑𝜑𝑙1
it is 𝜑𝑚 mutual flux plus 𝜑𝑙1 , 𝑁1 is shown as a drop here because this is your supply
𝑑𝑡

Voltage now we know out of this total supply Voltage a portion will be dropped in 𝑟1
absolutely no doubt and there will be another small Voltage drop because of leakage flux
which is not going to create your magnetizing current, no that Voltage is consumed by the
leakage flux.

As in any inductance you know inductance whatever is the flux that is the drop here and it
is not mutually coupling to another coil therefore, no energy transfer because of 𝑥𝑙1 from
primary to secondary side. In the same way as in the primary secondary side to then will
have winding resistance another I have used by the small letters 𝑥 to indicate leakage flux
also will be small in a well designed transformer who wants more Voltage drop takes place
elsewhere and less Voltage is available for transformer action.

It is this Voltage 𝐸1 which is nothing but the applied Voltage minus this drop must appear
here. If 𝑥𝑙1 is high once again it is a very bad transformer out of this total Voltage
transformer winding impedance consumes. So, much and little Voltage, less Voltage is
available for energy transformer energy transfer. Therefore, remember that this is the
situation now.

So, leakage flux effect of leakage flux can be taken care of once again leakage flux I should
not write here no because applied Voltage that will be only consumed in the winding and
it must be in series with the applied lines 𝑗𝑋𝑚 this one. And once we do that I will repeat
this once again in that I do not know whether I have gone it a bit faster without defining
what is leakage inductance and magnetizing inductance. But I request you please go
through the first few lectures of electrical machine 2 course which is already uploaded in
NPTEL website. You will get a better feeling of this one.

Nonetheless so this is more or less the all the parameters we have added to an ideal
transformer to represent a practical transformer. This is the ideal part add these two things
and pretend that this is the model of practical transformer.

Only one thing I have yet to take that is called the core losses that I will discuss, but so far
as this one core loss not yet taken into account; not yet core loss to be taken into account
to be effect of; core loss to be taken into a account, that we will do. But before that the

92
addition of this one mind you I write it emphasis this point this is the small numbers, this
is high number high with respect to whom with respect to these numbers quite high,
similarly these are small .

Now, in this case once again let me do that because suppose s2 we closed, what will be
the thing? There will be a some current 𝐼2 here. The moment through the secondary of the
ideal transformer 𝐼2 flows through the primary of the ideal transformer 𝐼2′ will flow and
this current is 𝐼𝑚 and this current is 𝐼1 that is what is going to happen. How to draw the
phasor diagram? Suppose the power factor are same way.

Suppose, I will sketch once, so let us start. So, suppose you draw first let us assume this is
LV side. So, 𝑉2 is first sketch 𝑉2, I know load power factor angle; I will sketch 𝐼2 . Let me
draw it larger because low Voltage side current is higher. Suppose this is 𝐼2 , all are phasors
I have not put in those bars 𝐼2 ok.

So, 𝑉2 is there, but 𝑉2 and 𝐸2 are not same in between comes a small impedance. So, what
will be 𝐸2 ?

𝐸2 = 𝑉2 + 𝐼2 (𝑟2 + 𝑗𝑥𝑙2 )

The drops here like this is plus minus. So, 𝑉2 to this add this drops get 𝐸2 plus minus, this
dot I have put. So, 𝑉2 plus 𝐼2 𝑟2 to parallel to this and plus 𝑗𝐼2 𝑥𝑙2 and if you add this you
will get 𝐸2 .

If you get 𝐸2 then your 𝐸1 in phase with 𝐸2 , so your 𝐸1 I will draw a different color. So,
your 𝐸1 , I will fix up suppose this is your 𝐸1 . Once I get 𝐸1 , I will say oh my magnetizing
current is this Voltage by this 𝑗𝑋𝑚 . So, I will draw a magnetizing current, which is 90°
lagging 𝐸1 and if this is 𝐼𝑚 your 𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑚 + 𝐼2′ so, add this 𝐼𝑚 .

Student: Sir dashed.

𝐼2′ I am so sorry. So, 𝐼2 is this one so, 𝐼2′ will be less. So, 𝐼2′ correct. So, suppose this is 𝐼2′ .

So, it will be like this, then this was 𝐼2 mind you this was 𝐼2 . So, from 𝐼2 you get 𝐼2′ then
𝐼2′ + 𝐼𝑚 you add 𝐼2′ plus 𝐼𝑚 parallel to this, this 𝐼𝑚 and if you do you will get 𝐼1 ; and if you
get 𝐼1 then

93
 𝑉1 = 𝐸1 + 𝐼1 (𝑟1 + 𝑗𝑥𝑙1 )

My target is to show all the variables. So, 𝐸1 I have reached. So, to this 𝐸1 you now add
𝐼1 𝑟1; 𝐸1 add 𝐼1 𝑟1 parallel to this wherever it is 𝐼1 𝑟1 and to this you add 𝐼1 which is 90°;
𝑗𝐼1 𝑥𝑙1 and get your supply Voltage 𝑉1 this will be the and here is the flux along this line.

I think you have got the idea it looks like oh it is quite involved, no not really. We will see
later how things will become much more easier with few approximations here and there
things can be further simplified. So, what I told you that it is almost a practical transformer
accept a core losses yet to be taken into account where I have considered the winding
resistances 𝑟1 𝑟2 , where I have considered the finite magnetizing current and the effects of
this are easily seen.

See I can make one comment. So, far I was telling that the moment you apply a certain
Voltage at the certain frequency the flux level in the core is decided and that is constant,
but when the transformer will be operating when the windings are carrying current applied
Voltage is not creating flux. Flux is created by this Voltage and this Voltage 𝐸1 is 𝑉1 minus
this drop, but the thing is 𝑟1 and 𝑥𝑙1 is small. So, 𝐸1 and 𝑉1, I can say magnitude of 𝑉1 will
be not exactly equal, but there magnitudes will be very closed by because of what because
this elements are dropped.

|𝑉1 | ≈ |𝐸1 |

Similarly, 𝐸2 and 𝑉2 will be also very close by because 𝑟2 and 𝑥𝑙2 are small. Therefore, we
can say roughly that the flux level even in a practical transformer it will change as you
change the value of 𝐼2 by varying 𝑍2 , 𝐼2 will change. So, this drop now with another value
of 𝑍2 it will be different. Similarly here 𝐼2′ will come 𝐼2′ + 𝐼𝑚 and so on.

So, this drops are small for a well designed transformer. Therefore, it is not very incorrect
to say that flux level does change appreciable from no load to full load condition the
change in flux level is pretty small because 𝑟1 and 𝑥𝑙1 small and 𝑟2 and 𝑥𝑙2 what, small.

Anyway in the next class what will do is this, we will tell you about the core loss which is
very important. Core loss we will see that it comprises of two components, one is eddy
current loss, another is hysteresis loss and when a practical transformer is operated, if you
touch the core you will find core is becoming hot ok. Although there is no electrical

94
connection between the conductors and the core. So, that is another interesting topics that
we will take up in my next class.

Thank you.

95
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 11
Core Loss - Eddy Current Loss

(Refer Slide Time: 00:19)

Welcome to lecture 11 on Electrical Machines-I and we have started discussing about

modeling a practical transformer. Earlier we started with ideal transformer which means
that windings has got no resistances, leakage flux is negligibly small, there is no core loss
and then it was so easy only thing when you connect a load on the secondary side there
will be a reflected current and that will decide the primary current. Similarly we found out
what will be the equivalent circuit refer to the source side that is primary side and to the
refer to the load side or secondary side.

Then we started discussing about practical transformer. I first told that let us first assume
that only there exists finite magnetizing current, it is not fully practical transformer, but
only a transformer having a finite magnetizing current, then that can be taken in to account
by connecting a an external considering an external resistance to be connected across the
primary side of the ideal transformer 𝑋𝑚 we called it magnetizing reactance.

Then we considered resistance as well as leakage flux and finally, last time we obtained
the equivalent circuit of a practical transformer as, this is suppose the practical transformer

96
where you apply voltage 𝑉1 and frequency 𝑓, then these are the terminal voltages you get
at the terminal 𝑉2 and 𝑓 same frequency voltage and these are dots and. So, with respect
to this two terminals which are available to me I can model it as an ideal transformer ok.
For example, you will model it by an ideal transformer like this, we will assume this is the
ideal transformer and that portion is ideal transformer.

And then you have connected some resistance and leakage reactance of primary and here
is your magnetizing reactance 𝑗𝑋𝑚 and then here also the secondary winding resistance 𝑟2
and 𝑗𝑥2 and this is 𝑟1 and 𝑗𝑥1 . To simplified matter I am using now a I am replacing 𝑥𝑙1 .
So, which is leakage reactance standing for I will simply write it by 𝑥1 in order to always
writing 𝑙.

So, 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 small letters I have used because there values are small leakage flux is small
and this portion is ideal transformer. And this voltage mind you these are the two terminals
if you call it A B the terminals of the practical transformer C D, then here is your A, here
is your B, here is your C, here is your D and within the transformer it can be then thought
of as if there is an ideal transformer with this external parameters I have connected.

And then we have seen how to this is 𝑉1 and 𝑓1 and this is 𝑉2 and 𝑓2 what is this voltage?
This is your 𝐸1 and this is your 𝐸2 mind you there is now distinction between 𝐸2 and 𝑉2
similarly with 𝐸1 and 𝑉1 these two are dots. And if you connect load here, then this current
is 𝐼2 phasor current this is 𝑍2 and if this ideal transformer we know if it carries current 𝐼2
coming out from the dot, immediately on the primary of the ideal transformer this is the
primary of the ideal 𝐼2′ 2 will come and this is magnetizing current 𝐼𝑚 .

Magnetizing current is produced by 𝐸1 and then to this the this current is the total current
which will be this current. Because I cannot go inside the practical transformer to see all
this things this things are not there in fact, it is my way of modeling so, that everything
matches it predicts correctly. So, this is 𝐼1 this is 𝐼2′ this is 𝐼𝑚 and this is your 𝐼2 and then
we drew the phasor diagram which I am not once again drawing.

Now, only one thing is now left for the which exists in a practical transformer, but we have
not taken note of that that is called the core loss; core loss. And core loss has two
components; one is called eddy current loss; eddy current loss and the other is called
hysteresis loss. We will first see why there will be eddy current loss and why there will be

97
hysteresis loss? We try to understand on what factors this losses depend and then how to
take that loss into account by incorporating a resistance in this equivalent circuit? That is
the goal because after all something becoming the as I told you this core of the transformer
will become hot, whenever there will be a changing magnetic field perpendicular to the
area of cross section exists in the core.

So, this will be the topic of study today. So, first we take the case of eddy current loss that
is what we will do. First we will understand the eddy current loss, then we will try to
impose it on a; mind you in a transformer the this was the case.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:17)

Here is the magnetic material and this material has got a you know a depth in three
dimension I am trying to draw, this is the core material and there will be coils here it goes
like this I am so, sorry. Anyway I will take, this one I will take it.

So, this is the coil and here we are connecting an AC source that is the thing. Secondary
coil I am not drawing to begin with. If this is excited from an AC voltage source 𝑉1 with
frequency 𝑓 then we know there will be current drawn from the supply which will be
flowing like this. Of course, this current will be time varying time varying current lagging
the approximately the voltage by 90° and so on.

But none the less there will be fluxes produced in the core that is 𝜑(𝑡) that too will be time
varying ok. And the cross sectional area of the core is a rectangle that is this areas, this is

98
the area and this area let us assume is constant throughout the core. So, flux will be flowing
perpendicular to the area any area you consider that flux is crossing perpendicular to that
area, this is called core area sectional area of the core this is the thing.

Mind you core is a say ferromagnetic material made of iron and it is solid like this and this
core material is also conducting. Core material can conduct electricity because iron not a
good material like your copper, but it also carries current it can allow current to flow core
material can conduct current ok. Core material means say iron say iron or ferromagnetic
material. So, they are good conductor of electricity.

Now, if you look at this cross sectional area the left hand column, I will draw it separately
in this way. This is the sectional area and here is the this side I am drawing understand this
is the thing. What I told through this flux lines are coming now, many flux lines see these
are 𝐵 or 𝜑. 𝐵 is also function of time because

𝜑(𝑡) = 𝐵(𝑡) × 𝐴

𝐴 is the cross sectional area.

Now, so, there is a time varying flux sometimes flux will go left hand side incidentally,
this vertical part of this core material they are called limb. This is also limb and this
horizontal portions are called yoke. So, in the limbs this is left limb, left limb I have drawn
and this winding I am not drawing it is there. So, I have cut it and trying to figure out what
is happening how flux limbs are flowing perpendicular to this cross sectional area. So, this
area is here I have the sectional area, got the idea. So, this is this.

Now, the moment there is a time varying flux, we know that if you have a closed turn.
Suppose a rectangular turn you imagine and there is a perpendicular to this there is a time
varying flux 𝜑(𝑡). Suppose a single turn you considered single turn of conducting material
single turn and suppose you have a time varying flux perpendicular to its area.

Then there will be induced voltage in this turn, what will be the value of this induced
𝑑𝜑
voltage? Number of turns that is 1 × and what you what will be the RMS voltage?
𝑑𝑡

𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛 = √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 1

99
See this turn is not this turn which makes the coil what I am telling, I am just considering
a separate problem all together suppose there is a single turn like this and you have a
induced volt flux which is crossing this as coil area in a perpendicular direction, then the
𝑑𝜑
induced voltage is 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 and its RMS value will be just like a transformer and that value

will be √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 1.

And if this coil is closed; you first imagine as if this coil I have not they I have connected
a switch suppose then across this coil too suppose it is opened that is let me do it like this
suppose there a imagine there is a. So, there is a flux here. So, between this two terminals
then and RMS voltage exist of this magnitude. Therefore, if the this turn is closed on to
itself that is this is closed, then I will say there was an induced voltage and now this induced
voltage will drive a current in this loop why not?

Because it has become a seat of emf as it happens in any turn in the primary and secondary
coil and it is if it is closed then I will say this RMS voltage whatever is induced here that
divided by the resistance of this turn will given the current. And that current too will be
time varying AC current will be flowing what will be the direction of the current? If
suppose 𝜑(𝑡) is going up and increasing then from Lenz’s law, I know the direction of the
induced current in this loop should be such that it will oppose this increase in flux that is
it will be by it went on like this. So, this was my turn. So, the direction of the current has
to be like this.

Who will drive this current? This induced voltage and the circuit is already closed if it is
a closed loop and this current has to be like this so, that it can oppose the increase in 𝜑(𝑡)
for which the induced voltage is there that was the cause. So, that will be the introduction
of the current it will try to oppose the cause.

And if I want to know what will be the if the current flows here, then there will be power
loss in this loop and that power loss will be 𝑖 2 into resistance of the path if you neglected
inductance of this loop a single turn inductance is neglected. In fact, to be very correct I
should say induced voltage divided by the impedance of the turn that decides the current,
but I am telling neglect the inductance of this coil why? Because single turn inductance is
proportional to 𝑛2 and so on let us neglect.

100
So, that is a information which is true when you are studying transformer or not. The
problem I have stated here a single rectangular turns and let us imagine there is a time
varying flux going up and down crossing this coil, then there will be RMS voltage induced
single turn that is why 𝑛 = 1 and this voltage will drive a current, but direction of the
current is you have to apply Lenz’s law arguing that let us imagine that flux is suppose
increasing in the upward direction, then the current induced in this loop that is this current
must flow in this direction. So, that it will try to oppose the very cause for which it is drew
that is the Lenz’s law.

With this background let us now come here in the transformer core what is happening. In
the transformer core as I told you this 𝑖(𝑡) magnetizing current has produced this 𝜑(𝑡)
here and imagine any section either here or there where not. And every section the same
flux is crossing and it is a solid piece of iron suppose solid iron.

Now, the question is where this fits this thing here it is like this. If I simply draw this way
try to understand first this is the suppose I am looking from the top, this thing I am looking
from the top, this is the section the flux lines are coming out. So, flux lines are suppose I
this is the direction of 𝐵, I have just shown one line 𝐵 is coming out and if it is coming out
and it is time varying doing going up and down.

Now, what you do, you consider a closed path like this. So, this closed path, I can imagine
there is a single turn here through which there is a time varying flux like this therefore, in
this path in this loop which I have considered there will be an induced voltage whose value
will be √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 enclosed by this area, not this full 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 .

If you consider a single loop like this, then you have to take this area and then calculate
what is the 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 1 and this switch is already closed you have nothing to do imagine any
closed path through this time varying flux perpendicular to this area and there will be
induced voltage and there will be if it is going up your eddy current loss direction of eddy
current in the single path consider should be like this, because your 𝐵 is coming out and it
will go inside because of this induced. It will try to oppose that cause 𝐵 was increasing
upward direction. So, it will try to oppose the cause your and this current is called 𝑖𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦
eddy current.

101
Now, the big question is this thing does it happen to this selected so, called closed loop?
No it will happened in all the possible suppose this is the cross sectional area, you can
select a path like this, you can select a path like this are you getting these are paths of eddy
current eddy paths.

You can select a path like this any closed path you imagine there will be induced voltage
in that loop. You can figure out how much it will be and that divided by the resistance of
this path will give me the current in this loop, next loop, next loop I mean therefore, this
currents eddy currents will be I cannot avoid if it is a solid piece of iron and if we are
claiming that it is a time varying field exist here perpendicular to this cross sectional area,
then eddy currents will be flowing.

It is not in the coil induced voltage in the core and there will be eddy currents and because
of that this each of this loop current, 𝑖 2 × 𝑟 of this path 𝑖 2 × 𝑟 of this path. So, if it is a
solid piece of iron you will find it has become hot if you touch this one with your hand
core material if you touch it will become hot.

Therefore, there will be power loss, where the power loss takes place in the transformer in
the winding resistance coil resistances 𝑟1 𝑟2 whenever they will carry current there will be
power loss taking place that is incidentally called copper loss, that will come discuss in
detail.

But what I am telling if you touch the core it will become hot why it will become hot?
There is no electrical connection between the coil and the core which is made of say iron,
solid iron the reason one of the reasons will be because of this, because through the
sectional area a time varying flux exist and you choose any conceivable closed path there
will be induced voltage and eddy currents. It may not be rectangular any arbitrary path
loop now after looking at it if I say the path is like this will there be some eddy current like
this? Yes it will be.

Now, we shall try to understand what should I do to reduce this loss. No mathematics first
physically I mean try to understand why this eddy current loss occurs because so much
sectional area, so many area it looks like it will be very difficult to calculate the eddy
current loss it is not. In fact, it is not so, easy you have to write field equation this that
solve the current eddy currents I am try to estimate the eddy current power loss that we
have to estimate.

102
But I can understand by apply a common sense that this eddy losses can be reduced if I
instead of using a solid block of iron like this what I will do? I will use thin thin plates.
Suppose I say there is a iron plates I am drawing it still thicker this is I will go to next
page.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:47)

What I will do is this, this core material the this was the solid sectional area of the core
this is solid iron. Instead of doing like this what I can do? I will take plates thinner plates
and keep them side by side thin thin plates are you with me? That is the plates are like this
you have you chop this thing with it cutting tools slices like your pages of book thickness
of the book will be achieved.

So, you this is the width of this iron, this was the length whatever it is sectional area, the
same sectional area can be realized by instead of using a solid block of iron thinner plates,
that is you take one plate here, take another plate there and stack them together clamp them
to get I think you have got the idea.

So, the sectional area from the top if you look, it will look like this thin thin plates I will
show you. Suppose this is a thinner plates like this magnetic circuit, there able to see no
thinner plates. You iron plates and you put another like this I have brought only two, you
can put several such plates to have a height here that is the width of this magnetic circuit
this portion.

103
So, many thinner plates you use of small thicknesses and stack them together instead of
using a solid iron. But then not only that also what you do that is very important step. You
simply it is a solid iron you simply cut it in different pieces stag them together no not like
that then what you have to do is you have to give a varnish coating to each plate give a
varnish insulation paint it varnish insulation.

So, that each plate is electrically insulated from the next plate. Although they are side by
side kept like this the one plate, this is another plates you place it, but between these two
plates there will be no current can flow because this plate is insulated from this plate while
you are putting. So, each plate has its own electrical identity, it is not dictated by the others.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:35)

So, the these one this length and this is the width suppose this is the length, this is the
width of this area, this is the width I can realize that one like this that area will be realized
and I kept several thin plates together. And then where is your coil in this previous diagram
if you see while where is the coil if I draw it like this the sectional view, where is the coil?
Coil must be shown here this coil if you look from the top this is this one. So, coil was
here is not coil. I think you have got the idea this coil this primary coil it should be shown
around it creates flux like that.

Anyway; so, this will be the RMS induced voltage where that fellow has gone next page
this was the thing. Therefore, the coil is here still total flux

104
 𝑉1
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
√2𝜋𝑓𝑁1

is not approximately at least this is 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 if you give. So, 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 is perpendicular to the
sectional area coil is here, which has created this 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜔𝑡 and it was doing like this
here also 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 was in this direction here also 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 in this direction ok.

Now, what is the motivation of using this number of plates? Motivation is if it is a solid
piece of iron the area you can have many number of closed path as I told you and each one
of them is carrying eddy current loss, eddy current loss will be created losses will be more.

So, by common sense then it looks like instead of using a solid block of iron I will now do
it one this page so, that you appreciate the point. Instead of using a solid piece of iron if I
use thinner plates like this, I am showing the gap larger so, that we understand the point.
So, this is a plate and there is 𝜑 perpendicular to this there will be eddy currents now, but
if you make thinner plates the eddy current paths or number of paths available will become
less for each of the plates. Getting each plate is electrically insulated from the other. So, if
you want to concentrate on a single plate you will see in this plate the eddy current loss
will be less because of the thing.

Therefore we, will use cannot the two path actually (Refer Time: 35:24) law this plates to
make a instead of using a solid iron better use thin plates thin insulated plates instead of
solid iron it will lesser than thing very much because the each plate is electrically insulated
from each other and eddy current will a.

In fact, if I say this thickness of each plate is. So, small you will not find any eddy path
existing of course, that is not the case we will discuss it in the next class this is interesting
and try to understand. My our goal will be to find out an approximate expression of this
eddy current loss and what factors it depends.

Thank you.

105
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 12
Factors on Eddy Current Loss Depends

So, we were discussing Eddy current loss, we will continue that topic in lecture 12.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:21)

And so, we understood no point in using solid block of iron because there will be so, many
Eddy paths, Eddy current loss will increase. Because, that Eddy current loss is in any case
is not going to transfer energy from primary to secondary which is our primary job. It will
be locally there will be heat generated, core will be heated up and there will be efficiency
will be poorer.

So, how to reduce that Eddy current loss? From common sense it look like that instead of
using a solid block of iron you better use thinner plates, stack them together and get the
sectional area. Therefore, it is now true that at least I have to use thin plates ok. Therefore,
in this topic what I am going to do is this to find out an approximate expression for Eddy
loss in a thin plate. So, if in one plate I can find out for all other plates it will be same. So,
this is the thing I am trying to get; to do this what we will be doing we have to do a little
bit of mathematics, but that is very simple no field equation nothing.

106
So, consider a thin plate, let me draw it here and this thin plate I will draw slightly larger
although its thickness is quite smaller. Thickness is of the order of 0.25 mm, 0.3 mm, but
I am drawing it in a larger scale. So, that we can understand what is going on and suppose
this is a single plate. And, it has got a length that side also got the point. In this thin plate
what we will be doing? We will make 𝑥 and 𝑦 axis, I will assign this to be my 𝑥-axis and
this is my 𝑦-axis and this is my origin, and suppose the thickness of the plate is 𝜏 is the
thickness.

Now, I have to find out an approximate expression of Eddy current loss; to find that out
what I will do is this, I will consider at a distance 𝑥 from the origin a loop like this got the
point. Let me complete then I will explain, see within that thin plate I have considered at
a distance 𝑥, this distance is 𝑥. And, elementary thickness 𝑑𝑥, why that 𝑑𝑥 is necessary
will be clear.

Our plan is to find out what will be the Eddy current induced voltage in this loop and this
loop exists in all the section. Here also it exist, all along the length this is suppose the
length of that magnetic circuit whatever it is. If you unfold that core material that length
over which that exist that is the somewhat the you got the point length of the magnetic
circuit anyway. So, this is the thing. Now, in this considered loop of thickness 𝑑𝑥, what
will be the induced voltage RMS induced voltage in this loop will be that is:

𝐸𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 = √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 is what?

𝐸𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 = √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √2𝜋𝑓𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 (2𝑥ℎ) × 1

number of turns that is 1. Therefore, Eddy power loss sorry, Eddy power loss in this loop
will be equal to if you neglect a reactance of this loop only resistance single turn.

𝐸𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 2
𝐸𝑑𝑑𝑦 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 =
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ

𝐸2
This will be the power loss 𝑟
what else because, this circuit is closed. Therefore, this I

will write it now I will just put these values it will be 2𝜋 2 𝑓 2 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
4𝑥 2 ℎ2 . Now, the question
𝜌𝑙
is what will be these resistance? So, resistance of a path I will apply that basic formula 𝐴 .

107
Now the question is what is 𝜌? 𝜌 is the resistivity of this core material, 𝜌 is resistivity so
𝜌. What is 𝑙? 𝑙 will be how much the length of this path current path, it will be (2𝑥 + 2ℎ)
perimeter of this path divided by the cross-sectional area through which this current is
flowing.

Now, what is the here requires some observation that is what is the cross this loop as I told
you exist all along this length here also it exist. So, and current at a given instant of time
will flow this is the cross sectional area because, the loop exist here also for all the this is
not for this single fellow. Loop is positioned at a particular 𝑥 and it is here also and current
Eddy current path will be what? It will be perpendicular to this area got the point.

𝜌𝑙
So, 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 will be then the area of this rectangle. What is the end of this rectangle? The length

of this iron piece and this will be then if I call this length to be 𝐿 which I wrote earlier
suppose, this length is 𝐿 up to whatever distance is both. So, this is 𝐿𝑑𝑥; 𝐿𝑑𝑥 this is the
cross sectional area therefore, this is the thing.

𝐸𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 2 2𝜋 2 𝑓 2 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
4𝑥 2 ℎ2
𝐸𝑑𝑑𝑦 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 = =
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ (2𝑥 + 2ℎ)
𝜌
𝐿𝑑𝑥

Now, you see as I told you we would like to find out an approximate formula ok, to have
a feeling on what factors Eddy current depends like that.

Now, since it is a thin plate the value of 𝜏 is much smaller than your this finite dimension
ℎ or 𝑙 whatever it is. The first assumption is this one, this equal to I will write it as it
becomes 8𝜋 2 𝑓 2 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
ℎ2 𝑥 2 , this is these thing divided by this one. I will write it as this is
approximately equal to this 2𝑥; see 𝑥 is a subset of 𝜏, 𝜏 is already small compared to ℎ.
So, there will be no harm if you write it as 𝜌2ℎ, this 2𝑥 term can be neglected compared
to 2ℎ divided by 𝐿𝑑𝑥 which I will put up like this exactly.

𝐸𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 2 2𝜋 2 𝑓 2 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
4𝑥 2 ℎ2
𝐸𝑑𝑑𝑦 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 = =
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ (2𝑥 + 2ℎ)
𝜌
𝐿𝑑𝑥
8𝜋 2 𝑓 2 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
ℎ2 𝑥 2 𝐿𝑑𝑥
≈
𝜌2ℎ

108
 4𝜋 2 2 2
𝑑𝑃𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 ℎ𝐿𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝜌

(Refer Slide Time: 14:41)

So, we got from the previous slide this is the thing therefore, this is the thing. Now the
𝑃𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦
question is how to get ? So,
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

𝑃𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦
= 4𝜋 2 𝑓 2 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
ℎ𝐿 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

So, I go to previous page; the question is what will be the limit of integration? See at a
𝜏 𝜏
distance 𝑥, I have considered the full loop. So, 0 to 2 will be the limit this is 2, where 𝜏 is

the thickness of the plate so, that will be the limit. So,

𝜏
𝑃𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 4𝜋 2 2 2 2
= 𝑓 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 ℎ𝐿 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝜌 0

So, next step is straightforward

𝜏
𝑃𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 4𝜋 2 2 2 2
= 𝑓 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 ℎ𝐿 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝜌 0

4𝜋 2 𝑓 2 2 𝜏3 1
= 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 ℎ𝐿 ×
𝜌 8 3

109
 1 2 2 2
= 𝜋 𝑓 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 (ℎ𝐿𝜏)𝜏 2
6𝜌

1 2 2
= 𝜋 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓 2 𝜏 2 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛
6𝜌

𝑃𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦
So, the is given by this.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

Now, going to the previous page you also notice I have assumed another thing. When I
varied I have considered the loop not like this, but it covers as you vary 𝑥 it covers the
whole area then you are through ok. But, not only that when 𝑥 varies this portion remains
same as if I have calculated many times that area. But anyway, whatever I am estimating
I will be estimating slightly higher it is no harm. So, there is another approximation are
you getting, another loop you consider; you will consider it like this ok. This power loss
here, power loss here and once again this power loss, this power loss.

But, that portion is always small because I am talking about 𝜏 which is far less than ℎ.
Therefore, this is a very handy approximate expression mind you approximate, it will serve
my purpose approximate expression for Eddy loss. And, I know many things Eddy current
loss then depends upon the maximum value of the flux density squared, supply frequency
squared and thickness square.

Remember what is the fun of expressing it in this way; it is because of the fact I have
considered while deriving this with a single plates. There will be multiple plates and I
know oh it can be expressed in this way.

Therefore, if you have used to more number of plates then total volume is to be multiplied
are you getting that is also crucial to note. So, I will say better write

𝑃𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 1 2 2
= 𝜋 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓 2 𝜏 2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 6𝜌

So, many Watt per unit volume and we say that then Eddy current loss will be proportional
to the square of the thickness of the plate. See all these things the argument was if you use
a solid block of iron Eddy current loss is bound to be more. So, many Eddy paths instead
of that you use the Eddy currents, it will be only confining here.

110
Because, the next plate is insulated from the other, if you do not use insulated plates then
the story remain same. The Eddy paths will be more are you getting, that is why the
insulation is necessary therefore, we know that. So, how to reduce then eddy current loss,
because it is a wasteful energy transformer will be on 24 hours and eddy losses will always
take place. If that be the case you try to use such a material whose resistivity is higher, 𝜌
should be made higher at least. This is apparent use small 𝜏 that is one factor, thickness of
the plate should be 𝜏.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:25)

It cannot be too small otherwise those thin plates you cannot further make it smaller and
smaller, it will become then brittle you know. So, the order of the thickness used is maybe
0.25 to 0.5 mm for 50 Hz transformer 𝜏 order of 𝜏. And, transformer size if you see they
may be of the order of distribution transformer, if you look at their heights may be in
meters.

So, the assumption that ℎ and 𝑙 compared to those values 𝜏 is very small is pretty good I
mean nothing like that. But it gives so, do not use just iron, try to use a better material that
is why people use silicon steel; add some small quantity exact percentage I do not
remember. You can see a design book at silicon to ordinary iron steel and make a special
type of a iron which will give you higher resistivity to reduce the loss. And, also try to do
not try to use too high 𝑓𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 which will also reduce and remember it is proportional to
frequency square.

111
So, if the transformer rating is 50 Hz based on that you try to make Eddy loss as small as
possible. So, please remember what was a logic why this was necessary to derive? It was
necessary to derive because in the transformer if you go to this previous page as well
previous page.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:41)

See in this transformer therefore, what I am telling if I spoil this page to this I will tell it
like this.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:49)

112
It has come there this is the thing. So finally, it will look like this instead of a solid block
of iron, I will use thinner plates. So, this I am showing it by lines another plate, another
plate, another plate, I think you have got the ideas of this kind got the point. So, many
plates like this you stack them together and try to form a core material like this. These are
also called laminated plates, use laminated plates; in short it is called laminations each
plate laminations.

Then you make your winding not over a solid piece of iron, but like this another side it is
2
like this, make your primary and secondary. So, Eddy current loss it depends on 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝑓2
and thickness of the plate square, thickness should be 0.2, 0.3 mm thickness and each plate
is insulated from the other. And, this will be also reflected here in this toy I think this is
ok. So, and this is the flux, total flux is 𝜑 by this area you a the cross sectional area; if you
look at from the top it will be now like this and your 𝜑 is coming like that.

So, average flux density is 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 divided by because each plate will contribute to the area
that is there that overall area will give you the 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 anyway so far so good. So, this is
called Eddy current loss. Now, how to take this Eddy current loss effect into the equivalent
circuit coming back to the original question. So, it looks like that even with the secondary
of the transformer opened, I mean you can look at it in this interesting way as well. This
is 𝑉1 𝑓 you have switched on the supply, secondary is open nothing like that, but there is
core material.

Now, when you close it there will be 𝜑 produced alternating 𝜑(𝑡) is produced which is
flowing like this and that are Eddy current losses. You can also think oh then I have applied
the voltage and in the core there were turns existing they had induced voltage in the same
way as your secondary coil had induced voltage and they were driving current. You can
also think like that ok, that is what I am trying to tell even with this switch open it looks
like as if there is a secondary coil existing within the iron core there and the circuit is
closed they are carrying secondary current.

But, flux has to remain same therefore, those tiny Eddy currents too will have reflected
current on the secondary side. I mean what I am trying to tell, I mean another way of
looking at the thing this is your voltage ok. And, suppose only Eddy current I am showing
the flux will be a around this point 𝜑 there is induced voltage in the secondary 𝐸2 that is
there.

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But, what I am telling there are some invisible secondary already present in the core. And,
they had induced voltage also in the same direction why not 𝐸𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 . And, I assume that
power factor of that Eddy current path to be unity, leakage inductance therefore, with
secondary open there is no 𝐼2 here that is fine.

But, here was a secondary it has the 𝐼𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 and why not it will have its reflected component
here in order that your flux in the core remain same. Therefore, apart from this magnetizing
current 𝐼𝑚 we now find there will be and current due to core loss which will be in phase
with the supply as it is expected.

This is how this current will be drawn in, another way of interpreting the result; got the
point. But, anyway what people say is that this Eddy loss after all the power has to come
from this. Therefore, there will be another small component of current drawn from the
source which must represent Eddy current that will be in phase can be physically
interpreted like this.

Now, after I have done this, I will come to this complete phasor diagram slightly later.
Before that I will tell you something about another component of the portion that is called
hysteresis loss ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:43)

What is hysteresis loss? Hysteresis loss is another loss which also takes place in the core
takes place in the core like Eddy current loss. Now, what is this loss? This loss is slightly

114
I mean of the track type things for, but we know why hysteresis loss should take place.
See after all if you have a magnetic material like this over which a you wound a coil and
are you getting.

So, suppose let me draw some coil say a piece of iron and here is a coil like this a coil is
wound and this length is more whatever it is. And, suppose you pass current in this way
some AC current connect current some AC current you will pass. If you pass current then
why this core gets magnetized?

It is because of the facts will not go to the quantum level. But we can understand there are
tiny magnets molecular level small magnets are there in any ferromagnetic material like
this, north south, north south, but they are see north south, north south, they are tiny
magnets already existing in a ferromagnetic material.

So, what you are doing the moment you have apply some I will draw now sectional
diagram, if you pass some current like this. So, inside this there are tiny magnets which
are haphazardly oriented and we do not see any magnetism in it. But, if you pass some
current, some DC current you pass to this fellow iron bar, that is how I make permanent
magnets you know. So, you pass some DC current therefore, there will be you have applied
𝐻 along this and each tiny magnets will try to align itself along n s all the magnets.

If you pass a little current they will slightly move and pass more current they will be further
aligned n s, make it more they will school level also we study like that. So, if you pass
sufficiently large current at the end what will happen is s n all tiny magnets will be moved
like this, such that this will become a north pole and this will become a south pole. That is
how we are taught in school level how to make a soft iron piece a permanent magnet, you
pass some electromagnet north-south.

Now, suppose this current is time varying therefore, what you are asking each molecule to
do if this is time varying when the current is positive each tiny magnets was trying to align
along this way. Then you reverse the current, they will now start moving and finally, when
the negative maximum current flows this side will become south. The other way it will
become it is north, it is south, it is north, it is south I am just drawing is not.

So, each one will move and finally, they will align provided you reverse the direction of
the current I am not drawing all these, these are very basic. Therefore, if it is the 50 Hz

115
frequency current changing then you are asking each molecule to move this way, then that
way always they will be moving. Therefore, they will encounter friction in the process and
there will be heating effect not because of Eddy current, Eddy current is separate thing.
But, simply because you are reversing the currents this way that way therefore, there will
be always movement of the molecule.

That way you can imagine whether exact thing perhaps detail analysis of at physics level
you have to do. But, we can understand this is what is going to happen; each molecular
level tiny magnets they will be sometimes align this way, sometimes this way. Therefore,
core will be heated up not only because of Eddy current, but because of something else
here. And, this loss which will take place is called hysteresis loss and we will continue
with this in the next lecture.

Thank you.

116
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 13
Hysteresis Loss

Welcome to lecture number 13.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:21)

And we started discussing on Hysteresis Loss, why it takes place some physical reasoning
only I gave. And now to understand why hysteresis loss takes place we have understood
something, then we will try to see on what factors it will depend, as we did in case of eddy
current loss. But before that you I have told about the B-H characteristics of a magnetic
material.

Suppose you have a magnetic circuit like this let it be like this it does not matter and you
have a coil wound over it exciting coil. Here I will pass current 𝑖(𝑡). Now so far I have
𝑁𝑖
drawn the B H characteristics generally it will be like this, this is 𝐻 = ; 𝑙 is the mean
𝑙

length of the flux path these we know and this is your B.

Now, this is how I draw and if you increase this current 𝑖 starting from 0 initially it was
not magnetized. So, as I go on increasing the current you will find B is increasing almost
linearly in the initial phase. Then after sometime it becomes saturated that is further

117
increase in H here will not cause any practically any increase in B the reason once again
is we can understand the tiny magnets which are north-south etcetera.

As you are increasing H external magnetizing force you are forcing the tiny magnets to be
aligned in a particular direction and after all the magnets are aligned south north; south
north like that whatever way. Then further increase in H what further to align everybody
has become a disciplined soldier and they are in line, that is why these saturation zone
takes place that way you can think.

Now, suppose I am increasing the value of H, but this we will see that what is the effect of
hysteresis? As you go on increasing the current B increases starting from 0 it goes like this
here. Before I tell you about that hysteresis loss or hysteresis loop let us try to understand
one important thing because I have to after all estimate the hysteresis loss. Suppose this
coil this current is increased from 0 value to a particular value here say some value I, this
axis can be treated also as current H or current because 𝑁 and 𝑙 are constant.

Suppose we have increase the value of the current I, as we have increased how much
energy I have supplied to the coil that I want to study. Since this current we have increased
𝑁𝑖
from 0 to capital I or 0 to some H which is to be multiplied by n. So, this 𝐻 value I want
𝑙

to know how much energy I have supplied?

First of all have I supplied any energy to it the answer is yes. See because of the fact this
is the coil, I am increasing the current here therefore, flux linking with the coil is changing
gradually increasing therefore, it will become a seat of emf, just like transformer plus
minus 𝑒 and it will try to oppose the cause what is the cause, because current was
increasing. So, it will its polarity will be such that it this induced voltage is allowed to act
it will try to reduce the value of the current that is why you we got plus minus.

Now, in any circuit if an element has a voltage across it of this polarity if current is entering
through the positive terminal of that element, then we say it is absorbing energy. As in the
case of a charging a battery to the plus terminal of the battery you have to inject current
then only battery gets charge.

So, energy will be absorbed and voltage across this coil; so, how much energy is absorbed
in the process when 𝑖 increase the current from 0 ampere to some 𝐼 ampere, that is the goal
of the first part ok. What I will do is this as 𝑖 is increasing during this process 𝑖 is the

118
 𝑁𝑖
function of time you know; so, induced voltage at any instant suppose the current is and
𝑙

the 𝐵 value is 𝐵.

So, the and then the induced voltage will be

𝑑𝜑 𝑑
𝑒=𝑁 = 𝑁 (𝐵𝐴)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐴 is the cross sectional area, this is the voltage. And the polarity I have taken Lenz’s law
𝑑
into account do not under the confusion that −𝑁 I have written 𝑁 𝑑𝑡 (𝐵𝐴) is positive and

polarity I have very correctly put on this diagram. So, this is the induced voltage.

Therefore, instantaneous power absorbed by the coil this I am just writing 𝑝, instantaneous
power absorbed by the coil will be

𝑑𝐵
𝑝 = 𝑖𝑁𝐴
𝑑𝑡

Why 𝐴 is constant? 𝐴 is the cross sectional area, 𝐵 is changing. So, at any instant this is 𝐵
𝑑𝐵
ok, so 𝑁𝐴 𝑑𝑡 . Then energy supplied, so what I am essentially doing is let me write it like

this at time 𝑡 current is 𝑖, at time (𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡) which means a particular 𝐻, a particular 𝐵 at

time (𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡) suppose some time elapses current has I have increased from 𝑖 to (𝑖 + 𝑑𝑖).

So, that 𝐻 has increased from 𝐻 to (𝐻 + 𝑑𝐻) and 𝐵 has increased from 𝐵 to (𝐵 + 𝑑𝐵)
and all these changes have taken place over a time interval 𝑑𝑡 and that 𝑑𝑡 I can assume to
𝑁𝑖 𝑁(𝑖+𝑑𝑖)
be very small. So, 𝐵 it has become (𝐵 + 𝑑𝐵), here it was this point is and so on.
𝑙 𝑙

So, this is 𝑑𝐻 is not this is 𝑑𝐻, therefore, this is how things are going. Therefore, in time
𝑑𝑡 energy supplied I am write in black energy supplied, energy absorbed by the coil in
time 𝑑𝑡 will be simply

𝑑𝐵
𝑝𝑑𝑡 = 𝑖𝑁𝐴 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

this is the thing.

this 𝑑𝑡 can be struck off and you will be left with 𝑁𝑖𝐴𝑑𝐵 then what you do, you multiply
this with this mean length of the magnetic circuit 𝑙.

119
So, multiply and divide, so you will be getting

𝑑𝐵 𝑁𝑖
𝑝𝑑𝑡 = 𝑖𝑁𝐴 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑁𝑖𝐴𝑑𝐵 = 𝑑𝐵(𝐴𝑙)
𝑑𝑡 𝑙

(𝐴𝑙) becomes the volume of the core material cross sectional area into the average length.
So, this is volume of the core material this will be the case. So, energy supplied during this
same. So,

𝑑𝐵 𝑁𝑖
𝑝𝑑𝑡 = 𝑖𝑁𝐴 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑁𝑖𝐴𝑑𝐵 = 𝑑𝐵(𝐴𝑙) = 𝐻𝑑𝐵 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝑙

but what is 𝐻𝑑𝐵; 𝐻𝑑𝐵 is nothing but this area; this area is this 𝐻𝑑𝐵.

So, as you have increase the current from 𝑖 to (𝑖 + 𝑑𝑖) or 𝐻 from 𝐻 to (𝐻 + 𝑑𝐻) this is
𝑑𝐻 this one, energy absorbed by the coil has become 𝐻𝑑𝐵. Therefore, what is the total
energy supplied then; total energy supplied to whom? Supplied magnetic circuit as you
have increase the current as 𝑖 changes from 0 to some value 𝐼, that is up to this point will
be nothing, but this whole area are you getting this whole area now 𝐻𝑑𝐵; 𝐻𝑑𝐵 this strips
you have to add.

So, these area; so, if I write it O some A this point let us called C, then as total energy
supplied to the magnetic circuit as 𝑖 changes from 0 to 𝐼 will be equal to area OACO this;
this; this; this is the area shaded area that much energy you have supply. This we will be
utilize to find out more about hysteresis loss in the next one.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:07)

120
So, what I will do is this, I will simply draw this coil now, but in my mind it is there it is
wound on a core material things like that and here I will draw the BH curve. So, what we
have seen as I increase the current it will go like this. So, BH curve now the game starts
about hysteresis loss suppose I am increasing the current to this value. So, this axis can be
treated as 𝐻 or 𝑖, suppose you have increase the current to a level of 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 and this axis is
your 𝐵 and suppose it reaches some 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 ok. What is this 𝑖? This 𝑖 is here, this is the coil
having number of turns 𝑁 it will be like this.

Now, for the first time when I am doing let us imagine that this current I will make it AC
Sinusoidal Current. So, current starts rising, current increases with time suppose I say let
me draw that current waveform also in this axis, this is 𝑖 this is 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 and here it will be
−𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 . So, suppose current is moving like this and this axis is your 𝜔𝑡, the variation of
current against time sinusoidal suppose. So, current increases from 0 it reaches maximum
at that time it is 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 , after this current decreases with this current 𝑖(𝑡) which is sinusoidal
varying sinusoidal current sinusoidal time varying current suppose.

Now, after these the moment current starts decreasing, the B-H curve does not trace back
the same path through which it went it will be in fact, doing like this now. This is while
current was increasing it will go like this, but while tracing back when you are decreasing
the current it will follow another path above this that is the molecules will be sluggish after
they have reach that you are applying a negative 𝐻, then they will follow that instruction
they will try to follow, but in a sluggish manner and this is called hysteresis it will lag
behind ok.

121
The way they went up while you are decreasing 𝐻 it will be sluggish sort of inertia or
𝜋
whatever, it is you call it will go like this. So, this is your 2 and this is 𝜋 so, between 0 to
𝜋 𝜋
it went like this, then from to 𝜋 current has become 0, but you will find it has come
2 2

here and even when 𝐻 has become 0 it is having some field retained and it is called you
know residual field. If somebody stops everything here, it comes here only one pulse of
current passes you will find this iron piece will become a sort of permanent magnet
retentivity and it will have a residual field like this.

This positive pulse of the current let us talk about ok, when the current increased from 0
to 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 how much energy I have supplied to the coil, I know the energy supplied to the
coil is the area between this curve and the ordinate ∫ 𝐻𝑑𝐵 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 is not energy
supplied. So, as the current increase from 0 to 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 energy you have supplied is nothing,
𝜋
but this area; this whole area the pink shaded during these to this part 2 to 𝜋.

𝜋
So, during 0 < 𝜔𝑡 < 2 , 𝑖 was positive and increasing is not. So, during this zone if you

draw the coil this is 𝑖; 𝑖 was increasing and positive the induced voltage must have been
like this plus minus this is induced voltage and current is really positive. So, it was
absorbing power and what is the amount of power that it has supplied if I call it O, if I give
them name this point suppose some name I give A, this point is C, this point is D and O.

So, I will say energy absorbed during this interval

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑂𝐴𝐶𝐷𝑂

𝜋
During this interval what is happening? 2 < 𝜔𝑡 < 𝜋. During this interval 𝑖 is still positive
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝐵
no doubt, but 𝑖 is decreasing 𝑑𝑡 < 0 therefore, or < 0 therefore, polarity of the induced
𝑑𝑡

voltage has reversed here. What this coil is doing now? It is then delivering power to whom
𝜋 𝑑𝑖
to the source, earlier it was absorbing power between 0 < 𝜔𝑡 < 2 this region 𝑑𝑡 > 0 it was

absorbing power from the source now it will give back power to the source.

So, power is returned during this interval power or energy, energy is returned to the source;
energy is returned to the source because polarity has decreased. Now, the question is which
area gives me the energy this is now your B-H curve you do not have to take these because
now when you are decreasing current as I told you because of hysteresis the B-H curve

122
will be traced by this path. Therefore, area enclosed by this and this 𝑦-axis gives you the
energy enclosed and this area is this area, this blue sketched area if you call this point as P

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑑 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑃𝐶𝐷𝑃

𝜋
Therefore during 0 < 𝜔𝑡 < 2 we supplied so much area, but while the material was having

reduced value of 𝐵 tracing back here when you are decreasing the current the amount of
energy returned is less, this must be understood per unit volume. So, let us go to the next
page and let me now draw this once again.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:59)

So, here was my coil mind you it is wound on a magnetic circuit we are not drawing. Now,
what I will do is this, what I have done last time mean do it like this. So, this was the B H
curve which I will draw with this color and while tracing back here it will be like this. So,
this is my positive direction of 𝑖, but suppose this 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin(𝜔𝑡) suppose this current is
this, then I also draw the current, you can always draw current this is my 𝜔𝑡 axis variation
of current I am showing.

This axis as I told you can be treated 𝐻 or i, this is your 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 and this was the current only
𝜋
one cycle I am showing that is good enough 0, 2 , 𝜋. And suppose I have started the game

when there was no magnetic field present in the core. So, 𝐻 here as current was increasing

123
 𝜋
came up to I am so sorry this is 2 and this is 𝜋 and this is 2𝜋 correct it. And of course, the

cycle repeats only one cycle have.

So, it has gone like this it has increased, then it reached a 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 corresponding to 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 and
suppose I do not stop here I allow the current to flow in the opposite direction then 𝜋 to
𝜋
2𝜋 what is happening here, 𝜋 and this is 3 2 is not. So, if you do that you will see it will

be like this and I think this length should be slightly I mean whatever is 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 has same
modernity if you come it will come here.

So, it will be somewhat like this, it will go like this reach say −𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 this is not correct later
on this is 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 I mean it goes, this is suppose −𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 this point. And then once again it
will go it will be always lagging it is like this. See after it is tracing the following the
currents I think this is 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 .

So, slight this way I should correct this is suppose 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 , this is the −𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 are you getting
not a very good diagram, but it tells you the picture this is 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 this is −𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 . Therefore,
when you are decreasing the current; current reaches 0 residual field is there, then you
further need negative current to make it 0𝐵 and then go on increasing the current up to
−𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 then it will reach this −𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 this level. And after that no looking back so, this part
this initial part is of no consequence now except after the first quarter.

After that as current changes the locus of B-H values will become confined here; here only
it will trace like this go, go, go like that. So, we will continue with this because it will take
some more time, but I will request you to try to go through this lecture hysteresis thing a
little bit carefully particularly a drawing this curve nicely.

You will be perhaps drawing it much better and we will next time show that the hysteresis
loss per unit volume is nothing but the area enclosed by the path that will show that is my
target is this area enclosed and this is called hysteresis loop in area enclosed by B-H loop
is a measure of hysteresis loss per unit volume. We will continue with this next time.

Thank you.

124
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 14
Exact Equivalent Circuit

Welcome to lecture number 14 on Electrical Machines-I and we were discussing about

core losses. In our last class, we were discussing about hysteresis loss. Before that of
course, we discussed about eddy current loss and the factors on which it will depend. I just
a quick review of this previous thing what I did was just have this.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:47)

So, while discussing hysteresis loss first what I did that suppose there is a single coil at
any time 𝑡, current is 𝑖, corresponding 𝐻 is 𝐻 and 𝐵 is 𝐵. And suppose you are increasing
the current from 0 to some fixed value 𝑖, then what is going to happen. So, in time 𝑑𝑡, if
current increases from 𝑖 to (𝑖 + 𝑑𝑖), 𝐻, (𝐻 + 𝑑𝐻) and so on, then we showed that the
energy will be absorbed by the coil when current is increasing or 𝐻 is increasing. And the
area under this curve BH curve, so 𝐻𝑑𝐵 is the energy supplied and then total energy
supplied can be calculated.

125
(Refer Slide Time: 01:45)

In our case, current will be alternating in nature, I am not saying whether it will be
sinusoidal or not, but it is alternating, current will increase will reach a peak, then it will
decrease and so on. And then when you first switch on and suppose there was no residual
magnetism present in the core, then this is the BH curve, this point will go up. And when
it reaches 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 , this axis is incidentally also represents current in some other scale. So, it
reaches 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 and correspondingly 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 .

So, during this process you have pumped energy into the system, the area of which will
𝜋
be, OACDPO. And when you decrease the current that is between 2 to 𝜋 current decreases,
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝜑
but still remains positive. And but 𝑑𝑡 is negative . So, induced voltage polarity reverses,
𝑑𝑡

current direction still remains like this because it is positive current.

And then certainly this coil now delivers energy back to the source. And how much energy
is delivered? Once again ∫ 𝐻𝑑𝑏, but then the BH curve is like this, this one and this area
will be this one. Therefore, the difference of this area represents the energy absorbed by
the coil.

126
(Refer Slide Time: 03:36)

Now, next thing what I did is suppose the current is alternating like this through the coil,
then once again if it is alternating, I have not shown this part once again, because after for
the first time it will go like this reaches 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 . Then when 𝑖 decreases it will the BH
curve will be somewhat different, not the same curve through which it went up, it will
follow this curve current decreases 𝐵.

So, this is the decreasing thing decreases. Then when current is 0, it will have some
3𝜋
residual field then negative current. After 𝜋 to , it will go like this, then it reaches −𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
2

ok. And once again so if your core where was initially un magnetized except for the quarter
of the first cycle, it will do like this. So, that portion need not be taken into account, no
point in taking into account.

And then we were discussing I was telling that, I will show you that the energy absorbed
by the coil when current makes a full cycle of variation from 0 to 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 to −𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 to back
to 0. The area enclosed by the BH curve will represent hysteresis loss per unit volume that
is what we will be doing.

127
(Refer Slide Time: 05:50)

So, let me draw this curve once again, so that we understand what is going on. So, let me
start with this B H curve as usual. So, it will be like this. Suppose, this is my 𝐻 or 𝑖 axis 𝑖
or 𝐻 and this is the, this axis is 𝜔𝑡 to show the variation of the current ok. So, let it be like
this. So, this is the variation of the current.

So, you know here I am just like this. So, your B H curve, it will be like this; it will be like
𝑑𝑖
this. So, this is 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 here and this is this level is −𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 ok. So, this is when the is
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
positive current is increasing, I have to use this; when is negative I have to use this part
𝑑𝑡

of the BH curve. This axis is 𝐵; this axis is 𝐻 or 𝑖.

𝜋
So, when the for example, when the current is 0 and increasing in this zone say this is 2 , 𝑖

and 𝐻 is increasing. So, 𝑖 = 0. So, this is the point when 𝑖 = 0 and it will start from this
negative residual field a you just forget me this two are equal ok and it increases like this.
So, during this process the coil voltage will be just like this, applied voltage is positive,
𝑑𝜑
negative. And why the induced voltage will be positive, because is positive and current
𝑑𝑡
𝜋
is also positive. So, energy will be absorbed. This is between0 < 𝜔𝑡 < 2 .

And what will be the energy absorbed by the coil? Energy absorbed by the coil then will
be the area under this curve that is if I hatch it, it will be like this. So, this area will
correspond to the area absorbed by the coil ok and it will come to this point. Of course

128
 𝜋 3𝜋
current is changing on its own. So, during 2 to , it will do like this. And this point is how
2

much?

𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋
This is 2 and this is 𝜋 and this is . So, between 0 to 2 , current was increasing. And then
2
𝜋
from this, this point will be reached when I have come here is not. I have reached this
2
𝜋 𝜋
point so 0 < 𝜔𝑡 < 2 , it is like this. Then what happens between and 𝜋 that is this is the
2
𝑑𝐵
coil and then the induced voltage as you see 𝐵 decreases, true in this path I am there, is
𝑑𝑡

negative. So, induced voltage will be plus minus.

And current of course, still remains positive means this is the direction of the positive
𝜋
current. So, this delivers energy. So, < 𝜔𝑡 < 𝜋 returns back energy to supply, is it not.
2

And what is that area? That area will be this area that is why during this point at the end
of 𝜋, it has absorbs so much energy this minus this, this we discussed last time.

Similarly, if between 𝜋 and 2𝜋, if you consider, it will absorb energy that is let me draw
this. So, this is the first positive current cycle, half cycle, then the negative thing will be
3𝜋
then say between 𝜋 < 𝜔𝑡 < . During this portion of this one current is negative means
2

current is actually entering through this and coming out from this; this is the negative
𝑑𝐵
current. And induced voltage because current is is this one positive, it still remains this
𝑑𝑡

one then plus minus. So, it once again absorbs the energy absorbs. This is the 𝑒 because
through the plus current is entering.

3𝜋
And finally, between < 𝜔𝑡 < 2𝜋, the situation is current still negative is it not current
2
𝑑𝑖
still negative. So, it will be like this, but 𝑑𝑡 is opposite. So, it will become like this, so, it

will returns back supply. So, it returns back energy. So, effectively when current makes a
complete full cycle, so that the area corresponding to that will be this.

So, total energy absorbed in one cycle of current variation will be this area plus this area.
Therefore, energy absorbed in Joule energy absorbed in one cycle is equal to area enclosed
by the BH curve. Therefore, this whole area will represent how much energy this magnetic
material has absorbed.

129
Of course, thinner this area energy absorb per cycle will be also small, because the area is
the crucial term enclosed by the BH curve. Mind you this is per unit volume area enclose
energy absorbed in one cycle per unit volume of the magnetic material is the area enclosed
by the BH curve per unit volume. This we have establish that earlier, it is per unit volume,
one should not forget that so per unit volume the energy absorbed will be this one.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:48)

Therefore, to reduce the hysteresis loss, I must see that the area enclosed by the BH curve
should be as small as possible that is for example, if somebody uses a material like this or
instead of that if somebody uses a hysteresis loss for this material will be much lesser than
this that is the idea. Make the choose the magnetic material in such a way that the area
enclosed by its BH curve is as small as possible. This is 𝐻; this is 𝐵; this is 𝐻; this is 𝐵. In
fact, it depends upon the application in case of transformer application, we will demand
that hysteresis this area is as small as possible.

The material used for to reduce to hysteresis loss is CRGO - Cold Roll Grain Oriented,
cold roll commercial name cold rolled grain oriented grain oriented silicon steel, silicon
steel. This some metallurgical process that is you treat the iron laminations in a particular
fashion, so that the grain oriented means the tiny magnets are locally in some groups they
are oriented already by that process when you roll this material, anyway we will not go
into that. But the idea is you try to see that this area enclosed by the BH curve will be small

130
and silicon if you add to this material it will increase its resistivity thereby eddy current
loss will be reduced.

Therefore, in essence this area of course, as you can see it will also depend upon 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
Suppose, the 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 is more even if it is thinner area, this area gets increased up ok. Now,
all said and done, we do not know the factors on which this hysteresis loss too will depend,
it will depend upon the frequency factors on which hysteresis loss depends depend is one
is area enclosed by it, area enclosed by it. Then the second thing is it should depend on
𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 and also it should depend on frequency at which this reversals of frequency of
supply, because this area gives you hysteresis loss 𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑠 is a per cycle.

So, more the cycles, more the frequencies, hysteresis loss will increase per cycle per unit
volume. So, it will depend on frequency. All this said and done there is a what is that
formula called a some after doing some experiments on several material, some people say
hysteresis loss in facts it was proposed by Steinways a formula for which there is no
derivation ok. What this?

Student: Empirical.

Empirical formula. And it is this some empirical formula, empirical formula, empirical
formula for calculating formula is like this that hysteresis loss is

1.6
𝑃ℎ ∞𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓

Frequency we know it has to be directly proportional to and 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the peak value of the
maximum flux density.

Therefore, and recall that

2
𝑃𝑒 ∞𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓2

and thickness square, once the plate is chosen thickness of which may be of fraction of
millimetre say 0.25mm or so, I am showing it just proportional to it is also proportional to
plate thickness square.

But all these things are once you write frequency here, you then write per unit volume.

131
 1.6
𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓
𝑃ℎ ∝
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

2
𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓2
𝑃𝑒 ∝
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Volume of what? Magnetic material core per unit volume of the core material. So, this is
the at least this results we should remember. And also if you have the BH curve of the
material available to you, then you can much more accurately say about the amount of
hysteresis loss that is going to take place within the core of the transformer.

We will refer to this particular aspects by solving several problems. So, we will give you
in the tutorial. Mind you whatever I have done till now about eddy current and hysteresis
loss, I have written some write up and it will be uploaded. So, read the lecture, listen to
the lecture and also go through those lecture notes where somewhat detail analysis of this
thing whatever I have done is done somewhat neatly, anyway this is the thing.

Now, coming back to the practical transformer, in fact, we have digressed it from this one
coming back to equivalent circuit of a practical transformer circuit, of a practical
transformer.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:26)

Recall that we have got the equivalent circuit of the practical transformer like this. On the
primary side, it will be like this 𝑟1, 𝑥1 leakage reactance small values, then I showed a

132
magnetizing branch here 𝑗𝑋𝑚 . And then here there will be 𝑟2′ = 𝑎2 𝑟2. Then you have 𝑥2′ =
𝑎2 𝑥2 . And whatever load impedance you have connected to the secondary side 𝑎2 𝑧2. What
is 𝑎?

𝑁1
𝑎=
𝑁2

And this is your 𝑉1.

So, it is almost the correct equivalent circuit of a practical transformer, but here in this
equivalent circuit, how to take now what elements now should add to this equivalent
circuits which will represent the core loss; core loss means heating of the core, heating of
the core will take place because of eddy current loss and because of hysteresis loss. This
is the only source of power which pumps the power into the system. What is the system?
Actual thing practical transformer it is like this. You have applied a voltage 𝑉1 and here is
your load connected. In this one, you will never find this resistance reactance is present.
Therefore, here is your 𝐼2 and here is your 𝐼1 that is what you will observe nothing else.

But this whole thing practical transformer is modelled by an ideal transformer and these
things. Now,

𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 + 𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑠

2
And 𝑃𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 = 𝑘𝑒 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝑓 being constant it will be like this plus 𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑠 = 𝑘ℎ ×
1.6
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝. Instead of writing that it is proportional to I will say 𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑠 = 𝑘ℎ 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓
it is one and the more exact result loop area, but this is like this.

𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 + 𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑠

2
= 𝑘𝑒 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓 2 + 𝑘ℎ 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥
1.6
𝑓

𝑓 being constant therefore, the hysteresis and eddy current loss depends upon 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 . And
value of 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 practically remain same, remain same from no load sorry to loaded
condition or full load condition why because you recall this current is 𝐼2′ , this current is 𝐼𝑚
- magnetizing current and this current is 𝐼1 .

133
The voltage which will come between these two points that decides the magnetizing
current hence the flux or 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 .

𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒

Therefore this voltage will change strictly. When no load is connected, suppose there was
no load, so 𝑎2 𝑧2 , 𝑧2 = ∞ here, it will be open circuit, then the current round will be pretty
small. So, this voltage will be this one.

But when the it is loaded, this current will increase no doubt, but this parameters are small.
The drop which will take place here the voltage across this magnetizing branch 𝑋𝑚 will
definitely not be equal to 𝑉1, but it will only marginally change. So, what is I am just trying
to tell is that

𝐸1 𝑉1
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ≈
4.44𝑓𝑁1 4.44𝑓𝑁1

So, a little variation of 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 will take place from no load to full load, but otherwise it will
be there. But any way this then the thing is this loss which depends on 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 which
practically remain same should be shown by a resistance connected across 𝑋𝑚 that is what
I am telling this is 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 which will take care of the core loss.

And it certainly should not be in series, because it depends on 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 . And 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 is decided
by this voltage. This voltage by this impedance is 𝐼𝑚 that decides 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 , therefore core loss
resistance which will represent core loss must be shown connected in parallel with 𝑋𝑚 .

We will continue with this. And this complete this is the complete exact equivalent circuit
of a single phase transformer referred to the primary. We will continue with this.

Thank you.

134
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 15
Approximate Equivalent Circuit

(Refer Slide Time: 00:22)

So, welcome to lecture 15. And we are discussing about the Equivalent Circuit of a
transformer, equivalent circuit. In fact, this is exact equivalent circuit refer to primary side.
And the equivalent circuit we got last time is this one, primary winding resistance 𝑟1,
primary winding leakage reactance 𝑥1 .

Then you have this parallel branch; one is this resistance I am showing by several lines
𝑉2
indicating that it will be high will be this power. And this is I will call it 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 we referred
𝑅

to primary side. And here is magnetizing branch of reactance 𝑗𝑋𝑚1 and then the reflected
resistance of the secondary side is 𝑟2′ and 𝑥2′ .

And here there will be the load impedance whichever you have connected to the secondary
side of the transformer 𝑎2 𝑧2 , and

𝑁1
𝑎=
𝑁2

135
So, what are the impedances which will be higher, would like to see they must be very
high. This resistance this square, this voltage square by 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 is the power loss in the core,
I would like to reduce them. Similarly, this reactance I would like to make it as high as
possible so that magnetizing current is less. So, this current is called 𝐼𝑚1 , and this current
is the core loss component 𝐼𝑐𝑙1 refer to primary side this current is your 𝐼2′ .

And this current we call it to be 𝐼0 the no load current, because 𝐼0 is now having two
components no load current is

𝐼0 = 𝐼𝑐𝑙1 + 𝐼𝑚1

these two currents will make 𝐼0 . Why, it is called no load current, when the load is not
connected on this secondary side this will be open circuited, 𝑧2 → ∞. Recall that this is
equivalent circuit of what practical transformer is connected like this.

So, let me put this figure also alongside this is what I am examining. This is 𝑧2 ; this is 𝑉1;
this is your core material. And when this switch is opened, it is under no load open means
infinite impedance. So, here 𝑎2 ∞ = ∞. So, this will be open, but transformer then 𝐼1 = 𝐼0
if 𝐼2′ = 0, this is 𝐼2 . In practical transformer, this is what you will observe, you cannot
separately see this branches, it is our logic which brought us here. It must be something
we are modeling this practical transformer into an equivalent circuit ok.

So, what are the things 𝑟1 and 𝑥1 should be small, 𝑟2′ and 𝑥2′ should be small, but 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 𝑋𝑚1
should be high. In fact, from this if you can easily get the equivalent circuit of an ideal
transformer by making 𝑟1 = 0, 𝑥1 =0, because no resistance, no leakage flux, no leakage
reactance. Similarly secondary coil resistance is 0, 𝑟2 = 0, 𝑥2 = 0, which implies 𝑟2′ = 0,
𝑥2′ = 0 and 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 → ∞, 𝑋𝑚1 → ∞.

So, this equivalent circuit then we will simply reduce to this one, nothing is connected,
and here also nothing is connected. These two are shorted, these two are shorted and only
𝑎2 𝑧2 and this is your 𝑉1 is it not. This is the equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer. So,
always keep this in mind ok. These impedances are small and so on ok. If somebody wants
to draw the equivalent circuit it refers to the secondary side of the same thing that is to the
load side, how it will look like?

(Refer Slide Time: 06:56)

136
Equivalent circuit refer to secondary side or load side it will remain same except that this
one will become 𝑟1′ this one will become 𝑥1′ . Here that those two parallel branches it should
be like this, and here it will these two will should not be disturbed, secondary side we are
′ ′
going. And this impedance should be 𝑧2 and this of course, should be 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 and 𝑋𝑚1 .

𝑟 𝑥
Now, what is this 𝑟1′ = 𝑎12 opposite thing. What is this 𝑥1′ = 𝑎12 , 𝑟2 and 𝑥2 will not suffer
′ 𝑋𝑚1
any change similarly actual impedance. What is this 𝑋𝑚1 = . And what is this one
𝑎2
′ 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 𝑁
𝑅𝑐𝑙1 = . What is 𝑎? 𝑎 = 𝑁1 . What is this voltage 𝑉2, what is this current 𝐼2 , what is this
𝑎2 2

current, 𝐼0′ and what is this current 𝐼1′ reflected here. And what is this voltage should I write
𝑉1
it should be 𝑉1′ . And what is this 𝑉1′ , it will be actual 𝑉1′ = .
𝑎

Now, in this way, I can draw the equivalent circuit either refer to load side or to the source
side and avoid this coupled circuit present in the circuit to be solved, either way you can
do ok. Your practical transformer is this, this is the real thing 𝐼2 this is 𝐼1 , but these things
practical transformer can be viewed as this one. So, either way you can now solve the
circuit even nothing is now neglected, but as you know the parameters value entered into
the ideal transformer concept to represent a practical transformer that is what the thing is.

After I have told you this one, so this is the equivalent circuit referred to the primary side,
the same thing referred to the secondary side with respect to any side you can work. Now,
in general this 𝑟1 and 𝑥1 refer to the equivalent circuit refer to source side, I will be always
doing this refer to the source side ok. Let us stick to one, no point in just complicating

137
thing, remembering so many things this is what I am always going to do. Refer to primary
side I will always draw the equivalent circuit ok.

Now, in this equivalent circuit I know that 𝑟1, 𝑥1 and 𝑟2′ , 𝑥2′ are much smaller compare to
this parallel branch 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 and 𝑋𝑚1. What I am telling is 𝑟1 , 𝑥1 , 𝑟2′ , 𝑥2′ ≪ 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 , 𝑋𝑚1. Therefore,
people started thinking, this is a circuit if I know all the parameters, I can solve it, but
computationally it will be somewhat heavier.

In the sense that these are all ac circuit, phasor you have to draw, these voltage will be
present and so on. Then add these drop to get these voltage, then to these voltage you add
this one all phasorically, and you will get exact solution no doubt about that.

But knowing this fact people also thought that whether some simplifications still can be
make to this equivalent circuit based on this knowledge because this parameters value
series parameter values are smaller compared to 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 and 𝑋𝑚1. For example, what does
that mean is consider suppose a circuit like this, what i am telling suppose you have a
circuit like this.

Suppose, I say this is say 4 Ω, suppose I say this is 4 Ω, this is 4 Ω, and this is a 80 Ω I say
that. So, this impedance is 20 times higher than this. Suppose, I say I connect a say some
64 volt to the circuit, I am interested to know this current ok. You can parallel this, this is
80×4 64
a very simple circuit (80+4 + 4), 64 it divide with that resistance 80×4 get this current.
( +4)
80+4

But suppose you are a very practical man, practical engineer, you will be happy to know
what will be the current drawn from the battery and I will sacrifice some accuracy. I will
64
say that this current will be you solve it amp. Looking at this circuit you can say oh this
8

current, why, because this parallel resistance is 20 times higher than this fellows you solve
64 80×4 80
it this 80×4 , this quantity is close to 4 only, (80+4) ≈ 4, 84 ≈ 0.99 something.
( +4)
80+4

Therefore, and we always know the equivalent resistance of a very high resistance and a
low resistance is of the order of the low resistance itself. Therefore, is it not, just looking
at the circuit I will tell look here this current in this branch will be close to 8 amp that is
all. He calculates correctly, he will maybe he will come to something very close to 8, but
he will save lot of computation. Of course, in a dc circuit resistances are manipulated just

138
like that, but in ac circuit it is not you have to complex algebra, you have to do to find out
the z-equivalent of this branch, this branch and so on.

So, coming back to the equivalent circuit refer to the primary side, if I know that this
impedance is much higher compare to these values and this values. Then I will rather
sacrifice some accuracy not too much, at the same time I will reduce my computational
burden. What I am trying to tell is this, this parallel branch ok, I will take it better draw it
in a separate page.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:31)

So, this you remember it is exact equivalent circuit; suppose, it is the equivalent circuit.
This is 𝑉1 ok, this is the equivalent circuit we have seen. Now, what I am telling that this
equivalent circuit you just select it and push it here. This is the equivalent circuit. Now, in
this equivalent circuit, this branch which is high impedance value compare to this. So, this
branch I will first remove, I will not take considered this branch. So, 𝑟1 𝑥1 and 𝑟2′ 𝑥2′ and
this one I have removed; I know I am making a mistake. This is the exact equivalent circuit,
but what I will do is this I will remove this. And here I will that load impedance is there,
but this branch I will remove and say that this is approximate equivalent circuit. Somebody
says oh you have you are totally neglecting this branch, then I will say I will not neglect
that branch, but I will show it at the beginning. So that I have got some computational
advantage now that branch present here makes it much more complicated than what it was

139
here that is what I am telling. And this I am just not doing just out of nothing because of
the fact that 𝑟1 , 𝑥1 , 𝑟2′ , 𝑥2′ ≪ 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 , 𝑋𝑚1 for a well designed transformer.

I will presume that whoever has design this transformer, they must have kept in mind that
core loss should be made as small as possible, magnetizing current should be made as
much less as possible which indirectly means that 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 is high and 𝑋𝑚1 is high. If that be
the case this being smaller, you forget about this branch and show it on this side, just bring
that branch forward.

So, you are neglecting approximating something, but at the same time you are not totally
ignoring this part to take into account, like the previous problem. In this problem,
somebody says ok, this will be something like this 4Ω, 4Ω you connect load resistance.
And you are skeptic also would like to improve upon your result simply by ignoring this
totally, show it here, 4, 4, 80. And the current supplied from the battery will be not 8amp,
it will also take this into account, but the result will be improved upon, this is also
approximation and totally neglecting this is also an approximation that is fine.

But what I am telling you do not neglect too much, but get a tremendous computational
64
advantage, why, because this current I can easily calculate = 8. And this current
8
64
whatever it is 80, these two can be added series parallel business goes, and still you will be

very closer to the correct value what I am telling. They will not be exact I agree with that.

So, with that, so this circuit keep in mind what exactly we are doing then you will get
pleasure. And all said and done nowadays powerful calculator is available everything is
there. So, one can leave with the exact equivalent circuit as well, but nonetheless even with
calculators you have to this then parallel these, these, these are to be paralleled complex
numbers, lot of computational effort then that should be added with 𝑟1 𝑥1 get the values.

So, I think I have been able to put in your mind that why that approximation is done, simply
to reduce the computational effort. So, this is called approximate equivalent circuit. So,
the parallel branch in front of the supply 𝑉1, and then this current is your 𝐼2′ . As if we are
pretending 𝑟1 and 𝑥1 only 𝐼2′ is flowing, how does it matter, and this current is no load
current.

140
Let us see how much difference it will have. Ok, 𝑉1 minus this drop that voltage divided
by this branch gives you 𝐼0 , now I am telling that this drop you neglect, why you will
neglect that drop 𝑟1 𝑥1 is small. So, these voltage is approximately equal to this. These are
the anyway think about it and try to do. So, it reduces lot of computational burden.

Once you draw the circuit like this, then I then this is the key word approximate equivalent
circuit. We will almost all the cases we will refer to. Now, I will come to the phasor
diagram which I have not drawn for this circuit. For example, I will draw once you, in fact,
can avoid that after learning approximate equivalent circuit, but nonetheless let me at least
draw the equivalent circuit of this exact transformer.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:32)

For example, suppose this is the, suppose these could not be copied this was 𝑟2′ 𝑥2′ , and
here was a line, this is the exact equivalent circuit. Let us see how to draw the phasor
diagram, which will not be doing in fact but let us see suppose this voltage is 𝐸1 . You start
with this voltage to draw the phasor diagram this is 𝐸1 , refer to the primary side. If this is
𝐸1 you know your 𝐼𝑐𝑙1 will be in phase with this. This current resistive, magnetizing current
will be like this 𝐼𝑚 . And the sum of these two currents is called no load current 𝐼0 ; this is
the no load current. I have got 𝐼0 ok.

Then 𝐸1 divided by this whole impedance will give you the current 𝐼2′ is it not. So, 𝐸1
divided by this whole impedance will give you this current. So, suppose that current this
is lagging power factor let us assume, so 𝐼2′ will be suppose somewhere here I will just

141
give you the idea so that so, suppose this is 𝐼2′ . What is this angle, this angle is not the
power factor angle of the load, it is the power factor angle of 𝑟2′ , 𝑥2′ and 𝑎2 𝑧2 , whatever it
is.

So, 𝐼2′ is suppose this one. If this is this, then from this voltage is 𝐸1 . From 𝐸1 if I subtract

𝐸1 − (𝑟2′ + 𝑗𝑥2′ )𝐼2′ = 𝑉2

That is this 𝐸1 minus 𝐼2′ 𝑟2′ I will make it dirty, but you just try to understand how
complicated it becomes, but it can be done. then minus 𝑗𝑥2′ 𝐼2′ , now 𝑗𝑥2′ is perpendicular to
this. So, subtract that whenever you will end up that will be minus 𝑗𝑥2′ 𝐼2′ . And then what I
am telling this will be your 𝑉2, is it not.

Then this angle will be your power factor angle and so on. This is the load power factor
angle whatever it is. This diagram we get. Then

𝐼0 + 𝐼2′ = 𝐼1

I am looking for where is my 𝑉1?

𝑉1 = 𝐸1 + 𝐼1 (𝑟1 + 𝑗𝑥1 )

I have got I know 𝐸1 , therefore, 𝐼1 𝑟1 parallel to 𝐼1 , then ( 𝐼1 𝑟1 + 𝑗𝐼1 𝑥1 ). And this you add
you will get 𝑉1. I mean this is the idea what I am telling if you know this voltage you can
completely draw the phasor diagram.

So, it can be done in several ways, all though we will you will see later this complicated
diagram is not necessary if you have a powerful calculator and if we have decided, we will
use the approximate equivalent circuit, things will be much more easier. And we will see
it in the next class.

Thank you.

142
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 16
Determination of Equivalent Circuit Parameters - No Load Test

Welcome to lecture 16 and we have been discussing about the exact equivalent circuit, its
phasor diagram, then approximate equivalent circuit and I will also draw its phasor
diagram.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:33)

143
(Refer Slide Time: 00:38)

Recall that the approximate equivalent circuit was like this where this parallel branch has
been brought right across the supply. The approximation made is under no load condition
as if there is no current through the winding, but nonetheless core loss will always take
place. So, it was like that now if you see this 𝑟1 𝑥1 and 𝑟2′ 𝑥2′ , they become in series ok. So,
this is one of the greatest advantage of looking at the transformer equivalents circuit in
terms of its approximate representation.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:31)

144
So, what will happen is this equivalent circuit, then can be further simplified. So,
approximate equivalent circuit refer to primary it will then boil down to this one. These 𝑟1
and 𝑟2′ can be represented by a single resistance as

(𝑟1 + 𝑟2′ ) = 𝑟1 + 𝑎2 𝑟2 = 𝑟𝑒1

That is equivalent resistance in terms of primary winding; we see equivalent resistance.

Similarly, the two reactances can be grouped together and written as

(𝑥1 + 𝑥2′ ) = 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 = 𝑥𝑒1

and this is called equivalent reactance. Equivalent reactance referred to primary side 𝑥𝑒1
and that is all. These two are the secondary terminals where an impedance will be
connected if it is connected 𝑎2 𝑧2 .

And this will be 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 and this is 𝑗𝑋𝑚1 and this is your 𝑉1 and mind you this current is 𝐼2′
and this is no load current 𝐼0 and 𝐼0 comprises of two parts; core loss component 𝐼𝑐𝑙1 and
𝐼𝑚1 . Then this voltage if I show it by different colours. So, that you understand, this voltage
is

𝑉2′ = 𝑎𝑉2

This current

𝐼2
𝐼2′ =
𝑎

This is how things will go, then the phasor diagram drawing becomes so simple.

Let us see; suppose we start drawing the phasor diagram with respect to 𝑉2′ . Now as you
can see

𝑉1 = 𝑉2′ + 𝐼2′ (𝑟𝑒1 + 𝑗𝑥𝑒1 )

This will be the phasor diagram.

145
So, we start the phasor diagram drawing in this way. First draw 𝑉2′ and then draw 𝐼2′ .
𝐼2
Suppose it is supplying, what is 𝐼2′ ? 𝐼2′ = and this is then the load power factor angle 𝜃2
𝑎

whatever impedance you have connected. Then to get 𝑉1 you add to 𝑉2′ ; this drop simply.

So, this will be 𝑉2′ plus 𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 plus 𝑗𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1 and you will get 𝑉1. No point in showing 𝐸1 𝐸2
etcetera. So, as I am telling you as you go to the approximate equivalent circuit, you on
the plea that the series impedances are much smaller compared to the parallel impedances
of this core loss resistance and magnetizing impedance. Then it is the phasor diagram that
is all and you this is the angle 𝜃2 and this is your 𝑉2′ .

So, to 𝑉2′ , you add this ok. Now where is your 𝐼1 ? If this is 𝑉1 you see this 𝐼0 will be lagging
this 𝑉1 by whatever that current is. Are you getting? After you see after you get the 𝑉1 to
𝑉1, you have in this phasor in this approximate phasor diagram your 𝐼𝑐𝑙1 will be in phase
with your applied voltage. So, this will be 𝐼𝑐𝑙1 and your magnetizing current you show 90°
lagging in this circuit.

So, this angle will be then 90° as per the approximate equivalent circuit 𝐼𝑚 is not and if
you wish to calculate where your 𝐼1 will be that is what I am doing. So, 𝐼𝑚1 and then add
this to get your 𝐼0 to 𝐼2′ you add your this 𝐼0 to get 𝐼1 an input power factor will be angle
between 𝑉1 and 𝐼1 . I think you have got the idea, but this is the thing. Similarly the same
transformer if you draw the equivalent circuit referred to I will do that because you practice
them.

146
(Refer Slide Time: 08:27)

So, suppose approximate equivalent circuit referred to secondary side or load side;
secondary side. I will draw it very quickly because I know what is what. So, equivalent
first you draw the equivalent circuit. Equivalent circuit referred to secondary side, we have
already drawn.

All parameters now it will look like same thing. Only thing this is 𝑅𝑐𝑙2 . This is 𝑋𝑚2 referred
to secondary side and this

𝑅𝑐𝑙1
𝑅𝑐𝑙2 =
𝑎2

from this side to that side things are to be divided in terms of

𝑋𝑚1
𝑋𝑚2 =
𝑎2

And I will now show it and leave it to you to verify it is indeed true; I will be right here as
𝑟𝑒2 and 𝑥𝑒2 where, this

𝑥1
𝑥𝑒2 = + 𝑥2
𝑎2

𝑟1
𝑟𝑒2 = + 𝑟2
𝑎2

And this voltage is certainly not 𝑉1 now it is

147
 𝑉1
𝑉1′ =
𝑎

and this voltage will be your 𝑉2. And this current is actual current 𝐼2 and this is your 𝐼0′
which is equal to

𝐼0′ = 𝑎𝐼0

This is 𝐼0′ ; I can transform this current. So, it will be 𝐼0′ = 𝑎𝐼0 .

So, get used to this transformation multiplying any impedance transfer from this side to
this side will involve 𝑎 and any current transformation or voltage transformation will
involve 𝑎; whether multiplication division you should be very careful. I gave you some
hints also that is you just simply calculate the turns ratios and you must know that
impedance values in the lv sides are lower; voltage value on the low voltage side is low
definitely and so on current value in the lv side is higher.

So, all these things will you get used to it. So, this is the thing and in this case this current
will be 𝐼1′ and then the phasor diagram for this in the same way. Here this you start with
𝑉2 actual secondary voltage 𝑉2. This is suppose the current delivered by the transformer to
the load which am not drawing. Henceforth I will not draw because 𝑉2, it is supplying
current means some impedance is connected.

This is the actual power factor of the load, then to 𝑉2 you add these drop 𝐼2 𝑟𝑒2 plus this
angle is 90° 𝑗𝐼2 𝑥𝑒2 and then you will get this 𝑉1′ . You will not get 𝑉1 mind you; 𝑉1′ and
𝑉′
then you can fix up where your 𝐼0 will be because 𝑅 1 will give you magnetizing current.
𝑐𝑙2

𝑉1′
This will give you magnetizing current and the core loss component of current will be
𝑋𝑚2
′ ′
there 𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑐𝑙 . These two will give you I mean same stuff; I do not want to also mix.

So, 𝐼0 so, to 𝐼0 you add 𝐼2 to get 𝐼1′ and so on; I will not continue. I have done is this I have
represented a practical transformer modelled it in terms of some external parameters
connected either in series or in parallel. For example, 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑅𝑐𝑙 core loss component of
resistance magnetizing reactance to an ideal transformer and got these things and after
getting the exact equivalent circuit we did another approximation not without any reason.

148
You cannot approximate anything just like that the argument is the winding resistance and
leakage reactants are much smaller compared to the resistance representing core loss and
the reactance representing the magnetizing current and that comes in parallel. So, it can be
approximately pushed in this way.

Now, after doing this, I will now tell you given a practical transformer how do you know
this parameter values? By doing some tests it can be simple test, these parameters can be
evaluated.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:14)

But before that let us you would take some rating of a practical transformer. I took one
like this say 200V/100V, single phase, 50Hz transformer and suppose it is practical
transformer. And what I have missed KVA rating single phase. Suppose the KVA rating
is 1KVA ok; 1KVA 200V/100V, 50Hz single phase transformer; TFO means transformer
short way I am writing; this things given to you.

What does this mean to a practical transformer is this? This is practical transformer, I will
assume this way that if you apply 200V 50Hz source here across this winding with nothing
connected on the secondary side, you will get 100V 50Hz. And this will be turns ratio will
200
be 𝑎 = 100 = 2. This is what will happen this is the turns ratio I can get and this one. I also

told you that HV side rated current which I will call side 1 and this is side 2 HV side and
this is LV side that is equal to

149
 𝐼𝐻𝑉 𝐼1 1000
= = = 5𝐴
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 200

Also I know

𝐼𝐿𝑉 𝐼2 1000
= = = 10𝐴
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 100

200
Of course, these I could in one stroke right straight away 5 × 𝑎 = 5 × 100 = 5 × 2 = 10

is the rated current mind you; these things I know.

So, given the transformer rating we know about this numbers or this turns ratio I can make
out calculate rated current that can be allowed to flow through the HV winding and through
the LV winding. KVA remain same approximately. After calculating this, I now make one
very interesting point that no load current of a transformer; no load current that is 𝐼0 you
recall

𝐼0 = 𝐼𝑐𝑙 + 𝐼𝑚

No load current of a transformer is of the order of say 5% of the rated current 2 to 5% of

the rated current. As a practicing engineer, the this idea must be there that is it must be a
well designed transformer whoever has designed this transformer he must have seen that
eddy current, hysteresis losses are reduced is using very good magnetic material.

So, that magnetizing current is also small and it is 𝐼𝑐𝑙 + 𝐼𝑚 . These two together phasor sum
gives you the no load current and that number, I am telling for a well designed transformer
for a well designed transformer. Therefore, without knowing the equivalent circuit this
that I will say that maybe for this transformer, 𝐼01 no load current referred to side one will
be about say

𝐼𝐻𝑉
𝐼01 = 0.05 × = 0.05 × 5 = 0.25𝐴
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

Same transformer; if you are energized from this side no load current LV side; it will be
𝐼02 . If energized from LV side,

𝐼𝐿𝑉
𝐼02 = 0.05 × = 0.05 × 10 = 0.5𝐴
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

150
Anyway exact value I do not know what I am telling given a transformer, you can guess
what will be the order of the no load current.

So, no load current value is much smaller compared to the rated by maybe of the order of
5% of the rated current. See this transformer could be energized from the 100V side as
well that is why LV side, I call it and your no load current can be estimated. That is if I
say suppose you are energizing the transformer from the HV side with secondary no load
means no impedance which is open here no load means s is opened s opened. Then I am
telling suppose I want to measure this current no load current. Then how to choose the
ammeter reading? It guides you from the HV side better take an ammeter which can read
whose range is 0.05Amp do not connect it 0 to 30Amp range ammeter to record a current
of 0.25Amp. So, I can decide upon the range of the ammeter; if I know this information
that is no load of this current is of the order of 5% and this 5% is not unique value that is
given a transformer.

You expect it is it you can expect it will be close to this current, but exact current in any
case I can calculate because the no load current can be about 2 to 5% of the rated current.
You must understand that. After knowing this let us start discussing how to determine the
equivalent circuit parameters.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:43)

Determination of equivalent circuit parameters. So, a transformer practical transformer is

given I want to know what will be the values of 𝑟𝑒2, what will be the value of 𝑥𝑒2 , what

151
will be the value of 𝑅𝑐𝑙2 and what should be the value of 𝑋𝑚2. On any side if you know,
other side can be calculated or in the previous diagram my god.

Student: (Refer Time: 24:51).

That is this is with respect to the secondary side; I drew with respect to the primary side.
Similarly our goal is to calculate 𝑟𝑒1, 𝑥𝑒1 , 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 and 𝑋𝑚1 that is how can I calculate it?

The answer to this is we have to do some testing and simple testing; I will do. So,
determination of equivalent circuit parameters by conducting from two test; open circuit
test, you conduct two test; open circuit test and short circuit test short circuit test. You
conduct these two tests in the laboratory and you can get those to all the parameters ok.
How do I do the test? First will take up this open circuit test, what it is all about? What is
done? You take the transformer and connect an ammeter and connect a Watt meter and
this is the practical transformer primary.

And generally to do the open circuit test from the LV side, this test is carried out. The
reason will tell you later and suppose this is the other side HV side which is open circuit
or sometimes called no load test or no load. No load means no impedance is connected
across the secondary and also you connect a voltmeter across this. And here you apply the
𝑉1 rated voltage rated voltage at rated frequency.

So, what I will do? LV side, I will energize with voltage 𝑉1 at rated frequency 𝑓 and
connect an ammeter and Wattmeter ok. And keep in mind this is an approximate equivalent
circuit I will be referred to what is the approximate equivalent circuit then? Here 𝑉1 at
frequency 𝑓, you have given 𝑟𝑒1 and 𝑥𝑒1 are there, but these are open circuited because
secondary nothing is connected infinite. So, this is that open circuit will be reflected at the
open circuit in the equivalent circuit also.

So, there is 𝐼2′ = 0 nothing is there because no impedance is connected. So, 𝐼2 is not there
𝐼2′ is not there and this is 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 and this is 𝑋𝑚1. So, under this condition this condition, you
see this is 𝐼0 this is also 𝐼0 and this is 𝐼𝑐𝑙1 and this is 𝐼𝑚1 magnetizing current. And what is
the phasor diagram in this approximate equivalent circuit? Phasor diagram is very simple
applied voltage 𝑉1, your magnetizing current will be here 90° lagging and your core loss
component of current will be in phase with the supply voltage and this will be your no load
current; 𝐼0 .

152
So, your ammeter is going to read 𝐼0 ok. And this is called no load power factor angle. If
this is 𝜃, this is 𝜃; 𝜃0 will be in an ideal transformer 90°, but it cannot be because it is a
practical transformer having core losses ok. And this is the thing and the Watt meter
suppose read 𝑊0 , then I will say that this Watt meter reading must be equal to the voltage
applied across its pressure coil that is 𝑉1 current flowing through its current coil that is 𝐼0 .
Let us assume wattmeter to be ideal; I mean those losses of Watt meter neglected

𝑊0 = 𝑉1 𝐼0 cos(𝜃0 )

This is what I will get.

And from this, I can get the value of

𝑊0
𝐼0 cos(𝜃0 ) =
𝑉1

and note that

𝑊0
𝐼0 cos(𝜃0 ) = = 𝐼𝑐𝑙1
𝑉1

from this right angled triangle. So, 𝐼𝑐𝑙1 is known. Then what you do follow? This point
very carefully some students make very I mean big mistake. It is better you try to calculate
𝑉1
𝐼𝑚 also; magnetizing branch ok. Instead of trying to calculate that will give you the
𝐼0

equivalent impedance things become complicated; it is much more easier as you see.

What do you do now? Since so, from these also I can calculate cos(𝜃0 ).

𝑊0
cos(𝜃0 ) =
𝑉1 𝐼0

So, from this 𝜃0 is known. If 𝜃0 is known, then from this triangle I can say

𝐼𝑚1 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜃0 )

𝐼0 is known ammeter reading. And also

𝐼𝑐𝑙1 = 𝐼0 cos(𝜃0 )

153
Therefore, what we have done I have got this current 𝐼𝑐𝑙1 and 𝐼𝑚1 and my problem is to
calculate 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 ;

𝑉1
𝑅𝑐𝑙1 =
𝐼𝑐𝑙1

This is known this is known and

𝑉1
𝑋𝑚1 =
𝐼𝑚1

So, these two values can be calculated.

𝑉1
Instead of trying to calculate the impedance 𝐼0
, do not do it because that impedance will

then be the series representation of 𝑅𝑐𝑙 and 𝑋𝑚 equivalent. And then you are gone and do
not say the series part of this equivalent circuit is the core loss resistance. Then it will
define the physical reasoning that is the magnetizing current requires a fixed voltage and
this one.

So, you should be very careful. So, mind you then I have been able to calculate 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 and
𝑋𝑚1. So, doing this open circuit test, I can very quickly calculate by noting down the
ammeter reading and wattmeter reading and these voltmeter reading that is that will read
equal to 𝑉1. I can calculate 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 and 𝑋𝑚1. And then am telling, if it is needed, you can then
after knowing 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 and 𝑋𝑚1, I can always calculate 𝑅𝑐𝑙2 and 𝑋𝑚2.

For these, I do not have to carry out the experiment once again because I know it will be
either divided or multiplied by 𝑎2 . So, correctly if I do that I will get 𝑅𝑐𝑙2 as well as 𝑋𝑚2.
So, in this equivalent circuit, I have got this one only just one point. As I told you, this is
the equivalent circuit approximate equivalent circuit approximate equivalent circuit. But
if you honestly look at the circuit, you will find this no load current is flowing through
winding resistance as well, is not.

Because the exact equivalence circuit is what? 𝑟1 𝑥1 , then your this parallel branch is not
suppose and then of course, these two are open circuited exact equivalence circuit. And
you are doing on a practical transformer whose exact equivalent circuit is this what we
have done. Here we have applied a voltage and this current you are telling 𝐼0 fine, but then
I will say look here this wattmeter reading 𝑊0 ok. We have done some approximation that

154
I have understood, but this Watt meter reading strictly speaking, you will read the core
loss in 𝑅𝑐𝑙 as well as copper loss in 𝑟1.

Some of these two will be read is not, but what happens is this how to justify that why we
neglect this copper loss. It is because of that in open circuit test, winding current is pretty
small; maybe 2 to 5% of the rated current. But applied voltage is rated at rated frequency
level of flux in the core is rated and it is the level of flux that decides the core loss. So,
core loss will be much higher than these very small current causing a power loss in 𝑟1.

So, we neglected the copper loss note that 𝑊0 practically records the core loss only; core
loss. The copper loss which is also called the winding power loss 𝐼02 𝑟1 is much less
compared to core loss, why? Because flux is rated and 𝐼0 is only about 2 to 5% of the rated
current. Anyway please go through this part and try to understand each bit of it because
this is the approximate equivalent circuit ok. If you forget about the exact thing from your
mind erase it, then watt meter this copper loss; I mean core loss only.

But that is not the case, there will be a little bit of copper loss in the winding which we are
neglecting. We are attributing the wattmeter reading to be fully the core loss. We will
continue with this with the SC test to determine these this parameters in the next class.
And remember that generally the reason, I have not told yet the open circuit test is carried
out from LV side; from LV side means there you connect the supply HV side is kept open;
anyway.

Thank you.

155
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 17
Short Circuit Test

(Refer Slide Time: 00:24)

Welcome to lecture number 17 on Electrical Machines-1. And we were discussing about

the determination of equivalent circuit parameters. Equivalent circuit for example, has
been drawn in this diagram referred to primary side. And you know it is approximate
equivalent circuit ok, this is approximate equivalent circuit. And 𝑟𝑒1 = 𝑟1 + 𝑎2 𝑟2, and
𝑥𝑒1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 . Now, the question is this equivalent circuit can be therefore used to
analyze a circuit which involves a transformer? And it is easier. So, therefore, equivalent
circuit is always drawn referred to a particular side.

So, for example here, now the big question is how to determine the parameters of this
equivalent circuit? I will very quickly tell you one of the test open circuit test I discussed
in the last class. From that test this parallel branch 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 and 𝑋𝑚1 can be determined. What
we did there is this. Generally from the LV side, the open circuit test is carried out,
whichever side you energize for testing the parameter values we will get referred to that
side. So, referred to LV side, suppose 𝑉1 is the rated voltage you have to apply rated
voltage, connect an ammeter, wattmeter and the volt meter and this is the practical

156
transformer. And the other side is kept open no impedance is connected or load is
connected across the secondary. And what you all you have to do is you have to take the
readings of ammeter, wattmeter and voltmeter ok.

Only thing is that during no load test or open circuit test, if we know the rating of the
transformer, we can have some idea about the order of the no load current as I told you 2
to 5% of the rated current. So, before doing the test, what do you do from the kvA rating
and voltage ratings, calculate the rated current of the LV side and take 5%, 7% of that. To
have some idea that what is the order of the current at the transformer is going to draw
during no load test that will help me to decide about the range of the ammeter, and the
current coil rating of the wattmeter that is important.

For example, the no load current if you calculate it comes out to be 0.8Amp expected to
be of that order, then you connect an ammeter which can record current up to say 1.5Amp
that will be a good choice. Similarly, current coil of the wattmeter should be of the order
of 2Amp range. Of course, 5Amp range ammeter and 5Amp range current coil of the
wattmeter will do, but accuracy will be more, if you use lower ranges of ammeter and
current coil rating of the wattmeter. Pressure coil rating of the wattmeter is of course the
rated voltage of the transformer.

In any case the approximate equivalent circuit is this. So, all the powers the reading of the
𝑊0 will practically record the core loss taking place in the transformer. Because no load
current is very small there will be some copper loss in the primary of the winding 𝐼02 𝑟1 and
that will be neglecting, because flux is rated mind you. Rated voltage, rated frequency flux
will be rated.

And therefore, referring to this equivalent circuit 𝑉1, 𝐼0 you draw 𝜃0 and sometimes it is
tempting to represent it in series combination better do not do it although from circuit point
of view, it is fine. But whatever resistance real part of this equivalent 𝑅𝑐𝑙 and 𝑋𝑚 will not
give in Ω the resistance representing core loss, because core loss the flux is constant
therefore, it is better you represent in parallel and always talk about this resistance. So,
there is a shortcut way, then 𝐼0 is known, 𝜃0 is the power factor angle which I can calculate
from the wattmeter reading, cos 𝜃0 I will calculate. Then from this triangle I can calculate
magnetizing current, this current and this current.

157
 𝑉 𝑉
And once this current is known 𝐼 1 will give you 𝑋𝑚 ok. So, here I have written and 𝐼 1 will
𝑚 𝑐𝑙

give you 𝑅𝑐𝑙 ok, once I know that. Now, if I ask you the question what is wrong, if I carry
out the test from the HV side that I will decide slightly later. But what I am telling it, I can
after knowing these 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 and 𝑋𝑚1, I can tell you that what will be 𝑅𝑐𝑙2 and 𝑋𝑚2 if you had
carried out the test from the HV side.

You simply divide by 𝑎2 this quantities and we will get 𝑅𝑐𝑙2 and 𝑋𝑚2. Therefore,
remember always that if you have determined some parameters with respect to a particular
side, you need not carry out the test once again from the other side to determine the same
parameters, only thing there will be a multiplying or dividing factor of 𝑎2 depending upon
the situation.

So, 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 and 𝑋𝑚1 , the moment you have calculated what I want to say, I know also 𝑅𝑐𝑙2
and 𝑋𝑚2. I can always calculate by multiplying or dividing with 𝑎2 as the case may be.
Now, today the next test is short circuit test, we will discuss. And in the short circuit test,
if you carry out what happens is this you will get these two parameters 𝑟𝑒1 and 𝑥𝑒1 ok, let
us see what you have to do. Now, during short circuit test what happens is this, although
it suggested always that better you carry out the short circuit test from the high voltage
side ok. So, I will first discuss the test, then I will tell you what do I mean by this.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:06)

158
So, this was your transformer ok so, the same transformer that is here it was I should
review it like this LV, HV. So, what I will do during short circuit test, I will connect source
on the high voltage side and the other side I will just put a short circuit. I will short these
two terminals of the LV side. And here what I will do, I will connect once again those
three meters, one is a voltmeter you connect, another is a wattmeter you connect and also
connect an ammeter ok. And here I will connect the supply.

Ok, so you give some supply and note down these meter readings that is the wattmeter
reading which is 𝑊𝑠𝑐 I will write ammeter reading 𝐼𝑠𝑐 I will write and voltmeter reading
𝑉𝑠𝑐 . Now, the question is how much voltage should I apply during open circuit test which
I carried out from the LV side, I applied rated voltage, mind you rated voltage was applied.

Suppose, let us take the same transformer which I am telling that suppose we have a
transformer whose rating is 200V/100V 50Hz and 1 KVA. Now, the moment this is 1
𝐼𝐻𝑉 𝐼1 1000
KVA, then as I told you I can calculate the = = 200 = 5𝐴 is it not, and
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝐼𝐿𝑉 𝐼2 1000
anyway = = 100 = 10𝐴. So, let us talk in terms of this transformer then
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
things will be much clearer while doing LV open circuit test, I should apply suppose the
rating of the transformer is this. I should apply 100 volt here LV side I have to energize
100 volt and that is all.

𝐼𝐻𝑉
Now, what I was telling = 5𝐴 therefore, I expect the no load current to be of the
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
order of 5% of this that is 5 × 0.05 = 0.25𝐴. So, perhaps in ammeter of range 0 to 0.5Amp
will do. Similarly, the current coil range of this wattmeter I will select as 0 to 1Amp that
will be a good choice and pressure coil will be 100 volt that is what we need.

So, suppose the same transformers; for the same transformer, I am now going to do the
short circuit test. So, this time I, so what is the rating of the transformer rated voltage is
100V/200V ok, 1KVA. This rated current is 10Amp of this side and this side rated current
is 5Amp we have just seen. Now, in this case, how much voltage should I apply here that
is the question. So, from the HV side what is the rated voltage of the HV side 200 volt. So,
should I apply 200 volt 50Hz on the HV side, the answer is a big no, never apply the rated
voltage when the other side of the transformer is short circuited.

159
The answer can be easily understood, recall that in a transformer if you anyway I will draw
something here. Suppose, this is the transformer when it will be operated normally this
transformer what do you do, you apply suppose 200 volt here, you get 100 volt and then
you connect the load. I told you in my previous lectures how much load impedance you
will connect is decided by the rated current of the secondary coil. What is the rated current
of the secondary coil, LV side 10Amp.

Therefore, it looks like I should not connect an impedance whose value is less than 10 Ω,
if you connect the transformer will be overloaded. But maybe 10 Ω if you connect then
this current will be 10Amp that is fine, and then this current will be approximately 5Amp
is not that is this scenario. So, less than 10Amp if you connect, the rated current will not
cross its limit.

Now, during short circuit test what you are doing the LV side, if you apply 200 volt, if you
get 100 volt here and if you short circuit it this current is going to be pretty high 100 volt
by almost zero resistance, you are short circuiting and that will definitely be many times
larger than the rated current. And you are there will be problem, I mean transformer may
burned if you have not taken proper precaution that is you are not connected proper fuse
these that. So, but during no load test no such problem apply rated voltage rated current
and the current drawn from the supply will be only 5% of the rated current of the LV side,
but here you cannot short circuit it by applying 200 volt you are putting a short circuit.

Then the question is how much voltage should I apply to the HV side, the answer I hope
you have got. I can only say this much that I should not apply a voltage across the HV side
which will cause the current drawn from the supply to exceed its rated current of 10Amp.
I should not apply a voltage, I will apply such a voltage under this scenario it will be like
this. So, you must have an arrangement here in the form of an auto transformer which you
must have used. So, this is auto transformer, do not forget to connect an auto transformer
ok, where output voltage can be varied starting from zero.

So, what do you do, here your maybe this side here this supply voltage is 200 volt 50Hz
ok. So, set the auto transformer pointer at zero, so that output is zero here, no current flows
even when it is short circuited. Now, gradually increase this pointer, so that you are
applying more and more voltage certainly not 200 volt a fraction of that you go on
increasing it, but keep a strict watch on the ammeter reading. The moment ammeter

160
reading is 5Amp, I will stop further increasing this pointer because that is the maximum
voltage you can apply ensuring that the currents in the windings will not exceed the rated
current that is the whole idea. Therefore, a little voltage is required to do this, got the point.

𝑉𝐻𝑉
So, the applied voltage here is less 𝑉𝑠𝑐 , mind you applied voltage 𝑉𝑠𝑐 ≪ whatever
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
200 volt is the rated of you do not apply 200 volt under short circuit. But a little voltage as
you can see and I have no problem I will connect an auto transformer a variable output
voltage I will get and therefore, I will only go up to that voltage which will make this
current predicted. Of course, one can go 5%, 10% current higher than the rated current that
is not a big issue, but certainly not apply 200 volt ok.

So, during short circuit test I am applying a little voltage compared to the rated voltage.
Now, during short circuit test the level of flux 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 during short circuit test in the core of
the transformer, it will be then

𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝑠𝑐 𝑉1
(𝑆𝐶) = √2𝜋𝑓𝑁 ≪ ⏟√2𝜋𝑓𝑁𝐻𝑉
𝐻𝑉
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥
(𝑆𝐶) ≪ 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

This must be understood because you are applying very little voltage, of course, frequency
is high. Which; obviously, then means that

𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐵
≪ 𝑚𝑎𝑥
(𝑆𝐶) 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

because you have to divide it with a constant cross sectional area of the core to get 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
It that be the case, so a very little amount of flux will be produced inside the core of the
transformer under short circuit test although current in the windings will be rated values.

So, a interesting situation, now during this test, therefore, I will say the core loss will be
very small compared to the winding copper loss that is current is 𝐼 2 𝑅2 or 𝐼 2 𝑅1 whatever
you call the sum of these two winding copper losses that will be high because rated current
2
you are passing. But the core loss as we know eddy current loss depends upon 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 .

161
 2
And by a large factor you have reduced that 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 , frequency same, 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝑥 2 , 𝜏 is of
course, same thickness of the plate. So, eddy current loss, similarly hysteresis loss depends
upon the area enclosed by the cores by the by the BH curve of the material area enclosed
by the BH curve, but during short circuit test if this is the BH curve during rated I am just
trying to give you a pictorial thing. If this is corresponding to rated condition, then BH
curve may look like this during short circuit test SC and this is rated condition.

So, both hysteresis and eddy current loss will be less. And also from that empirical formula
1.6
we know hysteresis loss depends upon 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 . So, 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 itself is quite small, therefore,
during short circuit test; note, during it is worth writing during SC test core loss will be
much much less than the winding copper loss that is 𝐼 2 𝑟 loss in the winding which is 𝐼12 𝑟1 +
𝐼22 𝑟2 . So, I am not writing that thing got the point. So, this, this is must be understood.

At this I have told you from what is called physical interpretation, why core loss can be
neglected during short circuit test. In other words what I am telling, so during the test when
this 𝐼𝑠𝑐 , I will I will apply such a voltage here 𝑉𝑠𝑐 that

𝐼2
𝐼𝑠𝑐 =
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

HV side which I am calling as side two compared to my previous thing same transformer
𝐼1
I am working with. And also in this the current whatever will flow is , because
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
current ratios are related by that factor 𝑎. Therefore, this is the rated current, but flux is
not rated it is only a small fraction of the rated flux.

Therefore, this wattmeter reading strictly speaking will record both the core loss and the
copper loss in the winding, sum of these two, but because core loss is very much smaller
than the winding copper losses. Therefore, we say that 𝑊𝑠𝑐 is practically equal to the coil
or winding copper losses; coil copper losses. You must know 𝑖 2 𝑟 loss is copper loss, it is
occurring in the copper. Core loss is in the iron, it is occurring that is also some 𝑖 2 𝑟 loss,
we have seen that, but people do not say oh that is called iron loss fine, everything is fine,
because in the iron the eddy current flows.

So copper loss, copper is used to make the primary and secondary so, copper loss is a and
copper loss will be 𝐼12 𝑟1 + 𝐼22 𝑟2 . And you must understand by this time this is same as 𝐼12 𝑟𝑒1
if you express everything in terms of 𝐼1 , and which is same as 𝐼22 𝑟𝑒2 .

162
 𝑊𝑠𝑐 ≈ 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼12 𝑟1 + 𝐼22 𝑟2 = 𝐼12 𝑟𝑒1 = 𝐼22 𝑟𝑒2

This portion I think you I told you, you show it you can easily show, so this is the thing;
so, this is the situation. Now, I will go to the from the equivalent circuit then what do I get.
So, this is the thing I will note this things ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:51)

Now, the equivalent circuit referred to the high voltage side will be because I have
energized it from the high voltage side. Now, equivalent circuit referred to HV side and I
remember we are discussing short circuit test under that condition. What is the equivalent
circuit referred to the HV side it will be approximate equivalent circuit, it will be you have
applied some voltage on the HV side 𝑉𝑆𝐶 . And then this parallel branch will be there, is it
not, this will be the parallel branch. And then you have if HV side I denote it by 𝑟𝑒2 and
𝑥𝑒2 , this will be I have energized the transformer from the HV side mind you. On LV side,
load is connected.

Now, what load is connected on the LV side, this is HV, this is LV, I have kept it shorted.
So, 𝑧2 = 0 therefore, here also in the equivalent circuit this will be shorted because 𝑧2 =
0 not 𝑧2 , 𝑧1 = 0. So, 𝑧1′ = 0, is it not, it is shorted. And if I want to write this two, I should
write 𝑅𝑐𝑙2 and 𝑋𝑚2 ok. And 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 , 𝑋𝑚1 I have found out.

Now, these impedance now coming to the equivalent circuit and trying to establishing the
same thing. These 𝑟𝑒2 and 𝑥𝑒2 are quite small compared to 𝑅𝑐𝑙2 and 𝑋𝑚2, these are high

163
here. And also I am telling this core loss power can be neglected power in this resistance
is your core loss during short circuit test which is quite small and that is also reflected in
2
𝑉𝑠𝑐
the equivalent circuit. What is the core loss now, , got the point. but this voltage is only
𝑅𝑐𝑙2

a fraction of the rated voltage that is 200 volt for the transformer we have considered
maybe 5, 10 voltages, you will find in the laboratory.

Therefore, in essence what I am telling is during short circuit test and this impedance quite
small compared to these. So, this branch can be removed approximate. So, what I am
telling is this branch as if it is not there, parallel branch can be shown to be not present.
𝑣
Magnetizing current also will be too small 𝑋 , but 𝑣 I am applying only 𝑉𝑠𝑐 which is much
𝑚2

smaller than the rated voltage. So, both 𝐼𝑚 and 𝐼𝑐𝑙 are quite small compared to this current,
which is now rated current on the HV side for the transformer I have considered I will
apply such a voltage such that 5Amp close now. So, this will be the thing.

Now, therefore, you have this thing you have the short circuit current 𝐼𝑠𝑐 ok. And this is
𝑟𝑒2 and 𝑥𝑒2 . Now, what happens is this I will then say the wattmeter reading whatever you
have got 𝑊𝑠𝑐 must be equal to approximately equal to

2
𝑊𝑠𝑐 ≈ 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑟𝑒2

straight. And here you note it is series, applied voltage is known, power drawn by the
circuit is known, 𝑊𝑠𝑐 had a voltage 𝑉𝑠𝑐 𝐼𝑠𝑐 . Therefore, 𝑟𝑒2 can be calculated.

𝑊𝑠𝑐
𝑟𝑒2 ≈ 2
𝐼𝑆𝐶

𝑉𝑠𝑐
And similarly the ratio , is this impedance, magnitude of this impedance
𝐼𝑠𝑐

𝑉𝑠𝑐 2 2
= √𝑟𝑒2 + 𝑥𝑒2
𝐼𝑠𝑐

it will be this; 𝑟𝑒2 is known. So, from this, this will give you 𝑥𝑒2 can be found out. So,
from the short circuit test, the value of 𝑟𝑒2 and 𝑥𝑒2 can be found out. I will continue with
this in the next class.

Thank you.

164
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 18
Choosing Sides to Carry Out O. C/S. C Test

Welcome to lecture number 18 and we have been discussing about two simple tests,
performing those two tests one can determine the equivalent circuit of a transformer.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:41)

For example, you first do the open circuit test and open circuit test is carried out from the
LV side and you will be if you call the LV side as 1, then you will be getting this 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 and
𝑋𝑚1. Similarly of course, I have not told you why it should be done on from the LV side,
that I will discuss today.

165
(Refer Slide Time: 01:11)

And, then if you carry out the short circuit test better carry it out from the HV side the
reason we will discuss. But, if it is carried out from the HV side then what parameters you
will get is 𝑟𝑒2 and 𝑥𝑒2 and the calculations are pretty simple.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:31)

In this case the wattmeter reading, then approximately it records the copper loss, core loss
can be neglected. During short circuit test some ways I right during SC test core loss it
takes place no doubt is much much smaller then copper loss. Iron loss sometimes core loss

166
is also called iron loss whatever it is much smaller. So, that can be neglected and we say
the wattmeter reads the copper loss only.

And, this saying in language in the equivalent circuit it means you can neglect this branch;
both magnetizing current can be neglected as well as core loss component of current can
be neglected whatever power is drawn. That wattmeter reads real power only, real power
2 𝑉𝑠𝑐
loss will take place here in 𝑟𝑒2, 𝐼𝑠𝑐 𝑟𝑒2 and from the 𝑧𝑒2 these two can be found out.
𝐼𝑠𝑐

So, now we have carried out two test, but my final objective is to draw the equivalent
circuit; referred to a particular side. Referred to which side? It is my choice, the user’s
choice he decides with respect to side 1, I want to draw the equivalent circuit. Or,
somebody else would like to draw the equivalent circuit referred to the secondary side, but
nonetheless whichever side you draw your end results will come same. So, you need not
worry about this side ok, you choose this side with respect.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:35)

Now, after doing this test you see that I just draw here LV side, from LV side I carried out
the OC test. And, whatever values you have got in the open circuit test this is the HV side;
HV side was open. You got 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 the parallel branch and 𝑋𝑚1 this two values I got. And,
while doing short circuit test which I told you for reasons not yet told that you suppose
carry out the short circuit test from the HV side and during short circuit test you keep it

167
shorted. So, you are looking at the equivalence circuit referred to this side then you will
be getting 𝑟𝑒2 and 𝑥𝑒2 .

Therefore, to draw now I want to draw the equivalent circuit; to draw the equivalent circuit
referred to and suppose LV side I am calling it side 1, HV side calling it side 2; so, this is
1, this is 2. So, to draw the equivalent circuit refer to, LV side it should be drawn like this
now 𝑉1 rated voltage you will apply and approximate equivalent circuit I am telling this is
𝑅𝑐𝑙1 and this is 𝑋𝑚1 parallel. And these values are already known so, I will put these values
and then I have to that series impedance which I know it must be 𝑟𝑒1 and 𝑥𝑒1 .

But, from short circuit test I have got 𝑟𝑒2 and 𝑥𝑒2 . So, do not put 𝑟𝑒2 and 𝑥𝑒2 here then that
will be a blunder. So now, you have a duty to change these 𝑟𝑒2 to 𝑟𝑒1 and 𝑥𝑒2 to 𝑥𝑒1 and
that can be easily done since 𝑟𝑒2 and 𝑥𝑒2 is known. So, a turns ratio from the rating of the
transformer I know it is

𝑁1
𝑎=
𝑁2

So

𝑟𝑒1 = 𝑎2 𝑟𝑒2

𝑥𝑒1 = 𝑎2 𝑥𝑒2

So, these values should be transformed correctly, then write it here this is the equivalent
circuit. What should I write, should I write 𝑉2 here? No, I should write 𝑉2′ and so on. Then
wherever this circuit is now connected I can replace that transformer by this equivalent
circuit and calculate all the things needed. Similarly, this test although has been done from
LV side and HV side to draw the equivalent circuit. So, once you know this then you know
equivalent circuit refer to HV side will simply be this one.

Structure remains same here with respect to HV side they you should right here 𝑟𝑒2 and
𝑥𝑒2 do not disturb them, because that is with respect to HV side those parameters unknown.
But, the only thing then do not right here 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 , you should write 𝑅𝑐𝑙2 and 𝑋𝑚2. And what
is 𝑅𝑐𝑙2 ?

𝑅𝑐𝑙1
𝑅𝑐𝑙2 =
𝑎2

168
 𝑋𝑚1
𝑋𝑚2 =
𝑎2

Therefore, you can do the test either from LV side or HV side then you can of course, draw
the equivalent circuit refer to any side you like. But, you should be careful about these two
points.

Now, I will tell you why people say that generally you carry out the LV test from the short
circuit test from the LV side and open circuit tests from the LV side and short circuit test
from the HV side. The reason is rather more practical than ah saying that it cannot be done
I mean. For example, in this transformer the rating of the transformer I chose to clarify
some of the points.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:07)

Suppose the rating of the transformer is our this transformer 200 volt/100 volt, 50 Hz,
single phase and kVA rating is suppose 1 kVA. And, as I told you the rated current of this
side is 5Amp and this side is 10Amp. And, these numbers you can easily calculate straight
away; once a problem is given be ready with these numbers what are the rated currents of
these two sides. Now, for this transformer of this kind of rating there is really no restriction
because, in the laboratory these voltages are low voltages and available in the lab.

So, so one should not make a issue or insist that for this transformer you carry out the test
from OC test from the LV side and SC test from the HV side. Reason is simple these two
voltages are available in the lab, we can always get these two voltages of 50 Hz using a

169
transformer, auto transformer always you can connect to get these voltages. Similarly,
these current values are also reasonable values 5Amp, 10Amp is no large values at all no
issues. You can have Watt meters of this ranges. Therefore, if you carry out the open circuit
test from the HV side, you can do it what is wrong.

So, for this kind of transformer of this kind of rating no restriction on carrying out a test
from a particular side. Remember let us come to the circuit diagram of open circuit test, it
need some telling open circuit test. Suppose the rating of the transformer is this it is written
there fine. Now, if I carried out the test open circuit test for this transformer from the high
voltage side, I have to apply rated voltage 200 volts 50 Hz is available, I will apply that.
Rated current of the HV side is 5Amp only is not, HV side is 5Amp.

So, is no load current will be small ok, but meters are available to record that, similarly
wattmeter with rating 200 volt and that current rating estimated current is 2 to 5%. I can
easily carry out the test either from this side or then that side; no problem at all in the
laboratory because all the ranges of the meters are available and so on and no safety issues
also is not. Now, similarly during short circuit test, if you had carried out the short circuit
test energizing from the LV side, keeping the HV side shorted also for this transformer no
issue. Because, rated current is only 5Amp and 10Amp; LV side you can do you will.

So, all the voltages and currents to be measured, power to be measured or all those meters
are available and there is nothing wrong in that. But, you imagine suppose I say you that I
have to test a transformer, I asked you to find out the rating of a transformer whose rating
is 100 kVA. I am just taking some 100 kVA, then say 1000 volt/100 volt, 50 Hz
transformer single phase. This is the transformer whose parameters I want to find out.
Suppose, somebody says that ok I will carry out the open circuit test, he suppose thinks
that open circuit test from the HV side, OC from HV side suppose somebody decides.

Can I not do it? Open circuit test demands that whichever side you energize you have to
apply rated voltage because, you have to create rated flux. So, all the core loss should take
place therefore, suppose somebody this is the HV side and LV side he keeps open circuit.
So, he has to apply 1000 volt here and he has to connect an ammeter and a wattmeter and
a voltmeter. First thing is to carry out the open circuit test from the HV side in the
laboratory you then require a 1000 volt, 1000 volt is not easily available.

170
Although perhaps 200 volt is available, connect another transformer get 1000 volt that is
also not a big issue. But, the point is whoever will be doing this experiment his safety will
be in question or the heat a table of this equipments we have kept, you will switch on 1000
volt supply, 1000 volt supply is dangerous in the laboratory. You cannot work unless it is
a high voltage laboratories specially designed therefore, immediately you see to apply
rated voltage I come and say you do not do this a that will be a big safety issue cannot
apply. So, open circuit test carrying out from HV side that is why people in general say
carry out the open circuit test from the LV side understood.

So, 1000 volt you cannot apply. Similarly, also you see then he will require a pressure coil
whose rating is 1000 volt current coil rating of course, will not be a big problem. Because
what is the rated current? As I told you given a rating of the transformer of this kind, what
𝐼𝐻𝑉
is rated current of the side is how much?
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

3
𝐼𝐻𝑉 100 × 10
= = 100𝐴
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 1000

𝐼𝐿𝑉
What will be ? LV side rated current will be higher. What is the turns ratio? 10 so,10
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
times higher

𝐼𝐿𝑉
= 10 × 100 = 1000𝐴
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

Now therefore, you see I am doing the test; trying to doing the tests from the HV side then
𝐼𝐻𝑉
I see is this one. What will be the order of no load current? About say 5%. So, 5%
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
of 100Amp is how much? 5Amp therefore, the current drawn will be less, that ammeter I
can have. Similarly, current coil of the wattmeter will not be an issue from the HV side,
but the voltage is high which is dangerous for the personnel will be carrying out the test.
So, this should not be carried out from the HV side.

But, from the LV side if you do what during open circuit test, how much voltage you need
to apply? 100 volt only, very safe available voltage in the lab. What will be the pressure
coil of the wattmeter? 100 volt. What will be the order of the no load current? 1000 into
say 5% of this one, how much it is? 50 is not for this particular transformer; so, 5% of this
is 50Amp ok, 50Amp large current voltage is not high. So, I can use CT PT or ammeters

171
of measuring a 50Amp is available do not worry, even if it is not available I can use CT to
scale down the current, pressure coil no issue.

Therefore, it is this thing you do LV side so, for large transformer with ratio of turns ratio
are very large then really it becomes an issue high voltage. So, carry out so, OC test from
LV side always LV side. Now what about SC test? Short circuit test people say carry on
carry out from the HV side. Why? Because, during short circuit test you know you will be
suppose somebody says, no I will carry out the short circuit test from the LV side. If you
want to carry out the short circuit test from the LV side, what are the things you require?
What are the meters you require LV side suppose? You require ammeter, you require
wattmeter and a voltmeter. Suppose from the LV side, how much voltage you will be
needing? What is the LV side? 100 volt very little voltage is needed that is not a big issue
with an auto transformer not 100 volt you apply and HV side is shorted, is not HV side is
shorted.

But, what is the rated current? Rated current is 1000Amp. So, you have to measure that
current 1000Amp, range ammeter may not be so easily available or of course, you can use
CT PT and voltage rating is small. Similarly, the current coil of the wattmeter should be
of the rating of the same in the laboratory such a wattmeter may not be available.
Therefore, all these point to the fact, but if this was HV side and this was LV side you see
high voltage side what is the rating 1000 volt. But, do not require 1000 volt to carry out
SC test only little voltage maybe 10% of that which will circulate the rated current.

So, 100 volt 50 volt etcetera and the current will be also small rated current is only
100Amp. So, these are the issues why people say carry out for transformer with high kVA
rating large voltage ratings, if voltages ratios are one side is kV another side is volt. For
example distribution transformer 6.6 kV of course, those are three phase transformer, but
6.6 kV and 440 volt. This is the kind of transformation ratios, in that case to carry out the
open circuit test you carry it out from the LV side. And, similarly to carry out the short
circuit test carry it out from the HV side.

And, in generally this is the statement of course, since it is expected you will carry out the
test from two different sides. Therefore, at the end after getting the parameters parallel
branch parameters referred to the LV side and equivalents series impedance parameters
which you will get from the short circuit test carried out from the HV side.

172
Then you stop you think a bit before drawing the equivalent circuit referred to a particular
side, you have to do a little bit of transformation either that parameter or this parameter
depending upon from which side you want to draw the equivalent circuit of a transformer.

So, there are a lot of examples, consult any machine book I have not yet told any machine
books names yet. I will tell you will somewhat later, I will insist that first go through the
lectures and whatever study materials I give you go through that then I will give you names
of some books. There are so, many books good books are there, open the chapter
equivalence circuit see the data of open circuit test and short circuit tests, on your own try
to find out the equivalent circuit parameters. Only one comments about these two testing,
see two comments.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:31)

Two or one anyway let us see whether two comments can be made, what I am telling note
that during open circuit test no matter from which side you do theoretically transformer
will have core loss only practically, core loss only is not. Because, copper loss is neglected
only little current is drawn and during short circuit test transformer will have only copper
loss only. I have put this symbol to indicate that little bit of core loss copper loss will be
there, here also core loss will be there. Why?

Because, during open circuit test rated flux, rated flux means rated flux density; rated flux
density means core loss will be at its rated value. And, we will have only copper loss during

173
short circuit test because flux is much much smaller than rated value. Why? Because, you
require very little voltage to carry out short circuit test and it is copper loss only.

Therefore, if you take a transformer and while carrying out this two test we find this is the
situation. But, certainly you have purchased a transformer for example, the same old good
old transformer I am always referring for easy calculation 1 kVA etcetera, rated current is
5Amp, rated current is 10Amp, 50 Hz etcetera is there.

Now, you have purchased a transformer you do the open circuit short circuit test, but you
will be putting this to use. So, that transformer is fully loaded, it should operate under full
load condition. For example, you would like to see transformer this transformer in
operation, what will be the situation? In operation situation will be you apply 200 volt
here, approximately you will get 100 volt there and you will connect an impedance here.
So, that you have purchased 1 kVA transformer, you would always like to see the
transformer operates under full load condition. So, you must apply rated voltage, get
almost rated voltage on the secondary side.

Voltage across this terminal maybe a little less that is we will see that, but what I am telling
for normal operation I would like to see this side carries 10Amp current. This side carries
current 5Amp and you will be happy because based on that only you have purchased a
transformer. You have not purchased a transformer to carry out open circuit and short
circuit test and that is there to find out the parameters. But, you have purchased these
transformer you know you have to supply a load at 100 volt 10Amp current. So, this
transformer should be put to use under this condition, applied voltages are on this side,
that side, rated voltage and windings are also rated current.

Then only you are really utilizing the transformer properly, these the transformer in
operation you would like to have this situation prevailing. You have spent so, much money
to install this transformer to supply the load. Certainly not you have connected a
transformer and supplying a load which is 2Amp secondary, what is the plan then why you
purchased a transformer of secondary current rating 10Amp. So, this will be the situation.
We would like to see this thing happens you will be happy, oh transformer is now fully
utilized.

And, it is called rated condition windings are carrying rated current and also. So, in this
case transformer in operation under full load condition, under full load condition I will be

174
very happy. So, the flux is rated as well as copper loss is also rated because, windings are
carrying rated current is not. Both these losses unlike open circuit and short circuit test
during open circuit test only core loss rated value. During short circuit test only copper
loss at rated value, but when the transformer will be in operation both these losses will be
at its rated values you must understand this.

So, both the losses are at the rated values. So, if I ask you a simple question that open
circuit tests there is power loss temperature will rise. There will be some temperature rise
in open circuit test, there will be some temperature rise during short circuit test you
measured them ok. This is the maybe 30 degrees, the temperature some number I am just
telling. Here it is suppose 35 degree copper loss, but when the transformer will be operating
at rated voltages and also windings are carrying rated current, that is what I would like to
happen.

I would like to see this thing happens, then only I will be satisfying myself I purchased a
transformer of this rating whose windings can carry rated current 10Amp 5Amp, voltages
can have 200 100 volt under this condition; only I would like to see the transformer is
operating. But, when the transformer will be operating under this condition both these
losses will be present and temperature arise will be much higher than this; under these two
conditions. Anyway this you would just note, we will refer to this information later in the
next class.

Thank you.

175
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Khargpur

Lecture – 19
Efficiency of Transformer – Losses

(Refer Slide Time: 00:23)

Welcome to lecture number 19 and in our last lecture as you know I was telling you that
when a transformer will be in operation both copper loss and core loss will be present. You
cannot neglect during operation one loss with respect to another loss. Because, rated flux
is there and hopefully you are efficiently using the transformer, so that rated current are
carried by the coils. Our target will be to see such a condition prevail then only it will the
transformer is in full operation, rated currents it is carrying, rated flux it has produced this
is the way.

176
(Refer Slide Time: 01:13)

Now, today I will tell you, so equivalent circuit parameters I have found out. I will tell you
now our next important topics will be one is called a efficiency (𝜂) and another is called
regulation (ℜ) this two are very important. It is usually denoted by this curly letter, these
are the topics we will be discussing. Efficiency of a transformer what do I mean by it and
another thing is called regulation, and I will be talking this in terms of the equivalent circuit
of a transformer.

But listen to me very carefully first I will take up efficiency. So, a transformer is as I told
you it will be operating with load connected not under open circuit or short circuit and here
you will apply rated voltage frequency during it is operation core is there, core loss
practical transformer ok.

So, it is expected when the coils now to before I tell you about the efficiency.

𝐾𝑊 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂=
𝐾𝑊 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑖𝑡

In whichever unit you do you always express in the same unit. This is the efficiency of a
transformer.

𝐾𝑊 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂= =
𝐾𝑊 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑖𝑡 𝑃𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

177
So, what is 𝑃𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 , 𝑃𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 is here; what is 𝑃𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 , 𝑃𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 is here from the supply this
is the overall efficiency of the transformer. This efficiency of course, if it is ideal
transformer it will be 100% because there is neither core loss winding resistances are
neglected, copper loss is also absent. So, whatever power will be drawn from the supply
will be dumped to the load, so this is your load, efficiency would have been 100%. But in
real practical transformer we have seen that when the transformer will be operating it will
have both core loss and copper loss will be present.

So this can be written as

𝐾𝑊 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝜂= = =
𝐾𝑊 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑖𝑡 𝑃𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 + 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

𝑃𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂=
𝑃𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 + 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠

This I will break it up into two parts, core loss plus copper loss. This will be the expression
for efficiency of a transformer.

Let us first so, this losses are there therefore, efficiency will be less than 100%. Of course,
as I told you in a very well design transformer efficiency may be as high as 99% so because
it is a static machine, no friction loss windage loss this things will be absent only core loss
and copper loss. Windings will become hot, core will become hot, in normal operation as
I told you at rated condition these things are there.

Now, first so let us see the losses first what happens to core loss?

2 1.6
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 + 𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑠 ∝ 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥

or in terms of area that B max it will be proportional to……….

So, core loss will be proportional to this things of course, the constant of proportionality
will be different

2 1.6 2 1.6
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 + 𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑠 ∝ 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑘𝑒 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑘ℎ 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥

178
So level of 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 is a crucial factor. Now, we know that 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 remains practically constant
this are also I pointed out earlier remains practically constant from no load to full load
condition.

Is not core loss remains constant because the drop in that 𝑟1 and 𝑥1 is little which gives
you that the value of induced voltage 𝐸1 in the ideal transformer that may not be equal to
𝑉1. Because recall that exact equivalent circuit of the transformer what is the exact
equivalent circuit of the transformer? Let me go to next page.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:30)

Exact equivalent circuit is 𝑟1 and 𝑥1 then your this parallel branch. Suppose refer to side
one I am drawing this is 𝑎2 𝑟2 , this is 𝑎2 𝑥2 is not, this the equivalent circuit and there is the
your reflected impedance 𝑧2′ . And this is 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 and 𝑋𝑚1. Magnetizing current decides 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥
and this voltage will decide what is the value of 𝐼𝑚 in the exact equivalent circuit here is
your 𝑉1.

Now, what do I mean by no load first, no load means secondary nothing is connected
therefore, current drawn will be the no load current. And when you connect load this
current will now becomes earlier the current no load current was very little 2 to 5% this
drop could be practically neglected. That is why the approximate equivalent circuit we
drew earlier, but anyway what I am telling so, this voltage decides magnetizing current
hence flux.

179
Now, what is the difference of this voltage and this voltage this is 𝐸1 it is this drop, but 𝑟1
and 𝑥1 are small even when rated current flows when load you have connected. There will
be little drop here that will definitely decrease your 𝜑. If you go by this approximate, what
is 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 ?

𝐸1
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4.44𝑓𝑁1

But this 𝐸1 value will deviate from 𝑉1 a little, no load condition it will be almost same as
𝑉1 and during loaded condition a little drop here.

So, change in this 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 from no load to full load what is no load? 𝑧2′ is infinite it is open
nothing connected, what is full load? You have connected such an impedance that rated
current flows. And when rated current flows there will be a drop here we agree to that
drop. But 𝑟1 and 𝑥1 is small therefore, there will be a voltage drop taking place in 𝑟1 and
𝑥1 which will change 𝐸1 a little, but 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 will decrease maybe by 2% or 1% whatever it
is.

So, the assumption that 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 remains practically constant from no load to full load
condition, full load condition you must have understood now when the coils will carry
rated current and applied voltage is rated at rated frequency. So, flux is almost rated from
no load to full load.

If that be the case then I will conclude that in the expression of the efficiency which is

𝑃𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂=
𝑃𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠

I find that this 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 will then remain constant; practically remains constant from no
load to full load, since 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≈ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 got the point. Therefore, here is a loss which
will be always taking place within the transformer. If it is primary is energized no matter
whether you have connected a load on the secondary side or not, 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 will be always
there. So, that is why it is the loss has got two components.

So, one is a fixed loss. So, P𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 ≈ 𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 we will not break our heads a little change
in 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 from no load to full load no point in doing that because little change will take

180
place. So, this loss is called the fixed or constant loss. Now, the other loss, what is this
loss; 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 , is it fixed? The answer is no, why no? Answer is very simple.

As you change the load the current 𝐼2 and 𝐼2′ too will change, what do you mean by loading
I will draw the actual diagram 𝑧2 you are varying to vary the load on the transformer. Here
it is 𝑉1 and 𝑓. At open circuit 𝑧2 → ∞ switch is open. Then I will load it by decreasing this
𝑧2 and your current will go on increasing and ratio of the currents are approximately the
turns ratio.

Therefore, level of current will go on changing as you change the load on the secondary
of the transformer. Approximate equivalent circuit is this, this current is 𝐼2′ here is the
parallel branch. Then what is the total copper loss in terms of approximate equivalent
circuit?

𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = (𝐼2′ )2 𝑟𝑒1 = 𝐼22 𝑟𝑒2

I mean several ways you can write this. But the point to be noted here the magnitude of
the current that you are drawing out of the transformer from the secondary side is
proportional to the square of the current. So, as you change the load 𝐼2′ changes therefore,
copper loss in the winding will be a function of current supplied.

So, copper loss cannot be a fixed loss, it depends upon what current you are extracting out
of the secondary of the transformer it depends on that is that clear. After I have learned
this, see there are many books to calculate the efficiency of the transformer in several
ways. I will give you a certain way a particular way of calculating efficiency which will
make your life easier and also it will bring out the concept of degree of loading.

181
(Refer Slide Time: 18:36)

For example during short circuit test we have noted that Watt meter reading, what it was
reading? It was reading the copper loss of the transformer that is winding copper loss of
the transformer at full load current. Because during short circuit test windings were
carrying rated current. Recall, during short circuit test, one increases the input voltage from
HV side such that only apply that much voltage which will cause rated current to flow in
both the windings and whatever is the wattmeter reading I say that is the copper loss. So,
that copper loss was calculated at rated full load current.

And 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 is equal to the wattmeter reading during no load test is not because I have applied
rated voltage rated frequency. So, flux remains same and wattmeter reading was reading
only the core loss alone neglect the copper loss at that time. So, this is the thing and which
is constant as you change 𝑧2 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 will practically remain constant.

𝑃𝐶𝑢
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆. 𝐶. 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 =
(𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑)

𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑁𝑜 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒

𝑃𝐶𝑢
Now, the big question is this is the then what will be the copper loss when
(𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑)
the windings will be carrying half the rated current. Because the level of the current the
windings will carry depends upon what impedance we have connected on the secondary
side. So, I can adjust the impedance connected such that it carries half the rated current, I

182
will connect across the secondary of the transformer such an impedance that it carries half
the rated current or 75% of the rated current what not got the point.

Now, I am asking you a straight question that if the windings are carrying rated current,
𝑃𝐶𝑢
then what will be the total copper loss? That copper loss I am telling when
(𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑)
the coils carry rated current. Now, my question is if the transformer is loaded such that
coils carry half the rated current. Then what will be the copper loss now; in terms of this
full load copper loss how much it will be? See after all copper loss is some 𝐼 2 𝑟𝑒 . It is 𝐼12 𝑟𝑒1
or same as 𝐼22 𝑟𝑒2, I will not separately calculate 𝐼12 𝑟1 + 𝐼22 𝑟2 , what is the point after I have
done this.

So, I will try to exploit this simple equivalent circuit no point in separating 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 .
Because after all from open circuit and short circuit test you cannot separate 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 is
not. It comes as a package.

𝑟𝑒1 = 𝑟1 + 𝑎2 𝑟2

𝑟1
𝑟𝑒2 = + 𝑟2
𝑎2

See beauty is these that from the equivalent circuit whether it is either 1 or 2 take the
corresponding values these is the copper loss.

So, at full load the copper loss is

𝑃𝐶𝑢 2
= 𝐼𝐹𝐿 𝑟𝑒1
(𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑)

This I get from short circuit test. Now, I am saying that winding current is now made half.
So, what will be the copper loss now?

𝐼𝐹𝐿 2
𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = ( ) 𝑟𝑒1
2

If you make the currents half rated current if you have connected such an impedance on
the secondary side such that the coils are carrying half the rated current 𝑟𝑒1 remains same.

183
 𝐼𝐹𝐿 2 1 2
𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = ( ) 𝑟𝑒1 = ( ) (𝐼𝐹𝐿 𝑟𝑒1 )
2 4
1 𝑃𝐶𝑢
=( )
4 (𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑)

𝑃𝐶𝑢
Getting the point this must be understood , if you know this is 100 Watt I am
(𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑)
telling you if you are winding currents are half, then I will say the copper loss will become
100
= 25𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡.
4

3 9 𝑃𝐶𝑢
If it is carrying 4 of the rated current, then copper loss would have been 16 .
(𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑)

𝐼𝐹𝐿 2 1 2
𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = ( ) 𝑟𝑒1 = ( ) (𝐼𝐹𝐿 𝑟𝑒1 )
2 4
1 𝑃𝐶𝑢 1
=( ) = ( ) (𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆. 𝐶. 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡)
4 (𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑) 4

It is not compulsory to write it like this, but this concept is important you define. Then
copper loss directly depends upon the degree of loading. Now, the question is what is
degree of loading? Degree of loading is I will use a number 𝑥 this I must define degree of
loading with respect to that rated current carrying capacity of the coil.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:05)

I will use a number

184
 0≤𝑥≤1

𝑥 = 0 → 𝑁𝑜 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝑥 = 1 → 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝑥 can have any values; 𝑥 = 0.5 means it is 50% loaded the transformer is, although I told
you transformer should be operated at full load condition that is why you have purchased
the transformer. So, that it always operates at full load, but sometimes load varies on the
secondary side then it is a nice way of telling the term degree of loading, got the point.

So, we would like to calculate try to estimate efficiency at 𝑥 degree of loading. So, I will
call it 𝜂𝑥 , where 𝜂𝑥=1 corresponds to full load efficiency. Now, this one will be the output,
suppose

𝑆 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟

Then when it is degree of loading is 𝑥,

𝑃𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃

𝑥 = 1 means it is supplying rated kVA, cos 𝜃 is the power factor of the load, because in
the definition of efficiency, kilowatt I have to calculate supply to the load.

Suppose the transformer is supplying 𝑥𝑆 kVA to the load having a power factor of cos 𝜃
on the secondary side. So, this is the output then

𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃
𝜂𝑥 =
𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃 + 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 + 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟

𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 remains constant it does not depend upon the degree of loading, no matter whether
this is 50% loaded,100% loaded 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 remain same.

𝑃𝐶𝑢
Now, the question is I know ; at full load means, copper loss at 𝑥 = 1 when
(𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑)
transformer is carrying rated currents. So, what will be the copper loss now at 𝑥 degree of

185
 1 𝑃𝐶𝑢
loading we have just discussed, if it is 50% loaded then (4) . So, 𝑥 is a fraction
(𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑)
𝑃𝐶𝑢
and must be multiplied then by 𝑥 2
(𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑)

𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃
𝜂𝑥 =
𝑃𝐶𝑢
𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃 + 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 + 𝑥 2
(𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑)

This is the expression for efficiency of a transformer.

So, please try to assimilate this expression very clearly 𝑥 is the degree of loading, cos 𝜃 is
the power factor of the load and output of the transformer at 𝑥 degree of loading should be
written 𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃, where 𝑆 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 So, output kilowatt is
how much rated kVA it is delivering at a power factor of cos 𝜃.

So, efficiency is output divided by output plus losses. Losses got two parts; one is the fixed
𝑃𝐶𝑢
loss 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 it does not depend on 𝑥. I have defined at rated current then if it is
(𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑)
loaded 𝑥 degree of loading. Then copper loss at that degree of loading must be multiplied
1 3
by 𝑥 2 where, 𝑥 may be 2, 4 40% = 0.4 and so on. So, this is the most important formula,

so far as efficiency is concerned and we will discuss further about this expression in my
next lecture.

Thank you.

186
 Electrical Machines - 1
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 20
Efficiency (Contd.)

Welcome to lecture number 20 on Electrical Machines I. And as you know we were

discussing about how to estimate the Efficiency of a transformer.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:40)

And you recall that I assumed the 𝑆 to be the rated KVA of the transformer; and then I
defined a factor degree of loading, I tried to represent by a factor x, which whose value
normally will be 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, 0 corresponds to no load and 1 corresponds to rated condition.
What is rated condition? Rated condition is rated voltage applied and also windings are
carrying rated current ok. Then I explained that there are two main losses in a transformer;
one is the core loss core loss and this I denoted it by 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 and this is independent of 𝑥;
degree of loading that is it is constant, no matter whether no load or full load.

And this 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 this can be obtained; this is also is equal to the wattmeter reading of no load
test, so this value is known. And then I defined the full load copper loss; as I used this
notation I hope 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 . Full load copper loss is a constant theme; at full load current when
the coils are carrying full load current, what is the total copper loss? It is 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 .

187
So, this is constant; then I told you copper loss depends on 𝑥 the degree of loading. And
therefore, copper loss at 𝑥 degree of loading; in terms of this 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 will be simply 𝑥 2 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 .
So, this must be kept in mind while attempting to calculate the efficiency of a transformer.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:53) .

Then efficiency at 𝑥 degree of loading, will be I denote the efficiency by 𝜂𝑥 indicates that
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐾𝑊
at 𝑥 degree of loading. 𝜂𝑥 = ; what is the output kilowatt? At 𝑥 degree of loading,
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐾𝑊

the 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐾𝑊 = 𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃; what is this cos 𝜃? Power factor of the load, that is; this is
the actual practical transformer, this is your load its power factor angle 𝜃. And this is the
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐾𝑊 and 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐾𝑊 = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐾𝑊 + 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠.

What are the two losses? One is the fix loss 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 , plus 𝑥 2 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 . This is the expression for
the efficiency, very important expression.

𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃
𝜂𝑥 =
𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃 + 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 + 𝑥 2 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙

Therefore, I can calculate the efficiency of a transformer at any degree of loading and at a
given power factor of the load because this 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 is known to me from the open circuit
test.

And 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 is also known to me from the short circuit test, because this 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 ; here I write
is the wattmeter reading; reading of short circuit test got the point? Therefore, this is the

188
thing; therefore, I will be able to suppose I want to sketch the efficiency versus degree of
loading, suppose I want to sketch. Here, I will write degree of loading, loading that is 𝑥
and here I will plot the efficiency (𝜂𝑥 ); how efficiency changes, as you change 𝑥.

What is the domain of 𝑥? It can be under no load condition, as I told you 𝑥 = 0 corresponds
to no load, 𝑥 = 1 corresponds to rated condition that is coils are carrying rated current.
Therefore, it looks like the domain of 𝑥 will be from 0 to 1 is not, the value of 𝑥 ok. If you
exceed the value of 𝑥 greater than 1; that means, the transformer is overloaded.
Transformer of course, we will try to see it is not continuously done under overloaded
condition; maybe for a brief period you can overload it by 10% or 20%, then the rated
current the value of 𝑥 then go up.

But any way this point corresponds to full load and this point corresponds to no load ok.
Suppose 𝑥 = 0; let us see how this characteristics is expected to look like, if 𝑥 = 0 that is
no load. So, efficiency; obviously, will be 0 because there is no output power; although
there will be input power. So, 0 by some finite number 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 will give you the efficiency
under no load condition and that is this point, so efficiency is this one; at 𝑥 = 0.

𝑥 = 0 → 𝜂𝑥 = 0

Now let us ask our self ok, suppose you make 𝑥 very large; I want to have some idea how
this efficiency curve changes? Suppose 𝑥 is made very large at least theoretically. I will
not subject the transformer to this high degree of loading, but just let us mathematically
see; what this expression tells me. If 𝑥 tends to very large; ok, on pen and paper let me call
it going to infinity how does it matter? Then what will happen to this efficiency term? See
there is a 𝑥 2 term below; so it will prevail upon all the other 𝑥 terms. Therefore, efficiency
will tend to once again 0, because these terms with respect to 𝑥 2 can be neglected and it
𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃
will be some 𝜂𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑃 .
𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙

So, 𝑥 tends to infinity means efficiency once again zero.

𝑥 → 0, 𝜂𝑥 → 0

So, at a very large value of 𝑥 once again I know efficiency will be 0. But in between,
whatever is the value of 𝑥; this will give you some finite numbers therefore, from 0; if I
increase the value of 𝑥, efficiency is expected to have some finite numbers; it will grow

189
up, but once again it has to come to 0. So, it is expected the; this curve will be something
like this, here is not? It has to be.

Therefore, efficiency will rise then finally, it has come to once again 0, and it is a very
reasonable expression of 𝑥; function of 𝑥 no complications. Therefore, it will be sort of a
smooth curve and I would then expect the efficiency to rise initially and later it will start
decreasing becomes 0.

In other words, what I am telling I would expect that efficiency will have some 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 , at
some degree of loading got the point, so this is the thing. Now then it is natural to ask that
at what degree of loading; efficiency will be maximum is not? That is the question; so this
value of 𝑥 is how much? Such that efficiency will be maximum; I want to know that. So,
to find out at what value of 𝑥, 𝜂𝑥 will be maximum that is what I want to find out, clear?

Mind you, when I am varying 𝑥, I will keep cos 𝜃 constant, load power factor I will not
change; I will keep it a fixed value of cos 𝜃 and only vary 𝑥. So, this here in this expression
I will vary 𝑥; but other things remaining constant 𝑆 is of course, rated k VA, so cos 𝜃 is
kept constant. So, I will vary only 𝑥; to find out that one is pretty simple because I will
just maximize this function ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:57)

So, I will start telling that,

190
 𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃
𝜂𝑥 =
𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃 + 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 + 𝑥 2 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙

And only under the condition, you are varying 𝑥; you want to know at what value of 𝑥 this
efficiency is maximum. What you have to simply do is, you have to calculate this you have
to differentiate this expression with respect to 𝑥 and set it to 0 and get the value of 𝑥.

𝑑𝜂𝑥
=0
𝑑𝑥

But that I will do; I will do in a slightly different way, so as to reduce my mathematical
effort to get this value. What I will do is I will divide both numerator and denominator by
𝑥.

𝑆 cos 𝜃
𝜂𝑥 =
𝑃
𝑆 cos 𝜃 + 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 + 𝑥𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙
𝑥

Now by dividing numerator and denominator by a factor 𝑥, numerator has become

constant. Then I will say 𝜂𝑥 will be maximum, when denominator is minimum. When this
fellow is minimum which therefore, tells me that to have this denominator to be minimum;
I should differentiate this like this and set it to 0.

𝑑 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒
(𝑆 cos 𝜃 + + 𝑥𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 ) = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

So, if you differentiate this will then become

𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒
− + 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 = 0
𝑥2

𝑥 2 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 = 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒

This is one very important result; whether it is minimum or maximum? Ok, you calculate
these double differentiate; you can show this is the point we are looking for. Only thing
you could also differentiate this expression, then in the numerator there is 𝑥 denominator
𝑥, I want to maximize this means you minimize this one; it is a just one line then derivation
that is why I have adopted this you divide by 𝑥.

191
Because, we are looking for some finite values of 𝑥 for which efficiency will be maximum.
And this is the condition; this must be set in now what is this 𝑥 2 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 ? This is a variable
loss, so in other words I will say in language that 𝜂𝑥 will be maximum, will be maximum
when variable loss; in this case the copper loss is equal to the fixed loss, in this case the
core loss got the point; this is the thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:12)

Or I can say that

𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑥=√
𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙

this is the thing very important formula. Therefore, efficiency will be maximum at that
value of 𝑥. Whatever number you get it will give you the degree of loading at which the
efficiency of the transformer will be maximum.

192
(Refer Slide Time: 21:10)

And that is if I go to the next page; as I was telling the efficiency versus degree of loading
curve; it is 0 here, it is here degree of loading is 1, then efficiency curve will be somewhat
like this; it then decreases ok. And this is your 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 and I will write the value of 𝑥 here as
𝑃
𝑥 = √𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 it will give you a number, it is dimensionless 𝑥. Suppose you get this value to
𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙

be equal to 0.7, transformer rated KVA is 10; then I will say that if you operate the
transformer at 7 KVA; efficiency will be maximum; that is the implication of this number.

And I would like to see this number is between 0 to 1, certainly I should not have a number,
where efficiency will occur at say 1.5; suppose are you getting me? Suppose I say that
suppose the 𝑆 is equal to 10 KVA. And suppose you calculate the degree of loading at
maximum efficiency; how do you calculate?

𝑃
You calculate from this 𝑥 = √𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 do I know 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 ? Yes, from the open circuit test. Do
𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙

I know 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 ? Yes, from the short circuit test watt meter reading. Take the ratios, these are
only two numbers with same dimension take under root and it will return you a number. If
suppose say this becomes equal to 0.7 then I will say if the transformer is operated at 0.7 ×
10 = 7𝐾𝑉𝐴, then maximum efficiency will be achieved, so this number this is the
maximum efficiency.

193
So, this axis is efficiency and this is 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 ; this is general 𝜂𝑥 . Of course, I should not forget
to attach another conditions, that I have imposed upon the efficiency expression, what is
that? This curve is true for a fixed power factor angle; cos 𝜃 I assumed constant is not? I
assumed that is why while differentiating cos 𝜃 was kept constant; recall that this cos 𝜃
was assumed to be constant in this whole derivation.

Therefore, I should attach to this curve; a tag saying that ok this curve we have got and
this is for example, say at cos 𝜃 = 0.8; leading or lagging does not matter, no point in
qualifying it further that is cos 𝜃 leading or lagging because output power is 𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃. So,
I must attach another parameter to this curve that this curve has been achieved; when you
kept cos 𝜃 = 0.8. What that does that mean? It means that this is your transformer, actual
transformer when you will do this exercise of loading it. What I am telling is, how keeping
cos 𝜃 constant I can vary the current degree of loading ok, any impedance you know such
that you can vary the current; it is |𝑍|, I will vary keeping 𝜃 constant that is what it means;
you vary |𝑍| that can be done keeping 𝜃 constant.

And then you will get different current as the value of |𝑍| will be different, but 𝜃 remaining
constant. Therefore, this is the curve and I should not forget at what power factor I am
plotting this curve ok. After I get this curve, then I will ask myself; what as an user of this
transformer, I would like to have at what value of 𝑥 efficiency should be maximum is not?

Ok, given a transformer; you do this note down the Watt meter reading from the open
circuit short circuit full load reading, very simple these two test; take this ratio and you
will come to know about this number. But I am asking as an user of the transformer, at
what value of 𝑥 we would like to have maximum efficiency to occur? As an user of the
transformer; at what value of 𝑥 efficiency will be maximum?

Do I have a choice for that, to say I have purchased a transformer let its efficiency occur
should I say at 𝑥 = 0.5 or 𝑥 = 0.8. So, these are the things which we will discuss very
interesting point when you purchase a transformer, you know for what use you will be
using the transformer.

And whoever is the manufacturer of the transformer, I will ask while purchasing the
transformer; look here you design a transformer, whose maximum efficiency should occur
at so much value of 𝑥; certainly it will not be greater than 𝑥 = 1.2 or 𝑥 = 1.5 for

194
continuous running. And this is the point I will discuss in the next class. I hope you have
understood this.

Thank you.

195
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 21
Condition for Maximum Efficiency when Load Power Factor Constant

Welcome to 21st lecture on Electrical Machines - I.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:27)

And we are discussing about how to estimate the efficiency of the transformer and if you
see the previous lecture, this is the end result I have got that efficiency versus degree of
loading. And we found out that efficiency will be occurring at maximum value at certain
value of 𝑥; 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1.

Then finally, I was saying that, if you sketch an efficiency versus degree of loading curve
do not forget to attach at what constant power factor we have plotted this curve. Because
in that derivation I kept cos 𝜃 constant maybe it would be cos 𝜃 = 0.8 if this is constant,
𝑥
vary is the magnitude of 𝑧. Is it not and that is vary 𝑟 and 𝑥 of the load such that ratio
𝑟

remains constant that will ensure the power factor is constant, but anyway this is the curve
we have got for a given power factor constant. Now I am asking you that while purchasing
a transformer should I also tell the manufacturer that design my transformer in such a way
that the value of 𝑥 at which maximum efficiency occurs this is so much number that is this
was the last thing.

196
What is my choice? User’s choice should be what? It depends I told you that how this
transformer is utilized; now the things will be clearer from this.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:55)

Suppose I say I have a transformer say let me take that simple example, I will write it as
10KVA. Let me take a single phase transformer whose rating is 10 KVA and say
200V/100V just so that we play with the numbers to easily understand what I am meaning.

So, single phase transformer 10 KVA, 50 Hz. I told you the moment you know the rated
10000
current always do that. So, will give you the rated current of the high voltage side 50
200

Amp it is and of course, the rated current of the LV side will be twice this amount 100
Amp. Suppose this is the rating of the transformer.

And I have purchased a transformer and I know this transformer I will use at full load
condition for all the time 24 hours a day. Suppose this transformer I will use it,
continuously at full load condition this is LV side this is HV side and this is 100 Amp and
this is 50 Amp, this is the 200V side, this is the 100V. Always sketch something of this
sort to understand what is happening. Suppose I say I have purchased a transformer in
industry I will use it and it will be continuously operating at rated condition. Suppose this
transformer will be operated always at full load condition and that is what is expected, you
have purchased a 10 kVA transformer whose current ratings are 50 Amp, 100 Amp.

197
So, you would like to operate the transformer at full load, not that this transformer you half
load it and continuously done, then you should have purchased a transformer having lesser
KVA rating, but since you have purchased it looks like you will be using it always at full
load condition.

So, suppose this transformer is to be operated always at full load condition, that is always
it will be handling 10 KVA then the question is at what value of 𝑥 I should demand that
the transformer should have maximum efficiency? That is the question naturally I should
ask and the answer to this is very simple. If you know which transformer will be operated
continuously at full load condition, then say at 𝑥 = 1 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 should occur. Is not it?
Therefore, a transformer which will be always operating under full load condition say in
industry 24 hours it will be put to use, then while ordering this transformer say to the
manufacturer that look you design the transformer in such a way that 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 and 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 they
are equal so that 𝑥 will then be equal to 1, is not it?

For example, you remember one of the uses of the transformer is in power system. See
you have generating I will draw a single line diagram to further emphasize this point. A
generator is there in a generating station then what you do that generated voltage is of the
order of say 10 kV or so 50 Hz, here the voltage level is 10 kV.

And suppose its rating is hundreds of megawatt, you want to transmit. Generally
generating stations are located at a far off place from the place where this power will be
actually utilized. The distance between where this power will be utilized and the generating
station may be hundreds of kilometers or more. Therefore, this 100 megawatt of power
should be transmitted over a long distance.

And suppose the generated voltage is the is of the order of 10 kV , but to transmit this large
bulk amount of power over hundreds of kilometers at voltage level of 10 kV is not
economical at all, why? Because whatever currents see approximately this power divided
by voltage gives you the current ok, power factor will be there in ac circuit make it assumed
to be 0.8.

So, this power divided by this voltage gives you some idea of the current that will be
flowing through the transmission line and transmission line over 100 kilometers of length
will have some resistance. And just to transmit the power from generating station to the

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load center, here the load center where this power will be used there will be considerable
amount of power loss in the transmission line.

And you cannot afford so it will become a very inefficient system of transmitting power
bulk amount of power of this order. So, what is done? Here at the generating station itself
there is a transformer first connected generator then this voltage is stepped up. I am
drawing a single line diagram and this voltage is stepped up to a very high voltage may be
200 kV or even in our country we are having 400 kV level voltage.

So, there here is the transformer who does this. In transformer kVA remains same. So,
current in this side will now become less and then you transmit it. But of course, at the
recipient this 200 kV or 400 kV cannot be utilized directly you have to have another
transformer or multiple transformer to step down the voltage, step down. at appropriate
level of voltage so that that power will be utilized.

Now, therefore, this transformer if you look at these are called station transformer power
station transformer. This transformer perhaps will be operating 24 hours a day almost at
full load condition. Therefore, I will demand that this transformer then should have
maximum efficiency occurring at 𝑥 = 1 reasonable demand; because any device you
would always like to operate it at maximum efficiency condition so that losses are
minimized and so on.

Therefore, in such cases 𝑥 = 1 will be a good choice, but also see in a some industry a
transformer is used to step down the voltage to a; step down or step up a voltage to a
particular level. And here in shift duty things will work and a particular transformer will
be always operating at full load condition whatever the load on the secondary of the
transformer is, ok.

Therefore in such cases I will say 𝑥 = 1, but if that be the case and the argument I put
forward earlier that you are purchasing a transformer and you must see that it is always
operating at full load condition. But what happens is this, this is sometimes not in your
hand. I will give you an example.

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(Refer Slide Time: 13:31)

A distribution transformer for example, a distribution transformer is that transformer from

the secondary of which all the households are supplied power; in your house, in my house
ok.

So, what happens is this, the voltage may be at 6.6 kV of a distribution transformer and
this side voltage is 440 volt line to line and this is also line to line voltage. We will discuss
about the connection this at later, but let us try to understand. Now the secondary of these
between R and neutral a group of houses are supplied power from Y phase and neutral
another group of houses or residential buildings are supplied, offices are supplied, B and
neutral another, so that is the another job that is to see that loads are almost balanced.

So, here this thing is 3 terminals come, 4 terminals come out from this side actually. It is
a single line diagram just to emphasize this point; single line diagram. Here R-Y-B and
supply neutral is there. So, loads will be connected between R and n so that the supply
voltage in our houses are 220 volt level, is not? Residence, all the fans, lights they are
designed for 220 volt.

So, it will be there and those will become the load of the distribution transformer on the
secondary side. Now if you see the nature of variation of load on the secondary of such a
transformer that will change over a day I mean it will be a very large changes taking place
all the time. For example, you can easily see the load on the secondary of such a
transformer will be almost 0 during wee hours of the night that is say midnight and behind.

200
Because no lights loads will be there, all people will be taking rest. Maybe some AC, this
that now a days will run, but compared to daytime loading or evening loading where people
come back home, all electrical loads are switched on, this that. So, there will be a huge
fluctuation of load from no load to some peak loads, then some medium degree of loading
that is the value of 𝑥 will go on changing with some time intervals.

But the point is you do not know whether in the midnight the engineers sitting in the
substation will not take decision like this that in the mid time load is less. Therefore, let
me put this primary side off so that no losses take place. No, you cannot do that. You have
committed that you will supply power to every residential complexes at a fixed voltage
and fixed frequency and at all times during emergency situation you have to switch on the
loads in your house.

Therefore primary is to be kept energized all the time whether secondary of this
transformer is loaded or not it is a compulsion, on the part of the company which is selling
electricity to usual consumers, he cannot say that he has; he is duty-bound to keep its
primary of the transformer energized all the time, although he knows that sometimes load
will be very less sometimes load will be very high.

Therefore in such a scenario, that is what do I mean by load changing; 𝑥 is changing and
it is not in my hand, it is in the hands of the consumers. It also depends on the season ok.
During winter that variation of load on the secondary of the transformer will be level of
load will be much less, but nonetheless you will be prepared with primary energized
thinking that some consumer may switch on load at any point of time of the day.

So, this is the thing. Now the question is in such a situation where 𝑥 is in not in my hand
while purchasing the transformer at what value of 𝑥 should I demand that efficiency will
be maximum? Certainly 𝑥 = 1 at full load condition you should not demand that because
you are fully aware that the load on the secondary of the transformer goes on changing;
sometimes very light load condition almost no load, sometimes full load ok, full load will
be there evening peak and so on.

But some other time it is medium degree of loading maybe 𝑥 = 0.3, or 𝑥 = 0.4 transformer
will be operating. Therefore, perhaps if we asking for efficiency to occur maximum at 𝑥 =

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1 that is at full load condition will not be a very judicious demand at the time of ordering
the transformer, may be 𝑥 = 0.6 will be a good thing.

Anyway for a distribution transformer I told this is a typical situation but for a dedicated
transformer used in industry 8 hours shift duty and all the trying the transformer is on and
under full load condition yes, you can very concretely say that I will buy a transformer
with 𝑥 = 1 that is its maximum efficiency must occur at 𝑥 = 1 that is at rated condition.

But here is another extreme example where a distribution transformer secondary supplies
different consumers and the degree of loading on the transformer goes on changing and
goes on changing widely you do not know, but your primary is to be energized. Now to
qualify a therefore, another efficiency is calculated for such transformer where load
fluctuates over 24 hours with primary energized continuously and that energy that
efficiency is called therefore, a distribution transformer is to be judged from not the
ordinary efficiency that I have told you and there is another efficiency called energy
efficiency, 𝜂𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 .

That is better judge a distribution transformer by its energy and it is defined as

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑦 (24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠)

𝜂𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

Therefore, a distribution transformer perhaps efficiency is to be calculated in a different

way. We will discuss about this, this is sometimes also called energy efficiency or this is
called all day efficiency, clear?

We will discuss about this, what this how to calculate energy delivered to the load in 24
hours and input energy over same 24 hours of length. And from this we will try to say
whether this distribution transformer is good or not, that is the idea. But before that one
point about that normal efficiency if you look at this curve and this I will leave as an
exercise to you ok, I will draw like this.

Before I discuss this topic, before this is calculated. Let us go back to power efficiency
expression, once more to highlight another interesting point, ok.

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(Refer Slide Time: 26:03)

So, let us see what is this. We have seen that efficiency curve will be somewhat like this,
it will have a peak and 𝜂𝑥 as you know

𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃
𝜂𝑥 =
𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃 + 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 + 𝑥 2 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙

And I told you you do not forget to attach at what power factor angle this curve has been
drawn may be 0.8 and this is degree of loading 𝑥 and this is efficiency 𝜂.

Now the question I will ask you ok, suppose this is the 𝜂 versus 𝑥 curve at point power
factor 0.8 gladly it does not matter. At a given power factor 0.8 this is the curve and this
is the value of 𝑥, what is that?

𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑥=√
𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙

𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆. 𝐶. 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙

𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑁𝑜 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒

This degree of loading 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 occurs, is it not; for this power factor. Now the question is
suppose I vary the power factor, suppose I do the same exercise what will be the plot? The
plot of 𝜂 versus 𝑥 if cos 𝜃 I change it to say 0.6.

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I can do that once again repeat the exercise, keep cos 𝜃 constant, where this curve will be
will it be above it, will it be below it and things like that; are you getting? Now what I am
telling for a particular power factor this is the nature of the curve. First thing is this one,
where it will be suppose I am not yet very clear about that but about one thing I am clear.

If you repeat the same plot with cos 𝜃 = 0.6, I am sure about one thing; the load at which
the maximum efficiency will occur when cos 𝜃 = 0.6 will once again be this point only.
It is at this point maximum efficiency will occur for all the power factors no matter what
the power factor is. If it is 0.8, it is here. Now I am asking you what will be its value if the
power factor is 0.6; you think about this and we will continue with this.

Thank you.

204
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 22
Family of Efficiency Curve at Various Power Factor and Energy Efficiency

Welcome to lecture 22nd and we were discussing about efficiency of transformers.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:32)

And there are efficiency which is called power efficiency as you know at a degree of
loading 𝑥 is I am writing many a times, so that it really you always remember this. So,

𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃
𝜂𝑥 =
𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃 + 𝑥 2 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 + 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒

And what I saw with this expression of efficiency is this thing that you at a particular
power factor if you sketch it, it will be like this and this is efficiency 𝜂.

And this is the load at which maximum efficiency will occur

𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑥=√
𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙

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And I told you also this is important to note that this curve has been obtained at what fixed
power factor, so tag that 0.8 power factor

Now, the question is power factor of the load may also change. Suppose I repeated the
same exercise I want to get the 𝜂 versus 𝑥 curve for say 0.6 power factor or unity power
factor or 0.2 power factor. All these 𝜂 versus 𝑥 curve will change will it is position will
remain same I am not sure right now. But I am sure about one thing whatever be it is
position the value of 𝑥 at which 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 will occur it only depends on 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 and 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 it will
be here only.

Now, let us see how to then find out what happens, if cos 𝜃 also varies. A how to find out
this that is what this problem can be framed at this way I will frame the problem. This is
your efficiency curve at a given power factor say 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 , what I am going to do is now I
will fix the load on the transformer that is I will see that kVA I want to see the effect of
variation of power factor angle of the load on efficiency that I want to do.

So, to do that what I will do this is my 𝑥 no doubt I will keep this 𝑥 fixed and vary 𝜃. So,
at a given power factor angle suppose at a given 𝑥 this I will now this vertical line I will
keep fix, line fixed means what 𝑥𝑆 this I have fixed I am not now going to vary 𝜃 in this
expression.

Got the point that is what I mean efficiency is now

𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃
𝜂𝑥 =
𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃 + 𝑥 2 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 + 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒

This is the efficiency expression what I am telling now to understand how this curve how
efficiency will vary if you vary 𝜃 what I have done is I will keep this constant at a given
kVA I want to see I will vary power factor at this kVA.

What is this kVA? A fixed value of 𝑥𝑆, 𝑥 is fixed now. And then vary 𝜃 that is what I will
do power factor I will vary and I want to see at a given fixed power factor at a given kVA
then I will be able to tell at what power factor efficiency will be maximum.

𝑑𝜂
Now, this thing that is what I will do next is this expression I will do 𝑑𝜃. In this expression

in this modified problem statement What I am telling 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 is fixed 𝑥 2 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 fixed.

206
Because I am not going to change 𝑥 I will be on this line only fixed, I am not going to vary
𝑥. At a given 𝑥𝑆 kVA the transformer is handling tell me at what power factor efficiency
will be maximum. So, to do this 𝑥𝑆 I will keep fixed that is this line 𝑥 is fixed, and vary 𝜃
other things are fixed 𝑥 being fixed.

Now, So, it will be not very tough if you set

𝑑𝜂
=0
𝑑𝜃

and see that prove that. Show, that not proved, 𝜂 will be maximum, when cos 𝜃 = 1 this
is the thing. You go on vary for a given kVA this is corresponding to say 0.8 power factor.
What this expression will tell you this efficiency will be maximum when cos 𝜃 = 1 that is
at this point it must be above this curve.

Therefore, I can now draw, so this you please try to prove on your own you have to simply
differentiate it and, so that at a given kVA that is what I am telling this is the transformer.
You always pass a given fixed current by varying the load, but in this case I will vary only
cos 𝜃 to change the magnitude of the load. And then I am telling if it is unity power factor
then efficiency at this fix load as you vary 𝜃 power factor efficiency will be maximum
here.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:52)

207
In other words next page I will draw this is quite interesting to note that now I can complete
this 𝜂 versus 𝑥 curves by drawing a family of curves. Suppose this is at cos 𝜃 = 0.8, what
I am telling the curve will be above it and we draw a vertical line here.

This will be corresponding to cos 𝜃 = 1, it will be above cos 𝜃 = 0.8. If cos 𝜃 = 0.6, it
will be this you can draw a family of curve. Now, showing really that is I am now
restricting that cos 𝜃 = 1 now the full picture is clear to me.

𝑃
But nonetheless the that is this thing remains this one 𝑥 = √𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒. And this maximum
𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙

efficiencies are corresponding to different power factors 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 at 0.6 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 at a 0.8 it is this
much. And this is 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 at one unity power factor, so this axis is 𝜂 efficiency.

Now, we come to know oh the transformer will have maximum efficiency possible
efficiency this much at 0.8 power factor if that 0.8 is kept fixed that will give you some
maximum. But you can still operate the transformer at higher efficiency than the load these
provided a load is unity power factor got the point. This is the highest maximum efficiency
possible 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 highest this is an interesting point to note that is at unity power factor.

But nonetheless whatever be the power factor the load at which this maximas will occur
that is fixed. So, this curves a family of curves now bring out the total picture what is going
on in a transformer when you are changing load both power factor and impedance.

So, highest possible efficiency is when you say the load on the secondary of the
transformer is resistive unity power factor. Then only you will get the highest efficiency
for a given power factor if the load power factor is 0.8. It will still give you maximum
efficiency here, but that will be lesser than the maximum efficiency which is still possible
if the impedance is purely resistive that is what I want to tell.

But here is a catch, the catch is the load on the secondary of a transformer will be several
kinds of motors in industry this will supply some motors. Motor means RL there will be
other RL type of load, RL type of load are most common load that is not in my hand you
know.

You must be knowing that the load power factor people try to maintain it at say 0.8 is a
good number ok. You connect RL load this that load, but try to see the power factor is

208
close to unity, but at least 0.8. And if you load power factor is a below that then what
supply authority says that you will be penalized.

Because you will be drawing you are utilising lesser power out of the total kVA you are
for drawing from the lines. Therefore, it is the condition imposed by the supply authority
that you are the user of electricity try to see that load power factor is not below this maybe
0.8 say. And if you are found to draw power for loads which is below 0.8 say 0.6 you will
be charged extra, these are the things which come into to play now

But as I told you unity power factor is not the usual case. So, that is why even if your load
is having low power factor that is why people connect capacitor at the beginning capacitor
at the beginning of your supply. So, that power factor is improved you know those
techniques from your circuit analysis and this that. Therefore, although resistive load will
be a desirable load to be connected across the secondary of a transformer to have always
the highest efficiency.

For any kVA you mind you if you are operating the transformer at this kVA fixed kVA,
then you also you see efficiency will be maximum among these maximas among these
available efficiency at different power factor that will be maximum that is a very good
thing. So, it is an important point to be noted nothing is better than unity power factor load.

At whatever kVA it is discharging you will always get highest this thing highest efficiency
with unity power factor load. And the highest most efficiency will be when the kVA is this
much at this kVA you are operating and the unity power factor load it is. You must think
about this you think yourself what I am telling.

So, that things will these are quite interesting I mean there is some logic in that nothing
out of nothing something is being told to you. So, so this curves then I have drawn a family
of curves with different power factors. Then I told you now I will keep the kVA fixed and
would like to see these are the efficiency which of these will become maximum.

And you have been asked to find it out that at cos 𝜃 = 1 you have to differentiate this
expression by noting that now you will not change kVA only power factor you will change
differentiate it set it to 0 and come to the conclusion that if cos 𝜃 = 1 that efficiency will
be maximum it is very interesting to note, so that is all.

209
(Refer Slide Time: 18:51)

Now, we will come to the as I told you if in a transformer. Suppose here is a transformer
a distribution transformer say, what is going on in a distribution transformer here are loads,
how the loads are connected I am a consumer I will connect my load. All loads are
connected in parallel you know, here is another consumer he will connect load like this.
There is another consumer you connect load like this dot and, so many consumers and
perhaps when all the consumers, because my habit of using electricity will not be matching
yours.

So, I will sometime switch on my load or not at any point of time that may change many
complicated situation. So, far as the loading pattern on the secondary of the transformer is
concerned we really do not know. But what happens is this with large number of
consumers it is found that there is a general type of variation of load on the secondary of
the transformer, when you close these two consumers then current supplied is this plus
this,.

So, load increases as consumers are connecting their loads you understand that. Now, the
question is a in distribution transformer there will be a variation of load pattern over 24
hours. There will be some evening peak, there is some morning peak offices are open
electricity’s are used. In the evening once again as I told you there is a peak load demand,
because most of the users will switch on their lights and fans and what not.

210
So, so, there will be a variation of load. And if there is a variation of load then certainly I
am sure about this point that no point in asking that for this transformer I will demand
power efficiency maximum power efficiency for this transformer should occur at 𝑥 = 1,
because at full load condition this is will be operating at some point of time over certain
time period.

But certainly not for 24 hours that must be understood before I calculate that is why this
type of transformer should be judged their performance should be judged not from the
point of view of power efficiency. But from the point of view of what is called energy
efficiency or called all day efficiency.

And as I told you I wrote last time that eta all day is equal to,

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐾𝑤ℎ) 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑦 (𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠)

𝜂𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑦 =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑓𝑜 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑦 (𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠)

You must be knowing energy is in kilowatt hour, very simple calculation nothing very
complicated ok. Now, so what it is what are the information’s needed to find out the energy
efficiency.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:55)

So, suppose I say that this is the primary mind you a distribution transformer this a primary
is energized for 24 hours 𝑉1 whatever it is the voltage at frequency 𝑓 in distribution

211
transformer. Primary must be kept energized for 24 hours continuously for 24 hours it must
be.

Because you do not know when your consumer wants power that is not known to me I
must be ready at their door steps with the power available. Whether they will use it or not
that is their botheration I do not know. Now, suppose I say I have to do some statistical
observations how the load pattern changes etc, but we will not go to that level of statistical
distribution.

But I will say this much suppose for this distribution transformer this information is
known, what is that information? That is for the first I will make a column time intervals.
Very simple calculation mind you, see that is first 𝑇1 hours.

Suppose day starts after midnight or say 6 AM say, from 6 AM we start counting. See first
𝑇1 hours. Next column degree of loading. I say it is 𝑥1 , because it is not full load always.
So, first 𝑇1 hours interval 𝑥1 is the degree of loading and 𝑆 is the kVA rating. Similarly I
will write another column my power factor of load.

Suppose it is given as cos 𝜃1 . In the same way for the next 𝑇2 hours let the degree of
loading is 𝑥2 and power factor is cos 𝜃2 . Then 𝑇3 , 𝑥3 is the degree of loading and cos 𝜃3
is the power factor.

In this way I will say that the last 𝑇𝑛 hours 𝑥𝑛 is the degree of loading and cos 𝜃𝑛 is the
power factor angle. This

𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3 + ⋯ 𝑇𝑛 = 24ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

over a complete day that I must see. First 6 hours, next 12 hours, next 6 hours such that it
is like this, this will be the thing.

So, what I have to calculate and 𝑆 is the rated kVA, so energy output over 24 hours I have
to calculate. Next, what I do is the copper loss, in the next column, in the first 𝑇1 hours
degree of loading is 𝑥1 . So, what is the copper loss? It is 𝑥12 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 , what is the copper loss
during 𝑇2 ? 𝑥22 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 , next is 𝑥32 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 . In this way this is 𝑥𝑛2 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 , where 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 is constant.

At full load condition what is the copper loss, which I get from short circuit test data. So,
this is the copper loss at various time intervals taking place, what is core loss? Core loss

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as you know is independent of the degree of loading. So, it will remain 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 all the time
no matter whether 𝑥 = 0, or 𝑥 = 1 or 𝑥 = 0.8 no.

So, it is always 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 fixed, got the point. These informations you need.

Time Intervals Degree of Power Factor Copper Loss Core Loss

(Hours) Loading of Load

𝑇1 𝑥1 cos 𝜃1 𝑥12 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒

𝑇2 𝑥2 cos 𝜃2 𝑥22 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒

𝑇3 𝑥3 cos 𝜃3 𝑥32 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒

⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯

⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯

⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯

𝑇𝑛 𝑥𝑛 cos 𝜃𝑛 𝑥𝑛2 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒

Then you can straight away write down I will write it here 𝜂𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 as equal to
what I told I must write energy output over 24 hours. What is the output energy in the first
𝑇1 hours, what is the kilowatt output? It will be 𝑥1 𝑆 cos 𝜃1 𝑇1 . In the first 𝑇1 hours, so much
kilowatt hour. next 𝑇2 hours, what is the energy output 𝑥2 𝑆 cos 𝜃2 𝑇2 .

In this way you go on adding and finally, you add to this 𝑥𝑛 𝑆 cos 𝜃𝑛 𝑇𝑛 , so over 24 hours
this is the energy output what is the unit kilowatt hour.

𝑥1 𝑆 cos 𝜃1 𝑇1 + 𝑥2 𝑆 cos 𝜃2 𝑇2 + 𝑥3 𝑆 cos 𝜃3 𝑇3+⋯ 𝑥𝑛 𝑆 cos 𝜃𝑛 𝑇𝑛

This is the output energy.

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So, this bracketed term I am not rewriting this numerator this thing this is the energy output
that is this thing here plus the losses energy losses. Now, the question is what will be the
energy losses? See of which you see the core loss remains constant all the time it does not
depend on degree of loading.

So, it will be 24 × 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 . How this 24 comes? In fact, 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3 + ⋯ 𝑇𝑛 = 24ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

So, core loss will always take place in the distribution transformer plus the copper losses.
Copper losses energy dissipated will be how much? I will write it in different colour it will
be

𝑥12 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 𝑇1 + 𝑥22 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 𝑇2 + 𝑥32 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 𝑇3 + ⋯ 𝑥𝑛2 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 𝑇𝑛

So, this divided by this will give you the energy efficiency or all day efficiency of the
transformer.

𝜂 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

(𝑥1 𝑆 cos 𝜃1 𝑇1 + 𝑥2 𝑆 cos 𝜃2 𝑇2 + 𝑥3 𝑆 cos 𝜃3 𝑇3+⋯ 𝑥𝑛 𝑆 cos 𝜃𝑛 𝑇𝑛 )

=
( ) + 24 × 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 + (𝑥12 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 𝑇1 + 𝑥22 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 𝑇2 + 𝑥32 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 𝑇3 + ⋯ 𝑥𝑛2 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 𝑇𝑛 )

And it is based on this number that is while purchasing a distribution transformer you
should rather tell the manufacturer this is my degree of full loading pattern on the
secondary of the transformer will be and I would like to have energy efficiency of this
much. Rather than, so your transformer has a specific rating here 𝑆 kVA is the rated kVA
fixed voltage ratings are there.

But you will say I do not like to have the maximum efficiency to occur at rated condition,
knowing fully well that the load on the secondary of the transformer is not in my hand it
is going to change over time. And after doing some statistical observations I have seen on
an average first 𝑇1 hours so much demand of power degree of loading is 𝑥1 then degree of
loading 𝑥2 then. And power factors of the expected load on the secondary of the
transformer at that time will be cos 𝜃1 for the first 𝑇1 hours and so on.

And as degree of loading changes copper loss in terms of rated 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 will go on changing
and I know how to calculate that I will calculate, core loss remains same. Only thing
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐾𝑊 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐾𝑤ℎ
instead of it is . What is the 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐾𝑤ℎ? This bracketed term once
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐾𝑊 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐾𝑤ℎ

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again I have not repeat it, it is this one numerator plus core loss remains same. So, watt in
to hour 24 hour plus this, mind you 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3 + ⋯ 𝑇𝑛 = 24ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠.

Thank you we will continue with this next time.

215
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 23
Load Description and Energy Efficiency

Welcome to lecture number 23. And as you know, we were discussing about how to
estimate the efficiency of transformers, power transformers and we found that the normal
efficiency, we usually use power efficiency. And we found that efficiency at any degree
of loading is like this;
𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃
𝜂𝑥 =
𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃 + 𝑥 2 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 + 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒

(Refer Slide Time: 00:44)

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝐾𝑊)

This is called power efficiency; and we found that efficiency curve will
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝐾𝑊)

be like this, this is some efficiency curve and I must attach to each curve the power factor,
cos 𝜃 is equal to say 0.8 and I showed last time that for a given kVA this axis is 𝑥 degree
of loading and this is your efficiency and this is the value of 𝑥 at which maximum
efficiency occurs

𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑥=√
𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙

216
And if you repeat the same thing for other power factors, these curves will be some this
may be power factor cos 𝜃 = 1 and lower power factor it maybe cos 𝜃 = 0.6 no point in
attaching, leading or lagging. Efficiency will remain same and the maximum efficiency
points of course, will lie always at this, this we have discussed.

And therefore, highest efficiency of a transformer will be occurring, when the secondary
impedance or load connected is at unity power factor and the value of 𝑥 is this number. At
𝑥𝑆 kVA maximum efficiency will occur. Then we told you that the importance of energy
efficiency, particularly with respect to distribution transformer, where the load on the
secondary of the transformer will change as day progresses. For some interval of time it
will be operating at degree of loading of 𝑥1 , power factor cos 𝜃1 for a duration of time, 𝑇1
and we found the and that efficiency is called all day efficiency or energy efficiency.

And we found that this is, will be equal to the x i S i in a short form now, I am writing,
because cos theta i, where i is equal to say 1 to N and the output so, this is into T i. So, you
understand this and this one will be same thing here that is x i S i cos theta i, output energy
this is energy. T i is the interval of time summed over i and plus the copper loss, which
depends on the x should be equal to x i square P cu full load into T i. This is a energy loss,
because of copper loss and plus 24 into P core that is all, because core loss remains
constant.

∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 𝑆𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑖 𝑇𝑖
𝜂 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 𝑛
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 ∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 𝑆𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑖 𝑇𝑖 + ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖2 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 𝑇𝑖 + 24𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒

So, this is summed over some 𝑛 interval such that

𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3 + ⋯ 𝑇𝑛 = 24ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

Anyway this complicated way, it can be I mean in a compact form it can be written, we
have discussed all these things. Therefore, to judge whether, the transformer is good or not
particularly, a distribution transformer, it is better you calculate all day or energy efficiency
and see that that is quite high, that is how it is decided.

Before we proceed to discuss about regulation, only one thing I will tell see the a loading
of a transformer I told you how loading is specified. I told you, if the rated kVA is 𝑆 kVA

217
then 𝑥 is the degree of loading degree of loading and this value is 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, 1 corresponds
to full load and so on.

0 corresponds to no load therefore, transformer is delivering a KVA of I have assumed

here delivering KVA is equal to 𝑥𝑆, if it is at power factor cos 𝜃 then I say output kilowatt,
that was the essence of calculating that thing output in kilowatt. If 𝑆 in kVA output kilowatt
is 𝑥𝑆 cos 𝜃, cos 𝜃 is the load power factor, this we have discussed.

Now, sometimes load that is in other words what I am telling, the load on the secondary
of a transformer is not, although I am drawing like this practical transformer, I was telling
you to make you understand ok; there is some effective impedance connected this 𝑍2
maybe, because of some parallel loads. Anyway, in terms of 𝑍2 I told, but this load
connected across the secondary therefore, is not really explicitly mentioned in terms of a
complex impedance ok. If it is effectively, it will be some complex impedance.

In other words one way of a specifying this load indirectly is that you specify what is the
kVA of the load and power factor as a here I have done or it could be one way of specifying
load in terms of kVA and power factor, another way to specify load in terms of kilowatt
and power factor, are you getting; that is load is 100 kilowatt 0.8 power factor lagging.
You have fully describe the load and voltage is this voltage out of these and voltage is of
course rated voltage like that of that side where you are connecting, rated voltage of this
side where load is connected.

Therefore, say 𝑉2 therefore, kVA power factor and 𝑉2, from this I will be able to calculate
what is 𝑍2 effective, but generally kVA power factor and the voltage at which the kVA is
delivered will be specified. Similarly, it will be kilowatt power factor and 𝑉2. So, if it is
KVA, power factor and 𝑉2 for example, then this value of 𝑥 why I am telling this, how to
calculate the value of a degree of loading.

If you know the rated KV of the transformer and kVA it is handling at a particular interval
of time, take the ratio get the value of 𝑥. However, there is a student sometimes make
mistake, if the load is specified in terms of kilowatt, power factor and 𝑉2 to calculate 𝑥
mind you must bring it to KVA that change we have to do. If kilowatt is given; so, 𝐾𝑉𝐴 =

218
 𝐾𝑊
, you calculate then the corresponding 𝑥 at which the transformer is operating
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐾𝑊
( )
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
is this 𝑥 = this kilowatt by power factor divided by rated kVA.
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐾𝑉𝐴

This is the value of, this you remember and there are very nice problems given in a book
which is so popular you know Parker Smith’s book problems on electrical engineering
very famous book and very nice problems are there.

The beauty of this book is in each problem, if you solve open circuit, short circuit test,
efficiency calculations, you will learn something new. So, please solve as many problems
as you can from that book apart from the fact that we will provide you some tutorial
problems, whenever it will be required, but this is the thing. So, you must remember this
load is not specified in terms of explicit value of 𝑍2 .

How it will be specified? I will say a load consumed so much kVA at this much power
factor at this much voltage. Therefore, from this I will be able to calculate 𝑍2 , but I will
not do that, because to calculate efficiency, I do not require 𝑍2 in terms of kVA and power
factor and degree of loading this 𝑥 is to be known. However, from kVA whatever kVA
here, it is operating what is the value of 𝑥, if the load is specified? It will be simply this
𝐾𝑉𝐴
𝑥 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐾𝑉𝐴, that will be your 𝑥 here.

For this load, if load is specified in terms of kilowatt, power factor and 𝑉2 then 𝐾𝑉𝐴 =
𝐾𝑊 𝐾𝑉𝐴
and then 𝑥 corresponding to this load will be 𝑥 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐾𝑉𝐴, but I will insist
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

that better do not memorize this formula, never do it. Each time if the load is totally
described over the 24 hours, for 𝑇1 hours, it is 𝑥1 degree of loading, 𝑇2 hours 𝑥2 degree of
loading.

So, my target will be to calculate 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 depending upon the load, it is handling at

different intervals of time and I hope you have understood how to calculate that degree of
loading and use it here, this is energy efficiency kilowatt hour on the top divided by
kilowatt hour on the down. Core loss remains constant and finally, once again repeating
that what is this 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 , when the windings will carry rated current what is the power loss
that you will get it from your short circuit test.

219
What is 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 ? 𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 is the reading of the wattmeter under no load test. So, with that
comments we conclude this part of this lecture that is the efficiency; how to calculate,
estimate, this that. Now, what I will do is, I will try to calculate another important thing
that is called regulation of a transformer.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:39)

So, next topic is regulation. We know that the transformer has got internal impedance.
These are practical transformer that is the winding has resistance, there will be leakage
flux, 𝑟1, 𝑥1 magnetizing impedance all things will be there.

Now, what do I mean by regulation? Suppose, you apply the rated voltage at rated
frequency, always apply rated frequency and note down this voltage with no load
connected with 𝑆 open suppose, I what I am telling is what is regulation of a practical
transformer and suppose, I am, I want to find it out in the laboratory what does that really
mean that is what I am telling.

What you do? You apply rated voltage at rated frequency in practice ok, in lab. We have
energized with rated voltage and frequency with S open, measure this voltmeter reading,
you connect a voltmeter here. With S open this voltmeter reading whatever you will get I
call it 𝑉20.

Note down this reading, is equal to reading of voltmeter. Note down this reading
magnitude of what is this voltage voltmeter reading across the secondary here, is the

220
voltmeter connected. Then connect a particular load; for a particular load that is 𝑍2 or in
terms of kVA, kilowatt power factor, etc in whichever way it is specified connect that load
close S and measure once again the terminal voltage.

Reading of voltmeter, close S, 𝑉2 is the reading of voltmeter with S closed, what do you
think will there be a difference in the readings of the voltmeter because I have not done
any mathematics to get some expression for regulation nothing I have done, I have
connected a load in the laboratory, applied a fixed voltage, rated voltage at rated frequency.

What I have done is with S open I have noted this voltmeter reading with S closed same,
voltmeter reading I have noted with load connected and will there be a difference; it is
expected to be, because of the fact it is a practical transformer. Therefore, there will be
voltage drop in the series impedances in the model of the equivalent circuit of the
transformer.

That is in 𝑟𝑒1 and 𝑥𝑒1 there will be a voltage drop and hence, it is expected there will be a
change in the difference in the magnitude of this voltage. So, what you do you calculate
this change and divided by the open circuit voltage, with respect to that how much voltage,
the change in voltage how much it is and you get regulation, this is in per unit. So, multiply
it with 100 get regulation percentage regulation, this is the thing.

|𝑉20 | − |𝑉2 |
%ℛ = × 100
|𝑉20 |

So, in a practical setup, you can easily calculate regulation easily we will see, but this is
what you have to do imagine at least you can do this; apply rated voltage rated frequency.
Generally, regulation is to be calculated with the rated current it is handling rated kVA and
load should be very clearly specified. So, I will say this is the value of the regulation at, I
must add to it at the when the load is 𝑍2 I mean let me write like that. When load is 𝑍2 at
a given load, because if you change 𝑍2 itself it might give you some other value the change
in dropping voltage may give you other values, we will see that.

So, for a given load you can calculate regulation of the transformer. Regulation is best
understood what exactly it means is suppose, you have a battery what I am telling you
have a battery, you have its internal resistance 1Ω and suppose a source of dc voltage.

221
Suppose, this voltage is 10 volt and its internal resistance is 1Ω suppose internal and these
are the terminals of the battery.

And suppose, the rated current, the battery can supply is 5 ampere equal to rated current
of the battery, but so, this is the rated current of the battery I know. So, I have connected
the switch I will connect here a load. What should be the value of this resistance, because
the battery can supply and you connect a voltmeter here. With S open the reading of the
voltmeter will be 10 volt, it is open circuit.

So, regulation is this 10 volt open circuit voltage minus when you close the switch. Now,
how much resistance can I connect so that current will be rated current, at rated current,
because battery can supply rated current I will be always trying to draw rated current that
is what I told. So, so 10 by another 1Ω suppose, load resistance is 1Ω it is a bad way.
Anyway, whatever number I have taken let us stick to that.

So, what will be this resistance 1Ω. So, when the battery will supply rated current with S
closed the current in the circuit will be how much; 5 ampere, is not? 5 ampere will be the
current and what will be your output voltage; 10 minus this drop that is another 5 volt here.
Therefore, with S closed this voltage will be 5 and divided by 10 and I will say regulation
is 50 %, are you getting?

10 − 5
%ℛ = × 100 = 50%
10

This is into 100 and I will say oh, this is a very bad source. You thought you will supply
your load with rated voltage, is not; but at the moment you connect load the voltage drops
from 10 volt to 5 volt, it is not a good source. A good source will be perhaps oh sorry, you
take another battery.

Suppose, there is another battery which has got internal resistance say a 0.1Ω are you
getting and here, I will connect load, same battery can supply 5 ampere current, internal
resistance is small then what will be the voltmeter reading here. With S open same 10 volt,
with S closed and here how much resistance should I connect so that it will be 1.9Ω.

If you connect, you close it. So, once again you are supplying 5 ampere to the load but the
voltage drop here it will be now 0.5 volt. Therefore, output voltage available will be 10.
So, with load connected this voltmeter reading will be, 9.5 volt. So,

222
 10 − 9.5
%ℛ = × 100 = 5%
10

Therefore, you have connected you have purchased a source to supply load and whatever
this your source is capable of delivering current that you will draw and you would like to
see across the load almost this open circuit voltage comes.

So, this source is better than this source, are you getting? Therefore, regulation value unlike
efficiency it should be as small as possible. For example, if it is an ideal battery nothing is
better than that so far regulation is concerned. If it is an ideal battery no internal impedance
then you can whether you connect load or not this voltage will be 10V always.

So, regulation is 0. We will address to this problem whether it is better to have a source
having zero internal impedance or not, that is the another thing to be discussed but it looks
like that from no load to full load if at all a change takes place in the magnitude of the
voltage across the load that should be small. So, that it can maintain voltage there.

So, in this case of transformer it is nothing but the load sees what load will see; load will
see a series impedance and there is a source of voltage here. Therefore, there will be
voltage drop in equivalent resistance and leakage reactance of the transformer and
therefore, the magnitude of the voltage available across the load from open circuit to that
loaded condition is bound to change and that change we would expect will be less. Now,
we will go to find out an approximate expression of regulation. So, we will continue with
this.

Thank you.

223
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 24
Regulation: Its Expression

(Refer Slide Time: 00:20)

Welcome to lecture 24 and we were discussing about Regulation and goal of this lecture
will be to obtain an approximate expression for regulation of a transformer.

I will do this before that it is now timed as slightly I will review the equivalent circuit, how
we are drawing this way that way with respect to primary side, secondary side. So, it is
like this; reviewing quickly, I mean no, quickly the equivalent circuit and approximate
equivalent circuit. See this was my transformer, here were my coils primary, secondary;
this is the practical transformer, these are the terminals available to me.

Then and here will be some impedance connected across the secondary 𝑍2 . Now this can
be taught in various ways one way is here is your 𝑉1 some deeper look into this equivalent
circuit, so that it will enhance your understanding I hope. So, what I told there will be 𝑟1,
𝑥1 I can show it like this and then here there will be end 𝐸1 .

Because this ideal transformer part is this one and parallel branch is here, that I am not
drawing as you can easily see that parallel branch will not come in the expression of the
regulation. In other words what I am telling why it is approximate we will neglect the no

224
load current. Because no load current which comprises of core loss component of current
and magnetizing current is only about 5% of the rated current and drop because of that in
𝑟1 𝑥1 or 𝑟2 𝑥2 they are very small.

So, this is the thing and this is 𝐸1 a source of EMF this becomes a source of EMF as there
is a time varying flux polarity I know this is my 𝑉1. And secondary side it is like this, there
is it becomes a source of EMF this is plus minus that is the dot so fine. And here was your
𝑟2 𝑥2 and here is your load. This is the ideal transformer primary this is the ideal
transformer secondary, no load and magnetizing I have neglected so, this is like this.

Now interesting thing is this one because this portion is ideal; you can view it, I will better
tell you one of them only you adopt. What I am trying to tell, this is same as this thing oh
sorry this is load, that is if you wish you show no impedance on the secondary side this
you punch here. I mean push it here on the primary side this plus minus and this circuit
and this circuit will be identical no problem if you solve it this is equivalent to this.

Or this thing can be also thought of although space is less, but I will draw it here this way
you can also think it; you show 𝑉1 here. It means that you are assuming secondary coils
have no leakage flux and resistance all resistance and leakage fluxes are there on the
primary side many ways of looking at things. This one could also be drawn like this, you
can show all the impedance on the other side that is here it is 𝑉1 here only you show 𝐸1
you pretend this is your 𝐸1 this part your ideal. And here is another source 𝐸2 plus minus
and here you do not neglect 𝑟1, 𝑥1 but push it here.

𝑟 𝑥
It will be 𝑎12 , 𝑎12 and then 𝑟2 , 𝑥2 do not disturb and then 𝑍2 this is also correct and finally,

this thing if you have drawn referred to this side, I think you have got this idea this is one
block also this 𝑍2 can be this circuit this is the circuit we will look at. This circuit can be
shown to be let me use different color and I will show it 𝑉1. And here 𝑟𝑒1 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2′ , then
sorry 𝑥𝑒1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2′ and here I will forget about this ideal part and connect 𝑎2 𝑍2 .

In fact, I could draw it straight away because we have come up to this only thing
magnetizing branch, I am as we will see it can be because so this is the equivalent circuit
finally, I will be using one of them you use always use this one. I will I am just requesting
you it does not mean that you cannot have other options either this or that. Similarly this

225
one means what? And you will show here it is 𝑉2′ . Here similarly this part will be shown
𝑟 𝑥
as this can be here I have shown it can be shown as 𝑟𝑒2 = 𝑟2 + 𝑎12, and 𝑥𝑒2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑎12 .

And then you say that ok, this is the thing and here you say 𝑍2 but here you write

𝐸1 𝑁1
=
𝐸2 𝑁2

that is strictly. So, it is 𝑉1′ , so this is the equivalent circuit referred to load side, secondary
side and it is the equivalent circuit refer to primary side ok. So, either of this or you can
leave with these, but this is somewhat complicated because complicated in the sense
computationally it is difficult. You first know, this is your 𝑉2 this is whatever current it is
delivering things like that anyway you know how to handle it.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:14)

So, now, coming to the expression for regulation. So, I will refer to equivalent circuit refer
to primary side is this one. Primary side this will be simply this 𝑟𝑒2 and 𝑥𝑒2 . And here is
your load reflected load, 𝑎2 𝑍2 and here is your 𝑉1 and the voltage here I must write 𝑉2′ is
not and we have defined the regulation as magnitude of secondary voltage that is where I
wrote

|𝑉20 | − |𝑉2 |
%ℛ = × 100
|𝑉20 |

226
That was the regulation and all quantities here were with respect to the secondary side
what was this? Here was the transformer here I am measuring all the voltages.

Oh sorry that is it will be 𝑟𝑒1 and 𝑥𝑒1 , thank you. Now come to this, this is the load side,
now what I do; I multiply both the sides numerator and denominator by turns ratio

𝑁1
𝑎=
𝑁2

|𝑉20 | − |𝑉2 |
ℛ=
|𝑉20 |
𝑎|𝑉20 | − 𝑎|𝑉2 |
=
𝑎|𝑉20|
′ |
|𝑉20 − |𝑉2′ |
= ′ |
|𝑉20

This will be the thing with load disconnected; with load disconnected this is open. So, what
will be this voltage whatever will come here this voltage with nothing connected is 𝑉20;
that voltage will be simply this voltage reflected.

Student: (Refer Time: 15:12).

This will be the thing got the point, where 𝑉2′ is the reflected terminal voltage when it
supply some load current 𝐼2′ . Some people will also draw the approximate equivalent
circuit means this it is there.

But this drop as you can see it only depends on 𝐼2′ . So, 𝐼0 I can be neglected in this
approximate equivalent circuit. So, this is the thing you have to calculate. Now how can I
calculate? I will first draw the phasor diagram of this circuit. So, the phasor diagram is
very simple, I will start from here, the terminal voltage across the load is 𝑉2′ . I will draw,
then I will draw the current suppose it is supplying some current 𝐼2′ , load power factor
angle is 𝜃, load power factor angle does not change if you multiply 𝑍2 with 𝑎2 ; 𝑎 is a
scalar number.

′ ′
So, it is like this; then you can easily see 𝑉20 is what? 𝑉20 ; that means, with this switch
′
open in this equivalent circuit also when this is open 𝑉20 = 𝑉1 this voltage will come here
as there will be no current. I think this point must be understood. So, to this 𝑉2′ if I add

227
these two drops, which I am drawing on a larger scale so that we understand what we are
doing into 𝐼2′ (𝑟𝑒1 + 𝑗𝑥𝑒1 ) and you must understand it is not drawn to scale if this is 𝑉2′ how
this can be, but there will be some geometrical thing I have to show that is why I am
drawing in a larger scale.

′
So, and this will be how much? This is 𝑉1 and this 𝑉1 = 𝑉20 you must understand this
point. So, this angle is 𝜃 therefore, this regulation means

|𝑉1 | − |𝑉2′ |
ℛ=
|𝑉1 |

Therefore I will say suppose I name these various points like this is suppose O; let this
point be A this point will be B very simple calculation C; it is like this ok. Then |𝑉1 | =
𝑂𝐶, this length |𝑉2′ | = 𝑂𝐴. Now I am writing

𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐴
ℛ=
𝑂𝐶

this will be regulation; clear?

So, it will be like this ok, in this page let me let it be a bit dirty but you will be continuing
without any disruption that these I have to find out. Now the argument you listen. The
argument is this drops this and this both these drops are much smaller compared to these
lengths; you must understand. Because it is a well designed transformer 𝑟𝑒1 and 𝑥𝑒1 are
smaller much smaller compared to whom? Compared to these voltages, compared to 𝑉1 or
𝑉2′ ; do not forget to attach these.

These are quite small although I have drawn very large here so that some geometrical
concept I will apply. That is, in other words what I am telling it will be something like this
if I draw it to this scale maybe it will look like if this is your 𝑉2′ , it will be like this; are you
getting? This is where I am making this. So, these lengths are really small compared to
these lengths. So, you have got the idea it will be like this.

Now rest of the thing is pretty simple therefore, if these two lengths are small this angle,
suppose I call this angle to be 𝛿 compared to 𝑉1 or 𝑉2 then 𝛿 will be also small. That is, as
I was telling it is 𝑉2′ I wipe that out but it is like this. If this be the case then this 𝛿 will be
pretty small because we have added only small small thing here and there. So, 𝛿 is small.

228
So, keeping this in mind is it possible then to get the difference between OC and OA; OC
and OA this difference. So, I will now go to next page and start with this phasor diagram
rather neatly it requires like this.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:50)

So, what you do? This is your 𝑉2′ , this is your suppose it is supplying a lagging power
factor load 𝐼2′ , this is theta load power factor and the here are once again I will draw larger,
so that, so this is suppose 𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 and then 90 degree here and this is suppose 𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1; and this
length is your 𝑉1 and this angle is 𝛿 and I named it as if I remember correctly OC, OA, B.

Now knowing fully well, that 𝛿 will be small for a well designed transformer. Then and
this one I have got

𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐴
ℛ=
𝑂𝐶

Now by using geometry I will try to find out this length minus this length.

Now, since 𝛿 is small, if you drop a perpendicular on this extended line here, drop a
perpendicular. And also drop a perpendicular from this side to this side ok. Suppose this I
call point M since 𝛿 is small, then I can say that 𝑂𝐶 ≈ 𝑂𝑀; is not? This length will be
approximately equal to this length because 𝛿 is small. You know, if the angle is small this
arc is this one if it is a radius of a these two lengths are almost equal 𝑟𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑠.

229
Therefore, I can say that

(𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐴) ≈ (𝑂𝑀 − 𝑂𝐴) = 𝐴𝑀

So, numerator is this length, so this one is approximately equal to

𝐴𝑀
ℛ=
𝑂𝐶

Now the question is what will be the value of M? Pretty simple, you know this angle is 𝜃,
this angle is 𝜃 because 𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1; angle between two straight lines is same as angle between
their perpendiculars. This line is perpendicular to this and this line is perpendicular to this,
so this too will be 𝜃.

Therefore, if you drop a perpendicular from point B to N then, now AM can be written as,

𝐴𝑀 = 𝐴𝑁 + 𝑁𝑀

so in the small right angle triangles. So, it will be simply 𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 cos 𝜃 plus NM, NM will be
same as this length B say Q; 𝑁𝑀 = 𝐵𝑄 it is a rectangle. Therefore, this will be BQ and
BQ from this right angle triangle is this one 𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1 sin 𝜃.

So, this will be

𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 cos 𝜃 + 𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1 sin 𝜃

ℛ≈
𝑉1

Now I have converted it to once again voltage thing, so 𝑉1 I can now invoke upon. So,
regulation is now approximately equal to why I am telling approximate? Because I have
used this approximation 𝛿 is small and so on. So, regulation is approximately equal to this.

And this is the expression we are looking for now what is the use of this expression?
Because regulation is so simple otherwise when even without doing mathematics as I was
telling just energize it with rated voltage frequency in the lab and then connect the load,
measured with this switch open what is the voltmeter reading close this switch with this
load present, take the difference of these two voltmeter readings divided by the open circuit
voltage will give you regulation.

230
Then why I have found out an expression; this is because of the fact the rating of the
transformer maybe very large maybe 100 KVA transformer whose current rating is maybe
100 Amp. So, 100 KVA load you will be requiring in the lab to find out the regulation at
full load that is a 0.8 power factor that is not available for example, a distribution
transformer which is 200 KVA and it caters power to various consumers I mean totaling
200 KVA can you imagine that load in your lab, no.

Therefore, you do simple test open; circuit short circuit test, get these values and on pen
and paper you calculate this. You ask that oh what load you have connected; it is delivering
rated current at what power factor, 0.8 power factor lagging. Then on pen and paper
calculate regulation into 100 if you want to get percentage regulation.

𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 cos 𝜃 + 𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1 sin 𝜃

%ℛ ≈ × 100
𝑉1

So, you are predicting a regulation without actually loading the transformer that must be
understood ok; because open circuit short circuit test are very simple test; I will carry them
out, find out these values then tell me any load current the transformer is delivering of
course, up to rated current and at what power factor you give me these two information
and I will be able to give you the value of regulation how much voltage will drop; we will
continue with this.

Thank you.

231
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 25
Regulation: Its Expression (Contd.)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:17)

Welcome to lecture 25 on Electrical Machines - I, we are discussing regulation and in our

last class we found out an approximate, but very useful expression for regulation.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:38)

232
And it was like this that finally, this is the thing that regulation will be

𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 cos 𝜃 + 𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1 sin 𝜃

%ℛ ≈ × 100
|𝑉1 |

Mind you, this is an algebraic equation ok. And if you neglect 𝐼0 you can say this is

𝐼1 𝑟𝑒1 cos 𝜃 + 𝐼1 𝑥𝑒1 sin 𝜃

%ℛ ≈ × 100
|𝑉1 |

Very neat formula approximately equal to and I told you that determination of regulation
by actual loading the transformer is almost an impossibility because of the fact that if the
rating of the transformer is very large kVA, large voltage ratings.

To get that value of load in the laboratory is out of question. Therefore, these expressions
comes very handy and it is often used very widely used formula. So, this is the
approximate, what are each term?

𝐼2′ ≈ 𝐼1

because you can neglect no load current, 𝐼0 . Recall that

𝐼1 = 𝐼0 + 𝐼2′

So, this if you neglect this is 𝐼0 , 𝑟𝑒1 is equivalent resistance of the coils referred to primary
side. So, this expression I have found out with referred to primary side, 𝑥𝑒1 is equal to
equivalent leakage reactants of primary side

𝑟𝑒1 = 𝑟1 + 𝑎2 𝑟2

𝑥𝑒1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2

So, this is the expression and what is cos 𝜃? cos 𝜃 is equal to power factor of the load.
Mind you, I have found out this expression for a lagging power factor load. Similarly, I
could find out the expression of the power factor for a leading power factor load.

In that case, what it would; what would happen? That is I will draw 𝑉2′ and load power
factor is suppose; leading it is like this 𝐼2′ then 𝑉2′ dashed plus 𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒2 will be like this which
is small, I am drawing in a larger scale plus this is 𝑗𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒2 and this would have been your

233
𝑉1, is not; and what I am telling this angle is small like this it will come, it will be very
small that is 𝑉2′ then this, then this.

This is 𝑉1 this is the actual thing it will be, but in a larger scale so that I understand every
component and 𝛿 is small same argument and once again you can approximate it, you can
derive this expression and what is 𝜃? Theta is this angle load power factor angle of 𝑉2′ and
if you do the same exercise regulation expression will then be equal to

𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 cos 𝜃 − 𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1 sin 𝜃

ℛ≈
|𝑉1 |

This I leave it as an exercise.

Mind you, these expressions are algebraic expressions; note this is algebraic expression no
phasor, algebraic equation. Similar is this one algebraic equation here no phasor, 𝐼2′ is only
number it is the magnitude, 𝑟𝑒1 is number; no 𝑗 etcetera. Therefore, it will be like this.

So, for leading power factor, this is the expression, this for lagging power factor and this
is for leading power factor and combining these two you can say that regulation is it would
same thing I am writing

𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 cos 𝜃 ± 𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1 sin 𝜃

ℛ≈
|𝑉1 |

This is worth remembering and easy to remember. Plus sign for lagging power factor load
and minus sign for leading power factor load.

Ok, what this regulation actually means? 𝑉1 is constant primary voltage it means change
in secondary terminal voltage, expressed as a percentage of rated voltage. Numerator gives
you change in magnitude of voltage divided by denominator which gives you rated
voltage, that is the regulation is and all these expression after I get this, I will be able to
transform it with respect to the secondary side as well if I please. For example, I will say
that I mean these I am just pointing out it will only take some time, but you must be
understanding this one.

234
(Refer Slide Time: 08:04)

𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 cos 𝜃 ± 𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1 sin 𝜃

ℛ≈
|𝑉1 |

This is equal to refer to primary side. Everything could be written in terms of secondary
side ok, how it can be written? Because of the fact,

𝐼2
𝐼2′ =
𝑎

𝑟𝑒1 = 𝑎2 𝑟𝑒2

𝑥𝑒1 = 𝑎2 𝑥𝑒2

Power factor does not change.

𝐼2 𝐼
𝑎2 𝑟𝑒2 cos 𝜃 ± 𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑥𝑒2 sin 𝜃
𝑎
ℛ≈
|𝑉1 |

Now these a goes one 𝑎.

So, I will bring it down. So, I can write it as

𝐼2 𝑟𝑒2 cos 𝜃 ± 𝐼2 𝑥𝑒2 sin 𝜃

ℛ≈ |𝑉1 |
( 𝑎
)

235
 |𝑉1 |
And what is , is the a no load voltage |𝑉20|. So, this is same as
𝑎

𝐼2 𝑟𝑒2 cos 𝜃 ± 𝐼2 𝑥𝑒2 sin 𝜃

ℛ≈
|𝑉20 |

same expression but the only thing you must be careful this is |𝑉20 |.

So, either of them you use, but as you know you stick to one, you always transfer it to the
primary side and get these values and these are algebraic equation. So, the numerator
actually is the difference of the magnitude of no load and full load voltage. Before that, I
will just try to sketch some curve, what will be the order of value? This into 100 will give
you percentage regulation ok; this is per unit regulation.

𝐼2 𝑟𝑒2 cos 𝜃 ± 𝐼2 𝑥𝑒2 sin 𝜃

%ℛ ≈ × 100
|𝑉20 |

How this curve will look like, if I sketch it?

(Refer Slide Time: 11:56)

So, you sketch this curve in this way at least one curve I will sketch. So, this is the value
of regulation, I will sketch percentage regulation. The regulation curve and this is suppose
you sketch power factor and at rated current. Rated current means if secondary current is
rated primary too will have rated current; you do not have to bother. So, load current is
rated means primary side current is also rated.

236
So, the a typical regulation curve will look like this one, this is I will just sketch it.
Something like this and this point is suppose unity power factor cos 𝜃 against 𝜃 I am
sketching. This side is lagging power factor and this side is leading power factor and this
is regulation curve.

I have plotted for example at rated current I must specify that at rated current and as I was
telling you at rated current, power factor suppose 0.8 lagging, regulation will be small or
high? Like efficiency is 99% or 98% that is common but regulation should be low it may
be about say 5%, got the point? At unity power factor also there is regulation, it is positive,
what is regulation? Regulation is no load voltage minus the voltage with load connected
divided by the no load voltage.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:03)

Therefore, it is positive means the numerator is positive. No matter either you use this
expression or that one and the same thing you will get same result. Therefore, as you can
see if you want to calculate regulation at unity power factor; that means, 𝜃 = 0 then it will
be simply

𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 cos 𝜃

ℛ≈
|𝑉1 |

Put the corresponding power factor, how I plotted that. Fixed up 𝜃 at rated current I know
the rated current, knowing the rating of the transformer 𝑟𝑒1 and 𝑥𝑒1 I know from OC and

237
SC test, 𝑉1 is rated voltage I know. So, I can calculate and this is how I will get this curve.
Only one thing you note that, regulation this side is positive and this is negative regulation.

So, it looks like for capacitive loading; for some capacitive loading that is leading power
factor, regulation maybe negative indicating that with respect to the voltage when no load
is connected when you connect a leading power factor load terminal voltage will rise.
Unlike a battery, battery with an internal resistance 𝑟 you connect a load always the voltage
will fall, positive regulation means voltage falls.

So, for leading power factor load, if you draw the phasor diagram correctly there will be
some power factors for which the length of this phasor, will be more than this, got the
point? Therefore, regulation may be negative sometimes and voltage may rise and if you
see this expression and this curve, there may be some power factor you will be able to say,
you will be able to predict if the transformer is.

So, this curve must be attached with this tag that at what current you are doing at full load
current and you are varying power factor. So, for rated current there exist a point, when
the regulation may become 0 indicating that at no load condition record this voltage, this
is your voltmeter. No load condition, record this voltage. Load it at rated current and at
this power factor which is leading, you will find there is no change in voltmeter reading it
means that.

So, regulation may be come 0 and I can predict at what power factor regulation will
become negative because of the fact regulation is with respect to the primary side. If it
becomes 0, this is finite it cannot be 0, finite and rated value applied voltage.

So, this will become 0 if

𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 cos 𝜃 + 𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1 sin 𝜃 = 0

you can easily see

sin 𝜃 𝑟𝑒1
tan 𝜃 = =−
cos 𝜃 𝑥𝑒1

So, 𝜃 will be negative indicating it is leading power factor ok. So, it is this point. Therefore,
is regulation in case of a DC source with the internal resistance regulation will be always

238
positive voltage will always drop and drop, but here in case of a transformer which is
giving you AC supply and you can choose a load power factor of

𝑟𝑒1
𝜃 = tan−1 (− )
𝑥𝑒1

𝑟
So, load power factor if you choose tan−1 (− 𝑥𝑒1 ) you can say regulation may become 0.
𝑒1

Anyway it is only a statement that is what it will happen, but unfortunately I cannot operate
a transformer under this condition because load is always lagging type.

Anyway, this is a point what should be what noting that is all and regulation maybe
negative sometimes. So, one should not get surprised I have connected a load and voltage
has risen, maybe you have then connected a capacitive load whose leading power factor is
greater than 1 not for all capacitive load it will be negative or 0 because if the capacitive
load is of this power factor, regulation will become positive.

So, one can get a number of curves at different current levels. For example, at lower current
level the curve will shift below which I am not drawing. It will become regulation will
become less. So, it will be above.

It will, that is what I am telling this is this one. Suppose on the same curve I want to show
regulation at reduced current then curve will be like this.

Amplitude will get reduced, you have understood; you can scale this thing. So, it will
change in its amplitude, but it will follow the same curve. Anyway this you can easily
verify therefore, the regulation of a transformer we have understood.

The difficulty of regulation concept, it is otherwise very simple, it can be directly loaded,
but directly loading a big transformer in the lab is out of question. Therefore, these simple
expressions will come very handy because it is an algebraic expression, easy to remember.
Tell me; what is the current the transformer is delivering at what power factor I will be
able to tell you what will be the change in voltage.

239
(Refer Slide Time: 23:40)

Some more words about this regulation; for example, regulation is

𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 cos 𝜃 + 𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1 sin 𝜃

ℛ≈
|𝑉1 |

This is regulation. Now, in this expression if you neglect no load current 𝐼2′ ≈ 𝐼1.

So, you can calculate regulation given a particular current and particular power factor of
the load. Now this one therefore, one must say along with this number whatever you get
say ℛ = 2.5% I get, I must write at rated current and at 0.8 power factor lagging. I must
specify these two things along with this number, you cannot simply say regulation is ℛ =
5% at what load current and at what load power factor angle.

So, this is at 0.8 power factor lag; you must specify this then only it becomes complete. I,
this expression can be written as only one point I will tell,

𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1

ℛ≈ cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃
|𝑉1 | |𝑉1 |

what will be the regulation of an ideal transformer? 𝑟𝑒1 = 0 and 𝑥𝑒1 = 0 it will be 0. For
ideal transformer regulation is 0 because there is no internal drops which will be taking
place. So, it can be written like this.

240
Generally, as I told you regulation is calculated at rated current and at 0.8 power factor ok.
So, I know this number is very important, calculate regulation at rated current and 0.8
power factor lag. Now, look at this term; this equation once again I am repeating, it is
algebraic equation; no phasor involved.

Suppose, let us take that transformer 1 KVA for easy calculation or say 10 KVA,
10𝑘
200V/100V 50Hz transformer. What is the rated current of the HV side? 200 = 50𝐴, what
10𝑘
is the rated current of the LV side? 100 = 100𝐴. What this number 𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 will mean? It will

mean, this 𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 = 50 × 𝑟𝑒1 it will mean that. Suppose this is my primary side 1 and this
is side 2.

So

𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 50𝑟𝑒1

=
|𝑉1 | 200

That is the equivalent circuit if you look at, here is your 𝑉1 = 200𝑉 and this is your 𝑟𝑒1
and 𝑥𝑒1 and rated current is 50A, is not? Load is connected here whatever it is.

Therefore, what this 𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 mean? It means this voltage drop at that rated current 𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 =
50 × 𝑟𝑒1. So, with respect to the primary side or HV side in this case, this number tells you
voltage drop in the internal resistance of the transformer in volts. This is the; if I write in
language, I will write it is the equivalent resistive voltage drop in the transformer.

Similarly, 𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1 is the equivalent leakage reactance voltage drop in transformer, refer to
your primary side if you want to write that also you better write, refer to primary side and
what is the denominator? Denominator is rated voltage of the primary side.

So, this number this ratio is actually how much of this total rated voltage is consumed by
the resistance of the transformer; if it is comes out to be say this number after calculating
if it comes out to be 5%, I will say oh, in the resistance 5% of the this 200V out of these
at rated current some voltage will be dropped across here, some voltage will be dropped
across here.

That magnitude of that voltage divided by the rated voltage is nothing but how much of
this total voltage rated voltage is consumed by the resistance, how much of this total rated

241
voltage is consumed by this reactance. And this one in books, they will write this is called
the per unit resistance of the transformer and they will write it like 𝜖𝑟 , what is 𝜖𝑟 ? 𝜖𝑟 is
this one per unit resistance.

So, what is per unit resistance of a transformer? You simply calculate transformer is
operating how much of the rated voltage, is dropped in the resistance this number you
would like to have more or less definitely less. Out of this total rated voltage lesser and
lesser get consumed by the transformer is better. So, that regulation will improve.

Similarly, this number this is the 𝜖𝑥 , this is called 𝜖𝑥 is the per unit reactance of a
transformer.

𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1
𝜖𝑟 =
𝑉1

𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1
𝜖𝑥 =
𝑉1

ℛ ≈ 𝜖𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝜖𝑥 sin 𝜃

(Refer Slide Time: 33:10)

Suppose I say for last statement suppose I say that 10 KVA transformer and 200V/100V
50Hz etc and rated current I know, it is 50A this side rated current is 100A.

242
If I say instead of giving you the value of 𝑟𝑒1, I say 𝑟𝑒1 = 2% I say that, what that does
that mean? It means per unit resistance percentage. So, 𝑟𝑒1 |𝑝𝑢 = 0.02, is not? And this I
am telling what it is? It is nothing but that is 𝑟𝑒1 value is not explicitly given in ohm
suppose, it is given in terms of per unit values then 𝑟𝑒1 |𝑝𝑢 = 0.02. Means what is the
absolute values of 𝑟𝑒1 I want to calculate then I will say oh,

50𝑟𝑒1
= 0.02
200

and from which 𝑟𝑒1 can be calculated, are you getting? Similarly, with 𝑥𝑒1 .

So, in some problems instead of giving you absolute values of 𝑟𝑒1 and 𝑥𝑒1 per unit values
are given, but physically try to understand per unit values means that at rated current what
will be the voltage drop in 𝑟𝑒1 or 𝑟𝑒2. Similarly, this is

100𝑟𝑒2
= 0.02
100

That will be also 0.02 because of that ratio business.

Therefore, given knowing the rated currents and the equivalent per unit values. So, per
unit values will never be specified in terms of primary or secondary because from
whichever side you calculate that value will remain same. Please think about this and read
it, solve problems. We will continue with this next time.

Thank you.

243
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 26
Auto Transformer - Introduction

(Refer Slide Time: 00:24)

Welcome to lecture number 26 on Electrical Machines - I and you recall that we were
discussing about regulation of a transformer.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:27)

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And we found that the regulation is given by this expression ultimately we derived. It could
of course, be expressed in terms of either primary and secondary. So, with respect to
primary side regulation turns out to be

𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1

ℛ≈ cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃
|𝑉1 | |𝑉1 |

These are magnitudes this is an algebraic equation and cos 𝜃 is the power factor of the
𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1
load, then I told that this quantity |𝑉1 |
is called the per unit resistance.

In fact, it means that how much of the rated voltage is dropped across the equivalent
𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1
resistance of the transformer at rated current. Similarly, |𝑉1 |
is the per unit leakage

reactance. It denotes how much of the rated voltage is dropped in the leakage reactance of
the transformer and so, we start from here and then I told the meaning of this, suppose I
say that this is the rating of a transformer 𝑟𝑒1 = 2%, what does it mean? 𝑟𝑒1 |𝑝𝑢 = 0.02, it
simply means that 200 × 0.02 will be dropped in the resistance when rated current will be
flowing that is 50 × 𝑟𝑒1 = 200 × 0.02, that way you interpret.

Extending these you can also say per unit impedance of the transformer can be written as

𝐼2′ 𝑍𝑒1
𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
|𝑉1 |

𝐼2′ ≈ 𝐼1 when no load current is neglected. All are numbers only where 𝑍𝑒1 is the actual
impedance in ohm and

𝑍𝑒1 = √𝑟𝑒1 2 + 𝑥𝑒1 2

And per unit values, per unit resistance and impedance or reactance, they are same no
matter whether you are calculating the per unit values from the high voltage side or from
the low voltage side, this will come out to be same ok. Another interpretation of per unit
resistance I will just point out, it is I told you it is

𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1
𝜖𝑟 =
|𝑉1 |

And these 𝐼2′ ≈ 𝐼1 .

245
So,

𝐼1 𝑟𝑒1
𝜖𝑟 =
|𝑉1 |

What you do is you multiply the numerator and denominator by 𝐼1 to get

𝐼12 𝑟𝑒1 𝐶𝑢 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠

𝜖𝑟 = =
𝑉1 𝐼1 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐾𝑉𝐴

So, per unit resistance can be told in language that amount of voltage drop in the equivalent
resistance expressed as a per unit value of the rated voltage and this current is rated current.

And this is equal to therefore, copper loss as a percentage of kVA rating of the transformer
ok. So, there are various ways of telling so anyway. So, if you know the per unit values
regulation expression then comes out to be

ℛ ≈ 𝜖𝑟 cos 𝜃 ± 𝜖𝑥 sin 𝜃

Minus sign to be used for leading power factor of the load. So, this is the thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:33)

Now, continuing our discussion on regulation what do you like to have as a good source
of power from the secondary side? Secondary side will be supplying load it is load I will
connect on the secondary side. Therefore, I would like to see that as the value of load

246
impedance changes from no load to full load condition, the voltage applied across the load
that should remain constant, but unfortunately that is not going to be with a practical
transformer because 𝑟𝑒 is present 𝑥𝑒 is present.

Therefore, there will be some change in magnitude of the voltage and all, frequency of
course, remain same. So, so regulation should be small maybe 2% to 5% of the rated
voltage that is one thing. Now, therefore regulation should be small no doubt.

So, that constancy of voltage across the load is not disturbed that much. Now, how this
should be made small? Suppose, you have a transformer like this and as I told you the
windings are wound on the limbs this horizontal portion is yoke. So, suppose because the
leakage reactance is to be reduced, to reduce the regulation of a transformer 𝑟𝑒1 and 𝑥𝑒1
you cannot play much with them because number of turns is fixed based on the voltage
ratings and you will be using copper.

So, resistivity is there 𝑟𝑒 will be there, but 𝑥𝑒 is the you know is because of the fact that as
I told you this I will draw roughly, this is suppose the one winding primary I drew while
we started discussing then I told there will be mutual flux which links both the primary
and secondary, this is the mutual flux 𝜑𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 and there will be leakage flux which will
be linking only primary or only secondary.

So, this leakage fluxes will not contribute to the energy transfer from primary to secondary
except, that they will cause some extra voltage drop as voltage drop takes place in the
resistance. So, it was represented by leakage reactance. Now, therefore, to reduce the value
of regulation, it depends on 𝑟𝑒1 and 𝑥𝑒1 . So, 𝑟𝑒1 copper you use that is ok, but can I reduce
the value of 𝑥𝑒1 ; leakage flux.

So, this winding is the say LV these winding is HV whatever it is. You know the two coils,
we will just discuss in terms of, suppose there are two coils if you take the coils far away
leakage flux will increase mutual flux will decrease from common sense we can say that.

Therefore, if LV side coil is wound on limb1 and HV side is totally wound on limb2, there
is separation and leakage flux is there, but this can be reduced to a great extent if this
windings are distributed both the windings are distributed in both the limbs, what do I
mean by this is whatever is the total number of turns of the LV winding you arrive at, you
take half of the turns here only LV I am drawing this is suppose LV winding.

247
And this also I called LV; half of LV turns on this limb and half of LV turns on this. So,
when you pass current through this and these two coils you connect them in series, got the
𝑁𝐿𝑉 𝑁𝐿𝑉
point? So, 𝐿𝑉 number of turns, you divide like this and and distribute them on both
2 2

the limbs instead of trying to put all the turns 𝑁𝐿𝑉 on the single limb.

Then I told you also that HV winding are wound over, the first LV winding then HV
winding, then what you do; I am using different color to indicate the HV winding then you
also wound the HV winding like this the separate coil, are you getting? So, you make the
LV winding half of LV winding here, then half of LV winding there over the HV winding.

𝑁𝐻𝑉 𝑁𝐻𝑉
So, this red one is 2
, this red one is 2
and these two halves, you connect them in series

properly. So, that fluxes are produced in the same direction when they carry current ok,
then you say ultimately after connecting series for example, LV winding you will get two
terminals here, these are the two terminals of the LV winding. Similarly, HV winding also
can be connected in series ultimately two terminals that is, you distribute the low voltage
winding on both the limbs.

Similarly, HV winding on both the limbs and these two halves of each of LV and HV
windings will be connected appropriately in proper way in series to give you LV terminals
and HV terminals. By doing so, what you will be reducing; that is these two coils will be
now brought in close proximity. So, leakage flux will be reduced because they are close
by.

So, if you see the section of this limb for example, what I mean this is the cross sectional
area. First, you see the LV winding; it will be wound like this. What is this diagram I am
drawing? Your sectional diagram looking from the top, this is LV. So, this is LV winding
the turns which I am showing by shaded line and this is HV winding like that.

So, this is HV and this is LV this inner one is LV, outer one is HV. Therefore, the leakage
flux will be reduced to a great extent. So, this is how at the design level people try to adjust
the leakage reactance. Anyway, this is just no mathematical derivation just from common
sense we are trying to tell how leakage reactance can be reduced.

Now, the next question is, is it that I should go for trying to have leakage impedance, 0;
that is use better and better material, make 𝑟𝑒 close to zero. Similarly, 𝑥𝑒 tight coupling

248
between the two coils, leakage flux is also reduced; so that the leakage impedance is
brought to very low value, is it like that? No, if you bring it down to low value as I told
you that is our goal then the constancy of voltage across the load will be maintained,
irrespective of degree of loading of the transformer.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:37)

But there is one problem, the problem is from this fact because after all these power
transformers are integral part of a power system you know. I drew it there is generator,
there is transformer here, then transmission line and high voltages and so on.

So, for example, look at this transformer there are three lines three phase lines RYB, if a
direct short circuit occurs if a fault occurs in the form of direct short circuit across the
secondary of a transformer, what will be the order of the current? Now, mind you the
primary is excited with full voltage ok. If primary of a transformer is excited with full
voltage and secondary shorted, how much will be the current? Current will be very large.
In the short circuit test of course, this voltage we apply is very little that is why we apply
little voltage so that rated current flows.

But you think of a situation, a transformer is ready to supply load rated voltage frequency
we have applied secondary voltage is also rated, secondary suddenly short circuited, then
what happens is there will be large short circuit current, who will limit that short circuiting
current? That is in terms of equivalent circuit 𝑟𝑒1 and 𝑥𝑒1 this is shorted and here it is now
rated voltage of that particular side, 1.

249
So, current will be limited by the equivalent leakage impedance of the transformer and if
you make it very low, this current will be very high of course, protections are taken in the
circuit, but suppose somehow that fails for some reason or other then both the transformer
and the your source maybe at danger because it will supply almost infinitely large current
and if that current sustains for long time and your relay circuit breaker does not operate
there will be problem.

So, it is better this leakage impedance try to see it is small, but at this same time not too
small, ideally 0, you should never attempt to do like that. Although from regulation point
of view this is fine, but you should be prepared you do not know there may be a direct
short circuit at the secondary of the transformer and then huge current will flow and that
is if some leakage impedance is there the short circuit current will be at least limited by

𝑉𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝐼𝑠𝑐 =
𝑍𝑒

is not; by this, instead of 0; have some finite small values small it is, but anyway it will try
to limit the current.

So, these are some of the points I wanted to tell you about the regulation of a transformer.
Now so solve lot of problems as I told you from open circuit test and short circuit test then
efficiency of a transformer and how to calculate regulation, but last word about regulation
I must tell you that, if you look at the regulation formula it was nothing but ℛ ≈
𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 cos 𝜃+𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1 sin 𝜃
|𝑉1 |
, is not? That is the thing and if you remember the numerator was like

this |𝑉1 | − |𝑉2′ | this was the thing change in magnitude this was the thing. Therefore, you
see that this

|𝑉1 | − |𝑉2′ | = 𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 cos 𝜃 + 𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1 sin 𝜃

What this thing means? This expression is often used to calculate one important thing apart
from regulation. For example, what I am trying to tell what is this thing equivalent circuit
𝑟𝑒1 and 𝑥𝑒1 this is 𝑉1 and this is 𝑉2′ = 𝑎𝑉2 . actual voltage across the load this side load is
connected some 𝑍2′ .

Therefore, from this formula suppose they I pose the problem in this way. Suppose, you
have a transformer say 5 KVA, 200V/100V, 50 Hertz transformer single phase, this

250
transformer and if it is 5 KVA, its rated current of this side 𝐼1 will be how much?;It will
5000
be 𝐼1 = , is not?
200

5000
So, 𝐼1 = 25𝐴𝑚𝑝 this rated current is and LV side current, rated current will be 𝐼2 = =
100

50𝐴𝑚𝑝. Now, suppose I say that I have applied rated voltage I have applied 200V on the
primary side, please be with me what I am telling listen carefully. Suppose, I have applied
rated voltage 200V then I ask myself, if you deliver rated current and what is the actual
scenario?

Actual scenario is this is the equivalent circuit, here 200V you have applied, here you have
connected the load 𝑍2 , is not? And then this is equivalent to this, from this I have got that.
Now, what I am telling; suppose the transformer is delivering here 50 ampere current rated
current at some known power factor angle cos 𝜃 you are delivering.

If I simply ask you, what will be this terminal voltage 𝑉2 with load connected? Without
load this voltage would have been equal to 100V with this S open 200V you have applied.
Voltage across the terminals of the secondary of the transformer would have been 100V,
but you have now connected load, how much do you expect? I will expect this voltage will
drop it will be less than 100 volt because of these drop here; it is 200 volt. So, there will
be drop here.

Now, if rated current is flowing 25Amp there, 50Amp is flowing there. So, I will use this
formula and tell that

|𝑉2′ | = |𝑉1 | − (𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 cos 𝜃 + 𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1 sin 𝜃)

Bring it to this side you will get |𝑉2′ |.

So, you will put all the values, that is 𝑉1 = 200𝑉 blah blah blah. I mean 𝐼1 = 25𝐴𝑚𝑝,
cos 𝜃 if it is known say 0.8. I will put that and get by what amount this difference is how
much? I will be able to calculate maybe it will come out to be 5V, then you will be able to
calculate 𝑉2′ and then I want to know what is 𝑉2. So, I can easily calculate 𝑉2 how much it
will be? From 𝑎𝑉2 , I will divide and get it. Therefore, this formula is very useful in getting
the secondary voltage of the transformer rather quickly, if you know the degree of loading
on the secondary by how much the voltage will fall. So, try to use it efficiently.

251
On the other hand, I can also say suppose I would like to get 100V across the load of the
transformer secondary of the transformer then how much voltage is to be applied, it must
be greater than slightly more than 200V. That also can be estimated if I insist, no across
the load when the load at rated current I must get 100V here, then certainly this should not
be 200V.

If you give 200V you know the fact, it will be less than 100V maybe 95V, but if I insist
that no, I will when the load is connected I want to get 100V then how much should be
applied voltage? Then once again I will use the same formula which is algebraic in nature,
no phasor equation.

So, I will then calculate

|𝑉1 | = |𝑉2′ | + (𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 cos 𝜃 + 𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1 sin 𝜃)

So, currents, 𝑟𝑒1, power factor is known 𝑉2′ = 100 I want to get there; that means; here it
is 200V so

|𝑉1 | = |𝑉2′ | + (𝐼2′ 𝑟𝑒1 cos 𝜃 + 𝐼2′ 𝑥𝑒1 sin 𝜃)

= 200 + ( )

So, you have to apply to the primary then a voltage higher than 200V slightly higher I
mean, one should not think oh, higher voltage but its rated voltage is 200V, but as I told
you 𝑟𝑒1 and 𝑥𝑒1 are in general small.

So, regulation maybe of the order of 5%. So, its slightly more voltage applied you will be
able to maintain 100V across the secondary of the transformer, you can have several nice
problems on it. So, regulation formula is useful.

So, also useful is this formula that is the |𝑉1 | − |𝑉2′ |, the magnitude of 𝑉1 and magnitude
of 𝑉2′ can be easily computed for a given load and power factor of the transformer. Now, I
will just mention because as a continuation of this that; this I will leave for later discussion,
but our next topic will be what I have thought is Auto transformer.

252
(Refer Slide Time: 29:36)

Our next topics will be auto transformer. Only the idea I will tell, we have so far seen that
a two winding transformer essentially means that you have a core and there are two
separate coils at least two separate coils and these coils will be distributed, but that is not
generally shown here to reduce the leakage flux, but the this is understood, but this is the
side1 and side2; two coils are there and you can then change the level of voltage from 𝑉1
to 𝑉2, 𝑁1 turns 𝑁2 turns. Mutual flux is common to both of them.

Then we know that if you have applied the rated voltage, it is better you use voltage per
turn concept.

𝑉1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛 =
𝑁1

and that remains same for both primary and secondary. Therefore,

𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑁2
𝑉2 = ( ) 𝑁2 = = 𝑉1 ( )
𝑁1 𝑎 𝑁1

𝑁1
𝑎=
𝑁2

So, you can then either step up or step down a voltage depending upon this ratio 𝑉1 may
be stepped up or stepped down. So, this is one way of doing. Now, this is two winding
transformer this one is two winding transformer, two separate coil. We will see that the

253
same transformation of voltage AC voltage from 𝑉1 to 𝑉2 level can also be done by another
𝑑𝜑
kind of transformer, work on same principle 𝑑𝑡
that is all and that transformer is called

auto transformer and we will continue with this in the next lecture.

254
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 27
Auto Transformer Versus Two winding Transformer

(Refer Slide Time: 00:19)

Welcome, to lecture number 27 our earlier classes were very important we derived the
expressions for efficiency and regulations. And we then told at the end that our next topic
will be Auto Transformer. Now auto transformer also does the same thing, it changes
voltage from one level to another keeping the frequency same. So, this was two winding
transformer of course, the basic working principle remain same as we will see now.

What is done is in auto transformer instead of using two separate coils a single coil is used
the idea is like this. For example, you say that, your the core is like this; and you use single
a number of turns ok. I am showing it to be wound on one limb, but it may be distributed
over the whole core length.

So, suppose 𝑁 number of turns are wound ok, these are the two terminals; A and say C
where I will apply first get the idea how it works? I will apply some rated voltage at rated
frequency. The moment you apply a known voltage at a known frequency what gets fixed,
the flux in the core gets fixed. And first I will tell about ideal auto transformer, ideal auto
transformer that is all flux are confined to the core little magnetizing current is required all

255
these things. In another words I will neglect magnetizing current, no load current, eddy
current hysteresis loss in the core.

Therefore, as the current flows little magnetizing current alternating flux (𝜑) will be
produced and it will move like this. And let me say that, number of turns of this 𝑁𝐴𝐶 = 𝑁1
total number of turns. So, you know the applied voltage and induced voltage between these
two points will be

𝑉1 = 𝐸𝐴𝐶 = 𝐸1 = √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁1

we know this is what happens and that is it.

Now, this flux mind you will link all the all the turns. Suppose I take a voltmeter then, let
us assume there is ohmic contact I can make so I connect a voltmeter here. Now this
voltmeter if I connect between these two points will it read? Yes it will read why not?
What will be the magnitude of the voltage here if you applied 𝑉1 here? You will then tell
how many turns are there between these two points? If the number of turns are 4, then you
will be able to calculate because voltage per turn remain same.

So, if there are 𝑁2 turns here between these two tappings, the voltage induced will be

𝑉1
𝑁
𝑁1 2

𝑉
Voltage per turn is 𝑁1 and that into 𝑁2 will give you the voltage here .
1

Suppose the number of turns is 𝑁1 = 100 and you have taken tappings at 50% midpoint
tappings then there will be 50 turns there. So, if you have applied 200 volt you will get
100 volt is not? Step down will take place. And therefore, between this tappings, I will
connect the load after changing this available voltage to a voltage level which is required
for the load.

So, I will not use to separate coils, single coil and have suitable tappings from the
secondary and it looks like I can get then any level of voltage. For example, so this
diagram, hence forth I will draw it simply like this; this whole thing core I will not draw I
will simply draw a coil, here you have applied voltage and here you have taken tappings

256
suppose these two points. So, these two is your input terminal and these two is your output
terminal. And let us draw a nice picture here, so that we know what is happening.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:05)

So, autotransformer it is like this, this is the coil I will draw this way. And here is your
tappings taken, I will say this terminal as A this terminal is C indicating common between
primary and secondary. And I will say that

𝑁𝐴𝐶 = 𝑁1

and here I will apply voltage of frequency 𝑓.

And this point let me call this point to be B and

𝑁𝐵𝐶 = 𝑁2

Then, voltage available here I will call it 𝑉2.

𝑉1
𝑉2 = 𝑁 = (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛) × 𝑁2
𝑁1 2

and that is it. So, so by changing 𝑁2 , I will be getting output voltage. So, in this
arrangement if B is very low at this point if 𝑁2 is very low you get high voltage to low
voltage very low voltage transformation is possible.

257
So, in a two winding transformer this is precisely we do we want to change the level of
voltage can we step down step up the voltage? Here it is step stepping down the voltage
yes you can step up the voltage. For example, this is step down autotransformer step up
autotransformer will look like this what you do? You do you give input voltage here, 𝑉1
this you call your 𝑁1 ok.

And here from you will take the output, voltage per turn will remain same this is 𝑁2 number
of turns. So, available voltage here on the secondary side will be

𝑉1
𝑉2 = 𝑁 = (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛) × 𝑁2
𝑁1 2

but since 𝑁2 > 𝑁1 you will get higher voltage on the secondary side. That is this is the if I
draw it here like this, this is suppose the transformer core it is like this. In this case what I
do single winding no two separate coils; you give supply voltage to this number of turns,
flux will be linking all the turns mind you.

So, this is your A in this case this is your C this is your B and this is your A C and B. So,
𝑁𝐵𝐶 = 𝑁2 turns is more than 𝑁𝐴𝐶 = 𝑁1 and you can also step up the voltage. Therefore, it
looks like one can use a single coil like this instead of two winding transformer, where you
are using two coils therefore, it is natural then that is I now have two option, suppose
somebody says me that I have 200V supply and my load requires 100V.

Then, I will have now two options what are the two options? I will use a two winding
transformer 200V/100V this will be the thing. Or I can also use an auto transformer, where
the number of tappings here will be high half of this full number of turns here so a 200
here, 100 there. So, either of them you can then use to supply your load at 100V when
200V supply is there.

Now the moments two options come in we must examine which one to choose should I
choose a two winding transformer or should I choose a an auto transformer? Here realize
the question. Same thing can be done apparently by both the options ok. So, we will see
examine that thing right now.

258
(Refer Slide Time: 13:08)

Therefore comparing I will use different color, comparing a 2 winding transformer, and
an auto transformer. Now the moment you say I will compare two transformers, their
ratings must be same then only you can compare two things at same level.

So, what is the ratings? I demand that your 2 winding transformer should do like this 𝑉1 it
must transform it to a voltage 𝑉2. And you will neglect the no load current that is pretty
small ideal conditions to understand what is the implication of this which one to choose.
So, I want to transform an available voltage 𝑉1 to a level 𝑉2 and I must see that the current
delivered to the load is 𝐼2 that is k VA rating I must also specify, so the transformer will
deliver KVA of 𝑉2 𝐼2 .

So,

𝑉1 𝐼1 = 𝑉2 𝐼2

that is what I want to do got the point. And this is your 2 winding transformer. Now the
same thing I want to do with an auto transformer. So, I will draw the auto transformer like
this, suppose it is a step down case. So, 𝑉1 you apply and you take a tapping here and this
terminal is A this terminal is C and this terminal is B. So, 𝑉1 I will apply I should get here
𝑉2 and your load should get same current 𝐼2 got the point; flux in the core should be same.

So, how the flux in the core should can be same? If this is 𝑁1 turns this is 𝑁2 turns then I
will demand that 𝑁𝐴𝐶 = 𝑁1 hm. And 𝑁𝐵𝐶 = 𝑁2 is it not? This is what I will do. Therefore,

259
when this current is delivered here also the current should be 𝐼1 ; output volt ampere must
match with the input volt ampere that is what is this so this 𝑉1.

Now, the number of turns present here in this portion it is

𝑁𝐴𝐵 = (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 )

These are the number of turns present here between A and B. Mind you, the dots are here
this is dot this is dot.

Now, if you look at this connection very critically you will immediately see that this two
coils this coil and this coil that is coil existing between terminals A and B. And coil B C
there is no common turns present they are separate coils like this. For example, as a whole
in this particular configuration, which one to call primary? You have applied between A
and C, a voltage 𝑉1 perhaps this is primary where the whole number of turns is 𝑁1 .

Where is secondary, between B and C how many turns are there? 𝑁2 , but this 𝑁2 turns also
a member of the primary coil number of turns 𝑁𝐴𝐶 is not this is common to both primary
and secondary this causes problem I mean initially oh what to do then. So, first thing is I
say that coil AB and coil B C are two separate coils totally separate are two separate coils.
And this portion this must be understood that is very important point to be noted. And they
are linking same flux therefore, MMF and voltage ratios will follow the rules of a two
winding transformer what else, flux is common same flux is not? Previous diagram is the
core flux is common to both the parts. So, same flux and I have identified coil A B and
coil B C ok, if you connect some load on the secondary primary you apply voltage this
coil is supposed to carry some current coil B C and coil AB is also supposed to carry some
current.

But I am sure about one thing these two coils will carry current and they have to follow
the rule of a two winding transformer what else. In other words what I am telling if this is
𝐼1 , suppose current is 𝐼1 current delivered to the load here load is connected delivered is 𝐼2
then apply KCL at this point, this current I will write 𝐼2 − 𝐼1 is not?

(𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) + 𝐼1 = 𝐼2

KCL I have applied this is the situation.

260
In a two winding transformer remember this two are dots here, if current delivered is 𝐼2
and this is having 𝑁2 turns and if your primary is 𝑁1 . Then what I told you that if it is an
ideal transformer

𝐼2
𝐼1 = 𝐼2′ =
𝑎

MMF must be balanced whenever you show current coming out from the dot, then only
transformer primary will invite current from the source through the dot terminal such that

𝑁1 𝐼1 = 𝑁2 𝐼2

Ideal transformer no load current you neglect that is only 2% to 5% forget about that and
this must prevail. In this transformer also the moment you have applied a certain voltage
𝑉1 at certain frequency 𝑓 across the turns 𝑁𝐴𝐶 then the flux level gets fixed. In the core
KVL is to be satisfied here the same arguments therefore, for any reason if this two parts
of the windings carry current their MMFs must cancel out, so that the net MMF remains
because of that 𝑁1 multiplied by the small magnetizing current, which is negligibly small.

Therefore the moment I do this I will say that look here this is (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) coming out from
the dot this is the direction very important. So, I will write that MMF balance from MMF
balance I will write

(𝑁1 − 𝑁2 )𝐼1 = 𝑁2 (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 )

This must prevail no way, that is the moment you are trying to draw a current 𝐼2 in the load
some current 𝐼1 will follow will flow in the primary coil through A and if this is 𝐼2 and this
is 𝐼1 this current is I can correctly show as (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) phasors these are from bottom to top.
And these two MMFs must cancel them out so that this will remain there.

Now, in this case

(𝑁1 − 𝑁2 )𝐼1 = 𝑁2 (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 )

𝑁1 𝐼1 = 𝑁2 𝐼2

We have seen same ratings. See, I will compare a 2 winding transformer with an auto
transformer with same ratings once again what do I mean by same ratings? I will change

261
the voltage level from 𝑉1 to 𝑉2 total number of turns 𝑁1 here secondary turns 𝑁2 here. And
I will delivered if current 𝐼2 to the load here also I will deliver a current to the load 𝐼2 . But
incidentally this current deliver to be load is not the current flowing through this portion
of the coil that is different issue. Overall, as a black box I must be able to deliver 𝐼2 current
as I am doing it here.

So, 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 for both this transformers the number are same because flux level is same
and 𝑁1 𝐼1 = 𝑁2 𝐼2 . But in the case of an auto transformer I get this relation or I will say that
(𝑁1 − 𝑁2 )𝐼1 = 𝑁2 (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ). So, this term 𝑁2 𝐼1 will cancel out once again giving you this
relationship same as this fellow. But the reason that this will be true I must get it by
balancing the MMFs of the two separate portions of this coil that I have identified as AB
and BC. Then only I can invoke all the things I did for 2 winding I can do it here also
thinking that these two coils are separate coils common flux induced voltage there induced
voltage there and so on.

So, this is the relationship which will hold good ok. What is the KVA? KVA rating is 𝑉2 𝐼2
or same as 𝑉1 𝐼1 same KVA we must compare it that is there. Now after getting this, the
interesting thing is that if you look at this portion of the winding BC whatever current will
flow is not equal to 𝐼2 current secondary current it is not it is in fact, the difference of these
two currents. Unlike this thing in the secondary of these two winding transformer whatever
is the load current 𝐼2 that flows through the winding all along primary of course, 𝐼1 current.

But here it is not like that current in the load is 𝐼2 , but current in the portion BC is the
difference of (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ). Therefore, it looks like the sectional area of this portion of the coil
copper section required will be less compared to the copper sectional area here because
more current 𝐼2 mind you 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 all will be in phase. Therefore, their difference will be
real difference when you take the even the phasor difference because 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 will be in
phase.

Therefore the difference of current only flows, suppose 𝐼2 is the rated current 𝐼1 will be
rated current no doubt this will be high whatever it is. But in this portion magnitude of the
current will be quite small. And therefore, the sectional area of copper whatever copper
you are using for 𝑁2 number of turns it will be much thinner compared to the sectional
area of this portion. That is what I am telling is, if I draw it like this suppose I use a bigger
this one.

262
Suppose this is the copper wire I am using for this portion AB I am sorry thicker wire it is
like this. And for this portion, that is this is your A and this point is B. Now for this portion
BC you use a thinner wire getting thin wire this is crucial to understand, this should we
thick unlike a 2 winding transformer 𝐼2 whatever load current you are delivering that we
will decide what it is if it is well beside this sectional area will be more that is all there.
But here in this portion the sectional area of the upper portion will be same as the sectional
area of this 2 winding transformer here.

But for this portion I can make it thinner, so it looks like this point is C thin wire this will
be thick wire. Therefore, it looks like I will be transmitting a voltage 𝑉1 to a voltage 𝑉2
and it will deliver a current 𝐼2 no doubt it will deliver same volt ampere it is handling. But
it looks like you will be able to save some copper volume I will continue with this in the
next lecture.

Thank you.

263
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 28
Auto Transformer Versus Two Winding Transformer ( Contd.)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:23)

Welcome to lecture number 28. Ad and we were discussing about Auto Transformer ok.
Remember in our last class, so with the help of an autotransformer it looks like I can
change the voltage from one level to some desired level of voltage as we have done with
the help of it two winding transformer and I could transmit a certain amount of kv here.
Therefore, I now have two options. Suppose, I want to change the voltage level from 𝑉1 to
𝑉2 and it will deliver a KVA of 𝑉2 𝐼2 or the transformer will handle a KVA of 𝑉1 𝐼1 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 ,
they are same. Same thing can be done with an auto transformer.

The moment you have two options, therefore which one to choose if I want to change the
level of voltage from one value to another, whether should I go for a for whether should I
select it two winding transformer to do this or an auto transformer to do this? So, after
looking at these things, what I have assumed, they are same kva rating 𝑁1 turns are same,
so that flux level in the core will be same, so they are that way similar.

264
And then we thought, but here you note the current supplied to the load will be 𝐼2 , because
what happens in an auto transformer there is a common portion of the winding and this is
dot, this is also dot here. Therefore, this current should be 𝐼2 . So, we must bring them at
this same platform before comparing, so same KVA rating, same voltage ratios and so on.

But looking carefully here we note that if this current is 𝐼2 and this current is 𝐼1 that is what
it should do like this, then current in the common portion BC is the difference of this two
current. And the currents as you know are in phase ideal transformer I am considering, no
load current let us neglect to understand the major thing in an auto transformer, how it
distinguishes itself from a two winding transformer is that ok, 𝐼2 current then 𝐼1 current
must be drawn in and therefore this is (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ).

Then I know that here once again I have applied voltage 𝑉1 at some frequency, therefore
flux level in the core will remain same. And then we argued that this portion of the winding
AB and BC this two coils are two separate coils, no common part in between them.
Therefore mmf produced by this coil and this coil must balance, through the dot if (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 )
is coming out and through the dot if 𝐼1 is inputed in the upper portion of the coil, this two
mmf must balance ok. And that thing from this one also it is interesting to note we get that
𝑁1 𝐼1 = 𝑁2 𝐼2 that is there.

Then I argued without doing any mathematics perhaps this current will be much less
difference of these two current (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) going up and therefore, a thinner coil can be used
compared to its two winding counterpart. And therefore, you can save some copper that is
what I told. Now, today, we will try to find out some estimate that how much copper will
be saved, copper segments, volume of the copper ok. So, we start with this.

265
(Refer Slide Time: 05:09)

So, I draw the transformer once again. So, this is the auto transformer which step downs
the voltage 𝑉1 AC voltage. This point I call A, this point is C and here is the tapping B,
and here is the load connected get to secondary load. And this was the current distribution
𝐼2 , this was 𝐼1 and then this current was (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ). This number of turns 𝑁𝐴𝐶 = 𝑁1 this total
number of turns 𝑁𝐵𝐶 = 𝑁2 turns.

And from these two, we get 𝑁𝐴𝐵 = (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 ). And I told you that these are the dots here.
Therefore, if (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) leaves there, 𝐼1 comes in, so mmf balance. This is what we did last
time mmf balance. Gives me (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 )𝐼1 = 𝑁2 (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ), these are all phasors you know.
So, 𝑁1 𝐼1 = 𝑁2 𝐼2 . This is the thing.

At a volume of copper required for a coil, volume of copper required for a coil, required
for a coil will be simply the length of wire, length of wire into its cross sectional area, wire
cross sectional area, is it not, very pretty simple, area into length gives you volume. Now,
this length of wire; length of wire is proportional to the number of turns of the coil; number
of turns of the coil, is it not? This is the core each turn. So, for a given core size, this thing
number of turns would be proportional to length because each turn has got a fixed
perimeter, therefore, number of turns of the coil it will be equal to 1.

266
(Refer Slide Time: 08:56)

So, now what I will be doing is this, if this is the case then let me go to the next slide. I
will draw the two-winding transformer of same rating 𝑉1, here it is 𝐼1 , here it is 𝑉2, here
the load current will be 𝐼2 , this is the thing. And here it is your auto transformer, where
this is the load same load 𝑍2 , same load 𝑍2 here. So, that same current flows 𝐼2 . And here
this point is A, C, B, let me repeat I mean 𝑁𝐴𝐶 = 𝑁1 , 𝑁𝐵𝐶 = 𝑁2 and 𝑁𝐴𝐵 = (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 ) that is
there. And this is 𝐼2 , this is 𝐼1 and this is (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ).

Now, what I will be doing is this, I will find try to find out these ratios. Here it is 𝑁1 here
𝑉 𝑉
it is 𝑁2 , because voltage per turn is 𝑁1 and output voltage will be 𝑁1 𝑁2 . Here voltage per
1 1

𝑉1 𝑉
turn is once again , and this turn 𝑁𝐵𝐶 = 𝑁2 . So, 𝑉2 = 𝑁1 𝑁2 , got the point. Now, what I
𝑁1 1

will do, so this two transformers are of same rating. If this two are put in a black box only
two terminals are available, two terminals are available, you will not be able to distinguish
whether a two-winding transformer is doing the job or an auto transformer is doing the
job, so far as the output terminals are concerned ok.

Now, what I will do is this, I will find out the ratio of these two quantities copper required
in auto transformer. I am writing it short divided by total copper required in two winding
transformer, this ratio I will try to find out ok. In the previous slide, I have told you length
of the wire is proportional to the number of turns of the coil. What about cross sectional
area?

267
Cross sectional area, let me write here, cross sectional area of the wire cross section which
is forming the coil cross sectional area of the wire will be proportional to the magnitude
of the current because magnitude of the current based on that only thicker or thinner wires
are chosen, is it not.

So, cross sectional area of the wire is proportional to the current it is carrying based on
that I have decided upon the cross sectional area. So, cross sectional area is proportional
to the current. And we are talking about rated current. At rated current, based on that the
cross sectional areas are chosen.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:53)

So, it looks like copper required in autotransformer rather

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 2 − 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟

I am trying to finding. Now, what is the number of turns, length of these wire will be
proportional to 𝑁𝐵𝐶 , is it not and 𝑁𝐵𝐶 = 𝑁2 into the cross sectional area proportional to the
current.

What current this coil is carrying, magnitude of the current (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ), it is this portion plus
this portion plus what is the length of the copper required in portion 𝑁𝐴𝐵 , number of turns
existing between A and B terminals that is 𝑁𝐴𝐵 = (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 ). And cross sectional area of

268
this portion should be decided by the amount of current it is carrying that is the 𝐼1 , all these
currents are rated values corresponding to that. So, this will be this thing.

Now, because these two transformers are doing the same job come here. Now, here I will
write volume of copper required for this portion of the winding will be 𝑁2 𝐼2 , volume of
copper required for this portion is 𝑁1 𝐼1 , that is all.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 2 − 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟
(𝑁1 − 𝑁2 )𝐼1 + 𝑁2 (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 )
=
𝑁2 𝐼2 + 𝑁1 𝐼1

Now, we have already established that 𝑁2 𝐼2 = 𝑁1 𝐼1. Is 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 different in the

autotransformers? No, same, same, same thing, 𝑁1 , whatever is 𝑁1 here. 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 is
different? No, 𝐼2 is the current delivered to the load; 𝐼1 is the current flowing in the primary
same thing 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 . So, those things are there.

But we have shown in case of a two winding transfer these already known. In case of auto
transformer also we have shown that it so happen that 𝑁2 𝐼2 = 𝑁1 𝐼1. Although I should not
say that 𝑁1 𝐼1 is the mmf like that which portion I do not know, but I found out very
meticulously this relationship is not from this (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 )𝐼1 = 𝑁2 (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) from that also
something was obtained.

Therefore, it looks like 𝑁2 𝐼2 = 𝑁1 𝐼1 is also true ok. Then and that constant of
proportionality will be same that will cancel out, this proportional mind you and I am
taking the ratios. Then what you do is this

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 2 − 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟
(𝑁1 − 𝑁2 )𝐼1 + 𝑁2 (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) 𝑁2 𝐼2 − 𝑁2 𝐼1 + 𝑁1 𝐼1 − 𝑁2 𝐼1
= =
𝑁2 𝐼2 + 𝑁1 𝐼1 𝑁1 𝐼1 + 𝑁2 𝐼2

Just open the brackets. But 𝑁1 𝐼1 = 𝑁2 𝐼2 from both this. So, these two can be combined and
simply written as

269
 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 2 − 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟
(𝑁1 − 𝑁2 )𝐼1 + 𝑁2 (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) 𝑁2 𝐼2 − 𝑁2 𝐼1 + 𝑁1 𝐼1 − 𝑁2 𝐼1
= =
𝑁2 𝐼2 + 𝑁1 𝐼1 𝑁1 𝐼1 + 𝑁2 𝐼2
2𝑁1 𝐼1 − 2𝑁2 𝐼1 𝑁1 − 𝑁2 𝑁2 1
= = = 1− =1−
2𝑁1 𝐼1 𝑁1 𝑁1 𝑎

𝑁1
𝑎=
𝑁2

So, copper required in auto transformer will be this times the copper required in it two
winding transformer. If this fraction is less than 1. Then there will be savings of copper.
And mind you I am considering the step down case.

1
So, value of 𝑎; value of a for step down case 𝑁1 > 𝑁2 , which means that 𝑎 > 1 or 𝑎 < 1
1
is not this will be a number which is less than 1 fraction. So, suppose I say that 𝑎 is that
𝑎
𝑁 𝑁
is 𝑁1 suppose, suppose I say that 𝑁1 = 2 = 𝑎, then copper required in autotransformer will
2 2

be equal to half of copper required in two winding transformer that is 0.5 of copper
required in two winding transformer.

So, if you require say 10 kg of copper to make it two-winding transformer, you will be
requiring only 5 kg of copper to make a auto transformer is it not. You save copper it looks
like savings of copper can be easily calculated by taking the difference of these two I am
not going to do that it can be easily done. But I will just see how much copper is required
in terms of how much copper is required in a two-winding transformer, I find for step
𝑁1
down case if turns ratio is 2, it is = 2 you are stepping down the voltage. Here also you
𝑁2

are stepping down the voltage.

Then I find oh my god you will get advantage here because if you require 10 kg copper,
there you will be requiring half of that copper required 5 kg copper. So, weight of the
transformer will be less initial investment will be less and so on. And this auto transformer
will do the same job as this two winding transformer is doing. And it looks like then that
1
no matter what is the ratio if it is greater than 1, is always to be a number less than 1.
𝑎

And you will be always saving copper, getting?

270
 4
For example, I want to suppose I say that 𝑎 = 3, then what will be the savings of copper

1 1 3
1− = 1− = 1 − = 1 − 0.75 = 0.25
𝑎 (4⁄3) 4

Only one-fourth of the copper will be required. See if you want to change the voltage
𝑁1 4
ratios, in this ratio = 3, then I find savings of copper is much more, because copper
𝑁2
1
required will be only 4, it looks like that is it depends on 𝑎, this is the crucial equation.

But in any case no matter what is the value of 𝑎, if you are stepping it down, it looks like
it will be saving copper. Savings of copper will be more if 𝑎 → 1. If you decrease the value
4
of 𝑎, savings nonetheless will take place, but at not at high rate as it was doing for 𝑎 = 3.

So, we understand now that in an autotransformer savings of copper will always take place.
Whether it is more or less that depends on the ratio. If 𝑎 → 1, savings of copper will be
more and more; lesser and lesser copper will be required.

So, if that be the case, then we understand then wherever you require a transformation of
voltage, two candidates are there you can choose a two-winding transformer or an auto
transformer, it then looks like always go for auto transformer, because less copper will be
required. Whether that less is really less or not that is secondary issue, but mathematically
we note that savings will always take less, no matter what is the value of 𝑎. What is the
value of 𝑎? 𝑎 > 1 here, is it not?

Therefore, it looks like savings of copper will be there in an auto transformer of same
rating compared to a two winding, same KVA it will transmit, same voltage ratios.
Therefore, this exercise then prompts me look whenever you want to use a transformer,
out of these two always go for auto transformer because savings are there that is what we
get. But the story is not completed, if that would have been the case, then two winding
transformer would not have existed is it not, no one would have used two winding
transformer, but that is not the case. There are other issues we have to consider.

271
(Refer Slide Time: 27:15)

For example, I will tell you that suppose you have an two-winding transformer, 𝑉1, 𝑉2 you
are getting. And a similar rated auto transformer where 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 you are getting that is
fine. A two winding transformer, suppose let us consider a situation, it is supplying load
ok, it is supplying load, connected rated current it is supplying that is what I would like to
operate the transformer because I have purchased a transformer of given KVA let it
handled given KVA why operate it under no load.

Of course, there are situations where things are not under your control like a distribution
transformer, load varies we have talked about that. But here let us see suppose they are
delivering rated current primary current is also drawn rated, here also doing the same thing,
here it is 𝑉1 like that. And here the supplying load everything is fine, same job is being
done two winding and auto transformer.

Let us imagine that an open circuit fault has taken place open circuit fault in the primary.
Primary or secondary, say on the secondary, open circuit fault in secondary coil. What has
happened is this, you do not know a fault has occurred which creates an open circuit here,
excessive current was flowing because of some reason and winding has become opened
and which you cannot see from outside. Primary remains energized. Will I get any voltage
between these two points? No, because the moment it becomes open circuit current will
vanish current cannot flow. But there will be voltage induced in this portion and in this
portion, but voltage between these two points will be zero as there is no current flowing.

272
Therefore, what will happen if a open circuit takes place here, your load will suffer, it will
not get any voltage now, no current flows through the load that is everything on the
secondary side will not get power. There this story ends. Let us come here suppose it is
doing like this, but what happens is this a open circuit fault takes place in the common
portion of the winding that is BC portion. Suppose, open circuit fault in the common
portion of the winding that is BC, a open circuit has taken place.

What happens to this current this time we find that current can flow 𝑉1 is there through
this current will flow which was not possible here, and not only that this voltage is no
𝑁2
longer it is . This voltage minus this drop. And if this point is closer to this point this
𝑁1

voltage will become of same level as that of this one is it not? Therefore, across the load
perhaps the voltage will go up which is not in your control via this connection.

And there will be problem on the load if you apply high voltage. Just because of what,
because some open circuit fault has taken place which is not in your hand, it may happen
in a two-winding transformer as well as in an auto transformer. Then what happens by this
ohmic contact in this path, there may be higher voltage coming of the order of 𝑉1 may
creep across may come across 𝑍2 . And if it is a critical load your load goes which requires
a more or less constant voltage of level 𝑉2, suddenly we will see oh 𝑉2 has gone up. Trying
to go up to 𝑉1 via this path and things will be, and this problem is called isolation.

So, an auto transformer does not provide isolation here if such a thing happens it is isolated
from the primary. So, isolation to this is most biggest point two-winding transformer
provides isolation. Here no isolation. In case a open circuit fault takes place in the common
portion of the primary and secondary, therefore autotransformer gives you copper saving
no doubt, but at the same time it will never be able to give you a proper isolation across
the source side between the source side and the load side, load may be critical you cannot
just apply high voltages.

We will continue with this next class. And this is very important and interesting I mean
how to choose auto transform, we will continue it is not yet concluded.

Thank you so much.

273
 Electrical Machines-I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 29
Numerical Problems on Ideal Auto Transformer

(Refer Slide Time: 00:24)

Welcome to lecture number 29 on Electrical Machines I and we have been discussing Auto
Transformer. In fact, we have been comparing auto transformer versus two winding
transformer, two winding transformer.

274
(Refer Slide Time: 00:50)

Recall in the last class I told, because if you want to change a transfer a certain amount of
KVA from primary source site to the load side, at two fixed voltage levels 𝑉1 and 𝑉2.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:09)

You can do that by using either a two winding transformer or also by an auto transformer.
Now therefore, now we will find that there are two options I can do the same thing change
the level of voltage from 𝑉1 to 𝑉2 and transmit the same KVA.

275
Now, which one to choose? Two options are there it looks like either of them can be done,
but I told you that if you use an auto transformer then copper required will be less
compared to the copper required in a two winding transformer always less. So, savings of
copper will be can be easily found out subtracting these two. But, the point is that this ratio
1 1 𝑁
is (1 − 𝑎) copper required in an auto transformer is (1 − 𝑎) where, 𝑎 = 𝑁1 . And, we also
2

showed with some numerical examples, that as the turns ratio is close to 1 savings of
copper will be more and more, but nonetheless no matter what is this ratio either large or
small there will be always savings of copper.

Then we argued that if that be the case then it should be all the autotransformer all along
the winding transformer should not be used, what is the fun? Because you will be always
saving copper to transmit same KVA from this source to the load side at two fix different
voltages, same job can be done by an auto transformer. But, there were further issues then
I told you that look a two winding transformer is a better option, if you require isolation,
some critical load is present, if there is an open circuit on the secondary of the two winding
transformer ok. No problem at most the load will not get any supply there ends the matter,
but that is not to be the case if an open circuit fault occurs in the 𝑁2 turns that is common
portion of this windings of an auto transformer.

Even if it becomes open, primary energized this high voltage may appear across these of
course, these voltage minus whatever is the drop here that will appear across the load.
Therefore, on the load side there may see a sudden rise of voltage if such a fault that is
open circuit in the secondary that is in the BC part of the winding takes place and auto
transformer does not provide isolation. Therefore, where isolation is a must no, two
winding transformer should be preferred I mean, autotransformer should not be used the
loads may be critical. That is why two winding transformer is also there, because it
provides that isolation that is what I told in my last class.

Now, the question is then when to use auto transformer? Auto transformers can be used
see the I write this thing

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 1

= 1−
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 2 − 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑎

And, we have observed that savings will be more, savings of copper will be more if 𝑎 ≈ 1.

276
In fact, if 𝑎 = 1 and this mathematical expression gives in you autotransformer does not
require any copper, but I will use an autotransformer. It simply means, that no transformer
is necessary then supply voltage the same voltage in one, but there may be situations when
for example, you want to step down the voltage from 1000V to say 900V, here this ratio
is close to 1, is not 1000 to 900.

In this type of transformer we find savings of copper will be more that is what we
4
established here in our last class, Turn’s ratio close to copper required is only 25%,
3

Turn’s ratio is 2 and savings of copper is only 50%. So, closer you go to 𝑎 = 1 savings of
copper will be more and more. If that be the case, then I will say better go for an auto
transformer that is when this voltage 𝑉1 and this voltage 𝑉2 their orders are nearly same
transformation ratio for example, 1000V to 900V then savings of copper will be quite
large.

Because for this portion you require thinner, where (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) and for this you recall this is
𝐼1 this is 𝐼2 and this is (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) savings of copper will be much more. But, then the problem
of isolation still remains, the problem of isolation you cannot avoid that is there. But, look
if this is of the order of 1000V and your load requires 900V and now, an open circuit takes
place here in the common fault of the winding then the voltage which will be coming
across the load will certainly not be 900V; it will shoot up by a this path, supply will come
here by a this path. But that voltage rise will be not too high, because it is already these
two are of the same order we must understand that.

So, not only the savings of copper will be more, but also isolation is not a big issue in the
sense, that when this voltage and this voltage are at comparable level same level then
voltage will shoot up from 900V to at best maximum to 1000V only, what percentage of
increase it is 10% is it. Therefore, but imagine I am using an autotransformer 1000V to
say 100V, I want to get 100V here and I have decided I will use an auto transformer. Now,
first of all in this case this ratio being too high savings of copper will be there compared
to a two winding transformer, but savings of copper compared to this configuration will
be much less.

1
Because, 𝑎 = 10 so, 1 − 10 = 0.9 only. So, copper required in auto transformer will be

90% of what? Of the copper required for making it two winding transformer, but
nonetheless is having little saving is there. But, here the issue is if there is a open circuit

277
here then you see the load side gets connected to this high voltage side. It will not shoot
up to 1000V, but it may shoot up to 600V or 700V. Why not 1000V? That will be a drop
here in this case.

But nonetheless so far as the load on this side is concerned it will fill that rising voltage or
the personnel whoever is working here on this side they might get shock, if there is a open
circuit takes place here and no isolation is provided by auto transformer. I think you have
understood this point therefore, for the safety of the personnel who expects always here
100V he will suddenly see it has gone up to 800V, this is dangerous and also it may be
dangerous to the load, load may not cannot accept that large voltage.

But in this case 900V, load working whoever is working here, 900V it will go up to he
must have taken enough precaution to work at this voltage length, but voltage you will
only shoot up a little maybe by 10% or 5% like that if there is open circuit occurs. So,
isolation problem when 𝑎 → 1 isolation is not that urgent; is not that urgent this is one and
second thing is savings of copper is substantial; savings of copper substantial. Whereas, in
this case in this ratio I will say isolation is urgent, isolation must be provided, under what
condition? Open circuit in the common and secondly, savings of copper is also not very
high.

Savings of copper is little, savings of copper with respect to whom? With respect to two
winding transformer therefore, for such a large transformation ratio of voltages you better
go for a two winding transformer, where isolation will be there I think you have understood
this point ok. So, this is the thing. Now, before I proceed further that is see to understand
what is going on in an auto transformer. So, far I have taken an ideal case that is
transformers are having no leakage impedance this that and so on, ok.

278
(Refer Slide Time: 15:14)

I will just point out, one thing that that suppose yeah in the form of a problem so, that you
understand what I am trying to tell. Suppose you have an auto transformer ok, here is and
it is stepping down, it could also step up. See I have done all the derivation assuming it to
be stepping down the voltages. Now, the same sort of equation I can write and come to the
same conclusion even if it is step up, when the ratio will be I better do not do it things like
that ok, that I leave it as an exercise.

Suppose, I say that derive whatever things I have done if I apply a voltage here and
secondary voltage is 𝑉2 whether steel copper savings; why not copper savings will be there
anyway primary and secondary can be interchanged that way you can always anyway that
is the thing ok. So, you know it is there. So, this is the thing now suppose, let me solve one
problem ideal autotransformer, how you should be handling this problem ideal auto
transformer.

An example, numerical problems; so, winding impedances are neglected core losses are
not there, we will discuss this little later. Suppose I say it is 400V I will apply here, a
problem is given it is 400V and suppose it is 200V I say. I tell that the transformation ratio
is such that 400V to 200V and I say that you have connected an impedance here of value
say 𝑍2 = 10∠30°Ω. I ask you to find out calculate currents in all the branches of the
circuit, a very straight forward problem but, you should do it like this.

279
One way of doing this because this is 200, this is 400 given otherwise number of turns
could have been given suppose, I say that this is C 𝑁𝐴𝐶 = 100. Then immediately I will
400
calculate volt per turn which will be equal to 100 = 4𝑉. And, suppose I say that 𝑁𝐵𝐶 = 50,

then I will say this voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 4 × 50 = 200𝑉 is not, that is how I got the voltages.

Now, I have been asked to calculate currents in all the parts of the auto transformer and
mind you this is dot, this is dot here. First thing what I can see, that I can calculate this
current 𝐼2 . So, 𝐼2 will be all voltages will be in phase, because same flux links all the
voltages and there is no distinction between 𝑉2 and 𝐸2 , no distinction between 𝑉1 and 𝐸1
they are one and the same and all the voltages are in time phase. Why? Because common
flux all these part of these coils same flux is crossing, only thing number of turns are
different. Therefore, 𝐼2 will be taking this voltage in reference 𝐼2 I will calculate simply
like this.

200∠0°
𝐼2 = = 20∠ − 30°𝐴
10∠30°

Now I will argue you as I did in case of a two winding ideal transformer that the this is 𝐼2
and this is so, 𝑉2 first I write 𝑉2 = 200∠0°V, 𝐼2 is this. Then output power output complex
power is equal to 𝑉2 𝐼2∗ that is what we will be doing. So, this will be

𝑉2 𝐼2∗ = (200∠0°) × (20∠ + 30°) = 4000∠30°

That is the output complex power. And this must come in from this input, because there is
only one source of power where I am feeding supply 400V AC, rms value is 400V.

Therefore, if I assume this current to be 𝐼1 which is still now unknown I will say and mind
you 𝑉2 is this therefore, 𝑉1 = 400∠0°, but I do not know 𝐼1 . So, what I will do is I will say
that

𝑉1 𝐼1∗ = 𝑉2 𝐼2∗

Whatever you dump on the load must be drawn in from this source side this is source, it
must be like that. Therefore,

𝑉2 𝐼2∗ 4000∠30°
𝐼1∗ = = = 10∠30°
𝑉1 400∠0°

280
But mind you this is 𝐼1∗ therefore,

𝐼1 = 10∠ − 30°

Therefore, balancing the power on the load side and that is the power drawn from the
source, you can avoid several physical things what is going on that is I know 𝐼1 now. The
moment I know 𝐼1 then I can calculate this current, this current better show in this way,
this current then will be (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) that is how we are specifying. 𝐼2 is known 𝐼1 is known.
Therefore, current in this portion in this direction it must can be calculated.

So,

(𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) = (20∠ − 30°) − (10∠ − 30°) = 10∠ − 30°

So, the current distribution of various parts of this circuit can be easily calculated, provided
of course, the transformer is ideal, winding resistances not there, leakage reactants are not
there, such that 𝑉1 = 𝐸1, 𝑉2 = 𝐸2 and so on. Another example I will ask you to do is this
one.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:59)

Suppose you have same problem sort of thing, suppose here I have applied 400V 50Hz
and once again, I say that 𝑁𝐴𝐶 = 100, then immediately I will calculate volt per turn is
400
100
= 4. Now, what I am doing is I am taking a tapping from point B, such that 𝑁𝐵𝐶 = 75.

Therefore, I will immediately calculate 𝑉𝐵𝐶 voltage available between these two. So,

281
 𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 4 × 75 = 300𝑉

I will be getting and suppose I have two loads. So, one requires 300V supply another
requires 200V supply.

So, from the same sort of auto transformer suppose, you have another tapping say at point
D such that 𝑁𝐷𝐶 = 50. Then therefore,

𝑉𝐷𝐶 = 4 × 50 = 200𝑉

And, mind you all these voltages are in phase.

𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 4 × 75 = 300∠0°𝑉

𝑉𝐷𝐶 = 4 × 50 = 200∠0°𝑉

Your supply voltage 𝑉𝐴𝐶 is the supply, that is also

𝑉𝐴𝐶 = 400∠0°𝑉

Now, I say that I will connect here load. So, here you will get 200V and here you will get
300V. And suppose, 200V I terminate it on a load whose impedance is say 10∠30°Ω like
the previous one.

And between these two points I supply another load where you are getting this and
suppose, I connect here an impedance of 30∠ − 30° like this that is from the same auto
transformer by two tappings at B and D, C, being the common terminals I will supply two
loads which requires two different voltage levels. Then the question is this: Show the
current distribution in various parts of the coils and this way. One way of doing this is
going by physical argument trying to balance the MMF, but there is a shortcut method,
what is that? This is the only source of input power and power are consumed only here
and there transformer being ideal so, these two must match. So, this is your 𝑉1 supply
voltage.

Therefore I will first say that let this be 𝐼2 , let this be 𝐼3 and let this be 𝐼1 . So, I will say
that

𝑉1 𝐼1∗ = 𝑉2 𝐼2∗ + 𝑉3 𝐼3∗

282
𝑉1 𝐼1∗ total complex power absorbed by through the terminal AC must be equal to suppose,
this I say as 𝑉2 must be equal to 𝑉2 𝐼2∗ plus suppose, I call it as 𝑉3 , 𝑉3 𝐼3∗ this is the thing.
And, 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 are known.

300∠0°
𝐼2 = = 10∠30°
30∠ − 30°

200∠0°
𝐼3 = = 20∠ − 30°
10∠30°

Of course,

𝐼2∗ = 10∠ − 30°

𝐼3∗ = 20∠30°

Everything is known including 𝑉1. Then you calculate 𝐼1∗ which I am not going to calculate
put the values, all are phasors

𝑉2 𝐼2∗ + 𝑉3 𝐼3∗
𝐼1∗ =
𝑉1

Of course, after getting this

𝐼1 = (𝐼1∗ )∗

Do not forget to take this complex along with it.

Anyway this is how no matter how many tappings you have taken, what different kinds of
load you have connected very easily it can be done. And, after I get this 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 all
the things, what I will do? I will go on applying this KCL here at B and also do not forget
about these this way or that way it does not matter. So, far you are correctly writing the
KCL, you can show this current to be (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ), 𝐼1 coming 𝐼2 going (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ); here,
(𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) coming then another 𝐼3 is going (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 ).

Interesting thing you will observe the MMF of this portion, whatever turns may be MMF
these are the isolated coils, this portion, this portion, this portion. So, some of this MMF
will vanish to 0, it will be automatically taken care of. Anyway, we will continue with this
next class.

283
Thank you.

284
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 30
Two Winding Transformer Connected as Auto Transformer

Welcome to 30th lecture. And we are still in Auto Transformers. We have compared an
auto transformer with two winding transformer, then I solved some numerical problems in
last class that auto transformer, several voltage levels also you can get and you can find
out the currents in various parts of the auto transformer that I did.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:42)

Today, first I will tell you that a two winding transformer I am having two winding
transformer.

285
(Refer Slide Time: 01:00)

In short form w d g I am writing, two winding transformer as an auto transformer.

Remember any transformer a two winding transformer, it is like this. And I was drawing
the primary winding this way, they are separate coils, is it not, this is the thing. And we
know from this windings sense, these are the polarity. And suppose for easy calculation, I
will assume that this transformer is rating of the transformer, voltage rating of the
transformer is say 600V/200V suppose. And KVA is say 12 KVA, suppose this is a single
phase two winding transformer, understood, this is the thing.

What I told you the moment this data is with you, you should immediately calculate what
12000
is the rated current of this side which will be = 20𝐴. And this side low voltage side,
600

the current will be more. How much?

12000
That is I calculate it, you must be, = 60𝐴, is it not. This I should be ready the moment
200

KVA ratings and voltage ratings are known and it is a two winding transformer ok.

Now, after having this suppose somebody comes and this is what does this mean, if you
apply 600 V, you will get here 200 V roughly. Now, somebody comes and tell that ok,
what has happened in the lab 600V supply is available voltage, but you have a peculiar
load which requires 800 V, load requirement is 800 V, in the lab 600 V supply is there
which can be of course, transformed to 200 V to supply 200 V load. But suppose I say that

286
no, it has so happened that you require 800 V, is it possible to use this two winding
transformer whose input voltage will be 600 V, but output voltage will be 200 V?

The answer to this question, yes, it can be used provided you suitably connect this to coils.
For example, in a simplified diagram, I will draw it like this, instead of drawing this two
separate coils, this is the 600 V side. I will just draw them vertically, so that this I can draw
it anywhere I like so long I know these two are these two coils electrically nothing wrong
in that. And suppose this two are dots. So, these two coils I have drawn here. This is the
high voltage coil and it can be supplied with 600 V 50 Hz, I will supply a all are RMS
values here 600 V. But the moment you apply 600 V, you are sure you are going to get
200 V here, why that true rule will change, because same flux links.

Therefore, you are having this two voltages with this polarity is also known. If it is plus at
any instant, these also plus, this is minus, this is minus. Therefore, it looks like if I connect
this two in series, this two points I join, then what will be the voltage available here, 800
V, why not, you will get 800 V here. Therefore, this two winding transformer, no doubt,
it can be used to change a 600 V to 200 V or vice versa. If 200 V is there, you can get 600
V connect loads.

But it I now after learning not yet I have connected it with auto transformer, but I am
simply telling that if you apply 600 V 200 V here this coils only I have drawn in a
convenient way, so that I understand it much better. So, if you apply 600 V here, there
must be induced voltage here connect it here. So, you will get 800 V, this two winding
transformer can be also used to change a voltage from 600 V to 800 V, why not, provided
you connect like this. And the moment you connect like this, you can immediately tell,
then it is like an auto transformer, where you are stepping up the voltage, this way you
have connected that is the thing I want to tell. It can be connected in this way 800 V ok.

Now, one interesting thing I must tell you here that rated currents of the windings are
known LV side rated current is 60, HV side is 20 ok. Now, the question is how much
current I will allow to flow, what sort of impedance should I connect, what will be the
rated I mean the maximum current I can draw from this combination, here what should be
the current I must allow to flow through the load, this is load, how much? The rated current
of 200 V is 60 Amp.

287
So, pass 60 Amp, I can pass no problem, these winding. Because the from the dot if 60
Amp comes out I know through the dot here 20 Amp must flow, this I know from my two
winding transformer. Whenever in this is dot, this is dot, this fellow carries 60 Amp rated
current, this will draw 20 Amp ideal transformer consider first, it will draw 20 Amp. Why
it should draw 20 Amp, so that it can balance this mmf, so that the flux is created only by
that magnetizing current which is very little, because KVL is to be satisfied here, flux will
remain same, no matter what you are connecting across this two terminals that is the good
old explanation.

Therefore, simply because you have connected in this fashion those rules are still not
existing is not correct, it is there. Through the dot if you want to draw some current,
through this dot, do not show it here, 20 Amp through this high voltage winding there must
be 20 Amp in this direction.

I will come, just let me see whether any mistake I have done, but let me carry on. So, this
is 60, this is 20. Then what is the input current, input current must be 80 Amp. So, 80 Amp
goes there, 20 Amp comes, 60 comes here. So, KCL is satisfied here, there and so on,
everything is fine ok. And I will say I will be very happy, flux will be at the rated value as
in a two winding transformer when it is used, coils are carrying rated currents that is also
very good.

But one interesting thing has happened that is if you now look with a an open mind, you
will see this way if you connect, how much KVA the transformer is handling, how much
KVA I write it how much KVA the transformer is handling that is the question? How much
KVA it is supplying to the load or how much KVA it is drawing from the source, this is
source? How much KVA it is delivering?

800 × 60 = 48𝐾𝑉𝐴

And how much KVA it is drawing from supply, KVA drawn from supply is

600 × 80 = 48𝐾𝑉𝐴

Ideal two winding transformer.

As I told you that better start with ideal transformer things will be closed to this numbers
nothing. So, and it is fine, it is delivering 48 KVA as I told you in the previous example,

288
nothing doing it must also absorb 48 KVA from the supply. But here lies the some fallacy
is there, when you use these two winding transformer, as a two winding transformer that
is you will connect load here, this current 60 Amp. And at that time this current HV side
current will be 20 Amp. What is the KVA handled? If it is used at the rated two winding
transformer,

600 × 20 = 200 × 60 = 12𝐾𝑉𝐴

That is what it is rated two winding transformer.

But the moment you connect it in this fashion, we find that this way of connecting the
transformer can handle 48 KVA without overloading the transformer that is the most
important part. It is now handling 48 KVA. So, KVA handled now is 48 KVA and I must
write along with it without overloading the transformer, it is not overloaded rated current
of this 60 Amp fine, rated current of this 20 Amp it is fine, rated voltage of this winding
600 V, rated voltage of this winding is 200 V.

So, everything is in rated condition so far as windings or coils are concerned. And still it
is handling as two winding transformer it could handle only 12 KVA, but to much of
surprise it looks like 4 times more it is handling, is not what is the thing which makes it to
deliver 48 KVA. The answer to this is that in an auto transformer, power is delivered from
the primary to the secondary side is by two means.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:04)

289
Why, for example, in an auto transformer which is stepped down we have considered I
have not told anything about that till now this an auto transformer. Give some input power
get some output power that is fine. And in this case, it is a step up, and I told you nothing
is sacred about 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 that is fine in whichever way you go.

So, this input power is transmitted to this secondary by two mains; one is power is
transferred to the secondary side. Both for step down and step up case, it does not matter
here as you can see power is transferred to this secondary side by two means to the
secondary side from primary side, from primary side by two means. What are the two
means? One by transformer action and two by direct electrical connections that is how we
explain this by direct electrical connection, connection.

What is this direct electrical connection? In this case through this, whether there was some
induced voltage or not still power would have delivered here also there is a direct
connection. But as a two winding transformer that is that electrical conduction transfer
from primary to secondary is not there, because there is no connection between these two,
but here this is how this thing.

Now, the question is how much, therefore, it looks like out of this 48 KVA, a portion is
transferred by because of magnetic induction by transformer action. And the remaining
portion then must have been delivered because of direct conduction of power from primary
to secondary side. Now, the question is how to calculate the power delivered by
transformer action?

Listen here, come here in this slide. This two windings this two are separate windings this
fellow is carrying 60A and then this fellow is drawing 20A from the dot in the winding.
Therefore, by these two coils can be treated as isolated coil and the Volt Amp handled by
this because of transformer action, I write by different color that is by transformer action
KVA transmitted should be equal to

20 × 600 = 200 × 60 = 12𝐾𝑉𝐴

In fact, by transformer action, it cannot do anything better 12 KVA only and then I will
say 48 KVA is total transferred. So, I will say KVA transferred by electrical conduction
must be

290
 48𝐾𝑉𝐴 − 12𝐾𝑉𝐴 = 36𝐾𝑉𝐴

So, this is quite interesting to note, that is a two winding transformer will carry rated
currents will have rated voltage across it and still it can transfer a much more KVA
provided you connect it in this fashion ok. And this is always done like this. For example,
I will just the same problem I will do, so that you understand where we are going.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:43)

Suppose, this two coils the same transformer can be connected in different ways, suppose
what was the rating, one was 600 V, another is 200 V ok. So, suppose I say that this is the
600 V, this is the 200 V, this two windings have connected in series. I can say that this can
be also used. And suppose your supply voltage is 800 V that I can apply, because it is then
𝑁
the voltage will be divided induced voltage in this ratio 𝑁1, whatever it is a 800 V. And I
2

can take tapping here and supply a 200 V to the load is that clear? So, the same two winding
transformer this is 600 V, this is 200 V, this two are dots. I have connected them in series
with regard to dot polarities and supplied it with 800 V.

So, if it is 800 V, then here the voltage will be 600 V, even when load has not been
connected, because voltage for turn remains same and 200 V here. And I can supply a 200
V here. Now, here once again I pose the same problem it is a step down connection. So,
the question is how much current should I now allow to I mean what should be my load
impedance, so that the transformer winding currents will be rated. Are you getting? You

291
cannot just connect any impedance. So, without satisfying yourself that ok, if I connect
these value of impedance then winding currents will be rated.

It is true when the HB side will carry rated current, you do not have to worry LB side will
automatically carry rated current, so that the mmf will be balanced. Now, the big question
is how to handle this situation this I will handle in this way now. What is the rated current
of the HB side, it was?

Student: 20.

20 Amp this side rated current is?

Student: 60.

60 Amp low voltage side higher current, high voltage side low current. Therefore, I can
say that look here under no circumstances, the maximum possible load maximum current
you should draw here that will yield 60 Amp here, because that is the rated current that is
the rated current of this winding, I am so sorry, this is 20 Amp, is not it? So, maximum
KVA of the load should be

800 × 20 = 16𝐾𝑉𝐴

And this 16 KVA will come here I know the voltage. So,

16000
= 80𝐴𝑚𝑝
200

So, I will draw 80 Amp, I am because this is not the winding current. And you see yourself
this is 20Amp, this is 80Amp apply KCL here, is it not? What will be this current 60Amp?
Then only this will be 20 + 60 = 80. Here also 80A, 60A goes up 20A comes here. So,
once again it is KVA handled by the transformer this time is not 48 KVA, it is 16 KVA
which is greater than 12 KVA. How much KVA is conducted by conduction? KVA
conducted by magnetically or by transformer action will be

20 × 600 = 200 × 60 = 12𝐾𝑉𝐴

292
And I know what is the maximum KVA it can handle that KVA is 16 KVA, this number.
So, where from this extra KVA is coming, I will conclude that KVA transferred by through
electrical conduction is this

16𝐾𝑉𝐴 − 12𝐾𝑉𝐴 = 4𝐾𝑉𝐴

Therefore, I will request you, you try several combinations of connecting this two coils in
series, apply voltage, stepping up, stepping out down, it may be it may so happen that you
your dot is here, this dot is there. So, I leave it that has an exercise and find it out. Except
one thing I will tell, this could be this numbers I calculated like this, also it could be done
like this very quickly I will tell this is the thing. Here was the load.

Now, first thing I told you that this two are dots given is it not? And I told you that this is
the HV side. And I will not allow this 20 Amp first I decide 20 Amp. But then I will argue
if this is 20 Amp instead of calculating in input KVA, I could also say like this. If this is
20 Amp coming in through the dot of this transformer at that 20 Amp must 60 Amp flow,
then only this two mmfs will be balanced and then I could arrive at this 60𝐴 + 20𝐴 = 80𝐴
alternatively also in this way. So, get used to it please 20 Amp, very simple calculation
otherwise.

Thank you, we will continue with this.

293
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 31
Practical Auto Transformer

(Refer Slide Time: 00:22)

Welcome to 31st lecture on Electrical Machines I. In our last class as you know, we were
discussing about how a two winding transformer can be also connected as an auto
transformer and for some two connections, interesting connections. We how to calculate
the distribution of current in several windings? See, a two winding transformer when you
connect in auto transformer form it really this primary and secondary winding is really
unaware of the fact that you have connected in this manner or like a two winding
transformer; it only knows this much that if it has to deliver 60 amp. The moment it
delivers through the dots here 20 amp must come in; that is what duties.

Voltages are rated voltages; based on that everything all the calculations go, And as and
we have also seen another interesting feature that a two winding transformer whose rating
is suppose for the numerical example we have considered 12 KVA. It can be; apparently
it looks something very surprising that the KVA handled by this connection is much more
than the KVA rating of the two winding transformer and we also told that this is possible
in this mode of connection because of the fact that power will be transferred from source

294
to the load side either by two actions. One is just by transformer action another is by
electrical conduction.

It is very easy to calculate how much is transferred by transformer action that I will
calculate. And from the total KVA I will subtract that to figure out how much is conducted
by conduction that way you just think. And you can do; and of course, these are the only
two connections I have discussed; you try on your own how differently you can connect
this two coils in, apply voltage appropriate voltage mind you to the windings to get how
much KVA? How much current? The interesting thing is whichever winding is left out
alone sort of thing you first fix up that current I should not allow more than. And the
moment you decide that current the other part of the winding which is which has its own
identities separate no common portion of this and this.

Therefore this current can be fixed up and then, the total current. Anyway this you please
try solve many problems. Now, in today’s lecture I; my plan is to tell you something what
is going to happen if it is a practical auto transformer.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:57)

I will discuss that, but before that one point I must tell you; see, auto transformer is the
thing. What will be its useful applications auto transformer? It is useful applications will
be you must have heard that starting of three phase induction motor; is not? You use an
auto transformer start it at a tapings of 𝑥 then the current drawn from this supply is reduced.

295
Torque is also of course, reduced by a factor of 𝑥 2 current drawn from the supply is
reduced by 𝑥 and so on.

Another interesting application of auto transformer will be to connect two power systems.
You must understand this point that we have in our country or in all other countries also
there are common power grid ok; you have several level of voltages ok. Suppose, the the
one line 400 KV system ok; see, eastern region grid; suppose, there is a grid eastern region
400 KV. Now, the western region grid also should be supposed to be 400 KV ok, another
grid with different colors I will draw; try to understand. This is supposed to be also 400
KV.

And you know this power lines will be ultimately connected in parallel that is this is
suppose A phase B phase C phase, A phase B phase C phase, coming from western region
grid; this is coming from eastern region grid and loads are connected in both the system,
but I want to make them common member; that is power may go when, there is deficiency
in power generation in western grid. Perhaps, this grid will supply power or there and vice
versa.

So, grids, common grids if you want to make all over the country; all the grids are to be
connected in parallel. Suppose, this level of voltage should be also 400 KVA then, only
this two can be; suppose this is A phase; this is B phase; this is C phase and these are
corresponding phases here ABC. This is supposed eastern region, eastern region grid; this
is western region. Who have kept this lines alive? Several generators. They are connected
in parallel you get the voltage. Here also several generators connected in parallel as
generated this grid. Now suppose, you want to make it more flexible that I will connect
them also in parallel and if due to some reason Western Region some generators fail. So,
the eastern region can help to pump power into this side or vice versa that is what I am
telling.

Now, what happens is this? This is 400KV when you connect this to in; if you want to
short this you cannot just do just like that because of the fact the level of the voltage must
be same. It may so happen; it is absolutely this side voltage is suppose not 400 KV because
of some practical reason or otherwise, it is suppose 390 KV; are you getting? Because
loads here also it is not 400 KV; may be 402 KV or say 395 KV because you will be
loading. These systems are loaded; this bus voltage may not exactly match. Suppose it is

296
395 KV, but I want to connect them in parallel. So that flexibility increases this side can
feed power; this side can feed power and what not.

So, in such situations these two systems can be connected. If you connect an auto
transformer in between, three phase auto transformer I will tell what this auto transformer.
Three phase through an auto transformer you will be able to parallel; two winding
transformer can be also used to parallel them, but I will not do that why? Because I see
that the ratio of the voltage is so small; 395 KV to 390 KV I have to connect. This side is
395 KV; this side 390 KV, nothing better than auto transformer you should think about
because turns ratio or the voltage ratio is close to 1.

You will be saving more or very large amount of copper; size of the auto transformer will
be less. So, this is one very practical use of an auto transformer, three phase auto
transformer. Now, what is a three phase auto transformer? I will just this I will take up
when I will take three phase transformer; right now you just try to understand. Here is a
case, where the voltage ratios will be close to 1 and I have to connect these two.

So that I can parallel them not directly because if I connect them directly without
transformer 5 KV difference will cause large current to flow almost like short circuit. So,
this is one case or maybe you can connect an auto transformer to start a three phase
induction motor. Of course, I must add one remark. Now to start an induction motor using
a bulky auto transformer that too I mean is not a good solution; there are very good
solutions because of the use of inverters power electronics there, but earlier it was very
much used.

So, auto transformer is a natural choice when, the voltage of the two sides you require
voltage levels are of this same order ok you really save money copper that is there. Now,
another thing you have used in the laboratory which is called Variac sorry Variac. In the
laboratory you must have used to carry out experiments and I also was telling that is it is
drawn like this and this stepping point you can move you can adjust to anywhere you like
and you can supply your load at various level of voltage.

Suppose, there is 220 V you want to do some experiments to find out the characteristics of
the load starting from 0 V up to 220 V. So, there is a pointer there which you can vary by
rotating a shaft through a carbon brass this is connected. You touch different segments of
the turns and gradually you can increase voltage to the load.

297
But it is called Variac. It will be same the current distribution etcetera we have to find out
from the whatever analysis we have done like that you have to do no doubt about it, but
here while doing this, while making this variac do you think the cross sectional area of this
portion is less than the cross sectional area of this portion no because you do not know
where he will be operating; so, this must be understood.

Variac is strictly not an auto transformer in this sense we design the auto transformer get
some economic advantage. Well, here nothing like that you should be prepared. So, the
gauge of the wire here throughout is fixed; you must understand this distinction in a variac
laboratory equipment that is why you will find variac is too heavy mean there is no savings
this side. Its KVA rating is known; maximum current it can draw and so on. This point I
must bring out to you. So that you distinguish between an auto transformer, dedicated auto
transformer like this where it will be used; it will have a fixed tapping; is not?

This is thinner wire. I drew with different colors, fixed tapping over. Nothing like that this
can be moved this way that way. If you do it between taking lot of risk you do not know
what is the current rating, mixed up current rating of the turns? I hope you have got the
point. So, this must be kept in mind.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:23) .

Now, I will discuss what to do if the auto transformer; how to analyze a circuit involving
an auto transformer, but which is not ideal, non ideal auto transformer, a practical auto
transformer; what should I do? Practical auto transformer not variac; a practical two

298
winding transformer we; you have to take then 𝑟1, 𝑥1 ; 𝑟2 , 𝑥2 and then, magnetizing
reactance 𝑋𝑚1 and 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 core loss component of resistance; all these things we have to bring
here.

So, similarly in the auto transformer since there is a core; there is time varying field
therefore, there will be core losses and not only that there will be this is the auto
transformer thing where a fixed tapping is taken. So, this portion of the winding will have
𝑟1, 𝑥1 ; this portion of the winding will have 𝑟2 , 𝑥2 and so on. Similarly, the magnetizing
branch and no load current; first what will do is this I will assume that windings will have
some resistance and leakage reactance because leakage flux will be there and this portion
and this portion of the windings have their own electrical identity no mixed up between
them.

So, I will say the resistance of this portion of the winding is 𝑟2 and leakage reactance is 𝑥2
and this portion of the winding is 𝑟1 and 𝑥1 ; I can very well define that ok. So long when
there was this things were and magnetizing and no load current first neglect. I will tell you
how to take no load current, neglect no load current; that means, 𝐼0 which implies that I
am telling that 𝑋𝑚 → ∞ and 𝑅𝑐𝑙 → ∞ it means that we shall see. Now, and I will first draw
as usual; this is my transformer and I use this nomenclature AC and this is BC. And I will
say that

𝑁𝐴𝐶 = 𝑁1

𝑁𝐵𝐶 = 𝑁2

This two are my output where, I will connect load; is not? This is the thing.

Now, I am saying that this portion AB has a resistance 𝑟1, 𝑥1 and this portion BC is having
a resistance 𝑟2 and leakage reactance 𝑥2 and here I am applying a voltage 𝑉1. Earlier, when
this things were not present 𝑉1 is equal to the induced voltage here; 𝑉2 was equal to induced
voltage here. Therefore, we can easily see that if I want to show this resistance and leakage
reactance I must draw it like this. A point I will draw it slightly higher place. So, I will
draw it in this way. A; I start from a point; 𝑉1 is the supply voltage A. Then, there will be
just like two winding transformer 𝑟1, 𝑥1 ; it will only cause extra voltage drop and then, we
will come your 𝑉1 and this two were dots, I am not sure whether it will be 𝐸1 . I will write
what it will begin.

299
Now, I reach up to point B. So, it will be; this is the point B and then, I will draw 𝑟2 ; I will
draw I mean 𝑗𝑥2 I am not writing you understand it is 𝑗𝑥2 , 𝑟2 𝑥2 and then, there will be
another induced emf in this portion. This induced emf, I can write it is 𝐸2 no problem why?
Because this is the voltage you have applied; flux is same. So, voltage induced 𝑁𝐵𝐶 = 𝑁2 .
So,

𝐸2 = 4.44𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁2

𝐸1 = 4.44𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁1

So, this is the induced voltage correctly I have drawn and voltage per turn is fixed; how
𝑉
much it is? It is approximately 𝑁1 , total number of turns
1

Number of turns here is (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 ). So, what will be the induced voltage here? It will be
(𝐸1 − 𝐸2 ). Are you with me? Because induced voltage in 𝑁1 turns; if I call it as 𝐸1 , induced
voltage in (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 ) turns will be (𝐸1 − 𝐸2 ). So, I let me write 𝐸1 = 4.44𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁1 ;
between these two terms 𝐸2 = 4.44𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁2 and if I say what is the induced voltage
between A and B; here, what will be the induced voltage? It will be equal to

𝐸𝐴𝐵 = (𝐸1 − 𝐸2 ) = 4.44𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 )

So, this is the thing and here will be one load. So, immediately we see that there will be;
it is not as simple as that of a two winding transformer where, the equivalent circuit was
𝑟1, 𝑥1 and so on 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 . Here this, this is what it should look like and there will be a
distinction between 𝑉1 and see, if you start from this to this in so for as induced voltage is
concerned it is fine; 𝐸2 and 𝐸2 will cancel and 𝐸1 induced voltage, but there is a mix up
now.

I will tell that this current is 𝐼2 first thing is; first thing first 𝐼2 and suppose, I say that this
current is 𝐼1 . I do not know what are the relationships that I will find out, but I am sure
about one point that is if this is 𝐼2 ; if this is 𝐼1 no matter whether 𝑟1 𝑥1 or 𝑟2 𝑥2 are present;
the current here has to be (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) and this current has to be 𝐼1 it does not debar me or
does not confuse me that 𝑟1 𝑥1 is there; can I write these? Yes; KCL I have simply applied.

But only argument is interesting argument; see, the portion AB and portion BC they are
two individual coils as if and these voltage I will call 𝑉2 terminal voltage which is not same

300
as 𝐸2 because 𝑟2 𝑥2 is there, but 𝑟2 𝑥2 is not carrying same current as the load it is different.
So, this current is (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ); is not? So, therefore, the moment load is connected some 𝐼2 is
flowing it will draw some current 𝐼2 and this time 𝑟1 𝑥1 and 𝑟2 𝑥2 is present I cannot easily
say how much current it will draw by balancing output power and input power because
there will be power loss in this element; in this element as well; is not? It is slightly
complicated, but one thing is clear, the mmf balance that rule must prevail. If this portion
carries winding, this portion cannot remain silent.

Therefore, I will say and this two are dots. So,

(𝑁1 − 𝑁2 )𝐼1 = 𝑁2 (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 )

𝑁1 𝐼1 = 𝑁2 𝐼2

See, the point is I should not start from this I must establish it. So, happens that like a two
winding transformer I mean 𝑁1 𝐼1 = 𝑁2 𝐼2 . I have derived that I will define

𝑁1
=𝑎
𝑁2

Then, I will say that

𝐼2
𝐼1 =
𝑎

This much I am I can confidently say. This I am sure off; got the point; this is the thing.
Now, this voltage is 𝑉2 and this voltage is 𝑉1, applied voltage; terminal voltage, induced
voltage they are not now same there will be a little drop here, but this tells me that the
voltage here across so called across AB portion of the winding, this must be (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )
with this side plus this side minus.

Now, look at this; today, I will only tell this much look at this portion this coil and this
coil. These two coils are separate; is not magnetically coupled? Therefore, I can say that I
mean what I am trying to tell in the next page I will draw.

301
(Refer Slide Time: 29:30)

What I am telling is AB is a coil and I will write BC is another coil; this two coils and I
find that A B has been supplied with a voltage of (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) terminal voltage; is not? And
this fellow across 𝑉2 I am not showing the load yet because the problem here is this coil
current and load current as different, but can say this much. See, this winding is delivering
a current of (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ); this much I am certain.

What things is to be connected to achieve this? Let us not bother right now, but this is what
I can think of ok. So, I will draw once again here. So that we can easily refer to A, B and
C. What I am telling this current is (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) and this current is 𝐼1 and this voltage is 𝑉1
and this terminal voltage is 𝑉2; these are all fine 𝑉2; this current is 𝐼2 that is there, but if
you look at this two separate coils it is telling me as if I can draw this diagram and say that
it is a at least these two portions are a two winding transformer across the primary of which
I have applied (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) and secondary is loaded such that it delivers a current of (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 )
this much I can say.

And then, I will say; so for as this transformer is concerned what is the number of turns of
this 𝑁𝐴𝐵 = (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 ) is not very interesting, (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 ) is the number of turns and what
is the number of turns of this 𝑁2 ? I will say that this is a transformer whose turns ratio is
(𝑁1 −𝑁2 )
.
𝑁2

(𝑁1 −𝑁2 )
I will say whose trans ratio is this and this one is equal to then,
𝑁2

302
 (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 )
=𝑎−1
𝑁2

Because I have defined

𝑁1
𝑎=
𝑁2

Now, please be with me, what I have done; these two are separate windings. This fellow
is carrying a current (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ); this portion is carrying a current 𝐼1 . So, it is just like a two
winding transformer having applied voltage to this coil

𝑉𝐴 𝐵 = (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )

𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉2

So, this is the thing and if that be the case then, I will say that this is a transformer of ratio
(𝑎 − 1): 1. Then I will go another step ahead and today, I will stop it here. Then draw the
equivalent circuit; equivalent circuit of this thing circuit refer to source; refer to I will not
say source, to (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) side because this winding will see it across it has been applied a
voltage of (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) and what will be the equivalent circuit? (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) is the applied
voltage; is not? Then there is 𝑟1; there is 𝑥1 will be there, it is winding; this winding 𝑟1 𝑥1 .
This winding B C, I have assumed that to be 𝑟2 𝑥2 ; so, this will be 𝑟1 𝑥1 and this will be
your what? 𝑟2′ and 𝑥2′ .

Now, the big question is what is this 𝑟2′ in terms of 𝑟2 ? Turns ratio is this. So, this must be

𝑟2′ = (𝑎 − 1)2 𝑟2

not 𝑎2 𝑟2 . Similarly, this

𝑥2′ = (𝑎 − 1)2 𝑥2

What voltage should I write? Here, this 𝑉2 . So, I must write it here

𝑉2 ′ = (𝑎 − 1)𝑉2

Actual voltage 𝑉2 into a times this. See, what I have drawn; I have this two windings I
have drawn separately, they are doing this.

303
So that I can invoke whatever I have learned from two winding transformer those simple,
but important principles I will straightaway apply and say this is the thing. We will
continue with this in the next class; it will take some time, but up to this point be absolutely
clear ok; try to understand it is very logical and interesting. In autotransformer the
equivalent circuit drawing is slightly; I will not say the word tricky, but rather I will say
you have to apply your own minds correctly. So that correct equivalent circuit you can
draw refer to a particular side.

Thank you.

304
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 32
Equivalent Circuit of Auto Transformer

(Refer Slide Time: 00:19)

So, welcome to next lecture on Electrical Machines I. And we have been discussing about
the Equivalent Circuit of a practical Auto Transformer. And this equivalent circuit when
compared to a two windings transformer is somewhat difficult to obtain and that is why
we were discussing it how to get it you recall from my earlier lecture.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:51)

305
This was the actual auto transformer which is practical and I assume that this these are the
usual current distribution I have assumed. Here is 𝐼1 here is 𝐼2 . And this part AB which is
having (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 ) turns. And part BC these are two different coils they have nothing in
common between them and this part suppose has got a resistance 𝑟1 and leakage reactance
𝑥1 . And similarly this part BC has got a resistance 𝑟2 and 𝑥2 and we know the current
distribution and 𝑧2 is the load.

Now, without of course, having an equivalent circuit drawn, this circuit as such is also
electrically connected is not by this point. So, it looks like a network problem that way it
can be solved that is if you know 𝑉2 if you know 𝐼2 if you know these parameters, then 𝑉
plus this current into 𝑟2 , 𝑥2 these that two loops are there two meshes these circuit can be
handled. But only transformer business which will come in here to note that the induced
voltage (𝐸1 − 𝐸2 ) here 𝐸2 here this ratio of these voltage is

(𝐸1 − 𝐸2 ) (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 )
=
𝐸2 𝑁2

That is the thing, but it can be handled that way.

But we want to find out equivalent circuit and equivalent circuit of this transformer
referred to say source side that is this side.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:51)

306
So, to do this next what we did is that portion AB and BC we noted in my last class is that
these two windings are separate; this winding has a turns (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 ) this winding has a
turn 𝑁2 only. Therefore, and this part is having I am sorry this is having 𝑟1, 𝑥1 and this is
𝑟2 , 𝑥2 ; only thing is the as if the voltage applied to this winding is (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) and this side
it is 𝑉2. And the current this winding is delivering is (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) and not this 𝐼2 mind this we
understand. Therefore, between these two windings I can apply all the rules that I have
applied for a two winding transformers having trans ratio (𝑎 − 1): 1, what is 𝑎?

𝑁1
𝑎=
𝑁2

That we know.

Therefore, it looks like the equivalent circuit referred to (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) side of these two coils
will be like this, (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ), 𝑟1, 𝑥1 then these parameters will be referred to their turns ratio
is this. So, 𝑟2′ = (𝑎 − 1)2 𝑟2 , 𝑥2′ = (𝑎 − 1)2 𝑥2 and here you will get this actual voltage 𝑎𝑉2
means in this case (𝑎 − 1)𝑉2. And mind you this current here is not 𝐼2 how much will be
𝐼2
the current? In case of two winding transformer you know it comes, so it will be
𝑎

(𝐼2 − 𝐼1 )
(𝑎 − 1)

This will be the current. So, what we have got here that I will that will be the starting point
here.

307
(Refer Slide Time: 05:37)

So, I will redraw it on a fresh page that is here is your 𝑟1, 𝑥1 was there, then the reflected
value; 𝑟2′ , 𝑥2′ is here.

𝑟2′ = (𝑎 − 1)2 𝑟2

𝑥2′ = (𝑎 − 1)2 𝑥2

This is the thing.

Magnetizing branch till now we have neglected that can be easily incorporated later. And
this voltage was (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) and this voltage is how much (𝑎 − 1)𝑉2 this diagram only I
have redrawn there afresh so this is the thing.

Now, in this equivalent circuit this plus minus usual plus minus usual and this current is
(𝐼2 −𝐼1 )
(𝑎−1)
. But we have seen that

𝐼2
𝐼1 =
𝑎

That we have already established is not from this MMF balance recall this we will always
use. See

(𝑁1 − 𝑁2 )𝐼1 = 𝑁2 (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 )

308
 𝑁1 𝐼1 = 𝑁2 𝐼2

𝐼2
∴ 𝐼1 =
𝑎

𝑁1
𝑎=
𝑁2

So, knowing these what is our goal? Goal is to replace this equivalent circuit similar to
that of the equivalent circuit of a two widening transformer, that is my input voltage 𝑉1
should be present here alone load side there should be 𝑉2 alone present, current some 𝐼2′
sort of thing should be present things like that we are trying to do.

Now, what is the importance of doing this? If you do this way then this equation by
applying KVL rule I can write down

(𝐼2 − 𝐼1 )
(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) = (𝑎 − 1)𝑉2 + (𝑟 + 𝑗𝑥𝑒1 )
(𝑎 − 1) 𝑒1

𝑟𝑒1 = 𝑟1 + (𝑎 − 1)2 𝑟2

𝑥𝑒1 = 𝑥1 + (𝑎 − 1)2 𝑥2

So, what is 𝐼2 ?

𝐼2 = 𝑎𝐼1

(𝑎 − 1)𝐼1
𝑉1 = 𝑎𝑉2 + (𝑟 + 𝑗𝑥𝑒1 )
(𝑎 − 1) 𝑒1

𝑉1 = 𝑎𝑉2 + 𝐼1 (𝑟𝑒1 + 𝑗𝑥𝑒1 )

And now I am happy ok, I have got an equation which is really we are looking forward
that is after getting this equation, I will say that this equation prompts me to draw the
equivalent circuit referred to primary from this equation. As if a voltage is there 𝑉1 this
side and here is the impedance (𝑟𝑒1 + 𝑗𝑥𝑒1 ) where 𝑟𝑒1 = 𝑟1 + (𝑎 − 1)2 𝑟2 , 𝑥𝑒1 = 𝑥1 +
(𝑎 − 1)2 𝑥2 and then here is I am having 𝑎𝑉2 .

So, this current is 𝐼1 is not this equation suggests that, that this is 𝐼1 therefore, 𝑎𝑉2 plus the
drops gives you 𝑉1 in the same way as we draw the equivalent circuit referred to primary

309
of a two winding transformer. But there is an important difference what is that important
difference ok, terminal voltage gets multiplied by 𝑎𝑉2 fine.

Only basic differences the 𝑟2 and 𝑥2 are to be multiplied by not 𝑎2 , but (𝑎 − 1)2 got the
point, so this is the thing. Then that one has to remember at least with refer to primary if
you draw then the equivalent circuits will be like this. And then after that everything is
fine that you can draw the phasor diagram start with 𝑎𝑉2 here 𝑎 is a scalar number this is
also direction of 𝑉2 then draw 𝐼1 and then draw this drops at and you get 𝑉1.

So, this is how the equivalents circuit of an auto transformer can be drawn or obtained;
and to do that the method there are several other treatment people write lot of equations
try to prove it. But what I am telling this can be very quickly drawn provided you apply
the rules of two winding transformer for the windings AB and BC because they are
separate winding and so, as if I say that across AB, 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 is applied this one, but only
thing is its turns ratio is this therefore, it is to be multiplied these voltage will come like
that.

And then, defining this 𝑟𝑒1 = 𝑟1 + (𝑎 − 1)2 𝑟2 , 𝑥𝑒1 = 𝑥1 + (𝑎 − 1)2 𝑥2 and so on. You will
come here then, from this you write down the KVL equation of this and that and soon I
find this is the equation this is the reflected current and so on. So, with respect to primary
this is the equivalent circuit. In the same way that is from this equation only if you wish
that I am not doing mind you. I will be able to draw, the equivalent circuit referred to the
load side also got the point I will be getting the equivalent circuit referred to the load side
as well.

Starting from this basic equation here, I will be able to do that clear, but that I leave it to
you to ponder over, but better do not waste too much time on that is also true because one
𝐼
side you have got that is fine only one point in this diagram. This 𝐼1 = 𝑎2 .

𝑎𝑉2
What do you think the impedance connected here it will be this voltage 𝐼 this point is
( 2)
𝑎

worth mentioning impedance here, load impedance I will at least from this circuit it tells
𝑎𝑉2
me it is 𝐼 , which is equal to
( 2)
𝑎

310
 𝑎𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑍= = 𝑎2 ( ) = 𝑎2 𝑍2
𝐼 𝐼2
( 𝑎2 )

Mind you, this current these two isolated current is (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) and 𝐼1 they must balance the
MMF the rules of two winding transformer follows.

But (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) is not your load current that is why that complication comes in, that is if I
say across the output terminals of the auto transformer that is here if I draw it to highlight
that; if it is 𝑍2 , this is 𝐼2 and this is (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) and this is 𝐼1 is it? Therefore, the load
impedance will be multiplied by 𝑎2 because of the fact 𝐼2 is not part of this current got the
point therefore, this point should be remembered.

So, auto transformer equivalent circuit if you want to draw is slightly difficult means if
you are conceptually ok, you can easily develop, but one should be careful. The winding
leakage impedance will be multiplied by (𝑎 − 1)2 , but the load impedance should be
𝑁
multiplied by 𝑎2 where 𝑎 = 𝑁1 is not. So, the that is all I mean equivalent circuit we have
2

completed.

But only thing is I will just now tell you now suppose, I say that in this equivalent circuit
you have not talked about the no load current. In any case I will consider the approximate
equivalent circuit therefore, the magnetising current and core loss component of resistance
that is the loss component of current; can be shown to be connected right across the supply
terminals as two components; one is 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 , another is 𝑋𝑚1. For example, here I will connect
𝑅𝑐𝑙1 and 𝑋𝑚1 got the point.

So, if I draw it here that I can always do. So, equivalent circuit of an auto transformer, in
fact, a lecture 32 I have written here we were at on the verge of completion last lecture
itself, but anyway. So, this will be then 𝑉1, (𝑟𝑒1 + 𝑗𝑥𝑒1 ) and this is 𝑎𝑉2. And the load
impedance whatever was connected will be multiplied by 𝑎2 𝑍2 and this 𝑟𝑒1 = 𝑟1 +
(𝑎 − 1)2 𝑟2 , 𝑥𝑒1 = 𝑥1 + (𝑎 − 1)2 𝑥2 do not forget that is it.

And if you consider this impedance, refer to this side show it here supply side as 𝑋𝑚1 and
𝑅𝑐𝑙1 like the two winding transformer and this is 𝐼1 is the current here clear. So, 𝐼1 then I
should tell this one perhaps I will tell some reflected current of these primary side that is,
𝐼 𝐼
𝐼2′ and once again 𝐼2′ is not (𝑎−1)
2
it is 𝐼2′ = 𝑎2 .

311
I think we have spent enough time go through it and try to solve some problems on this
auto transformer equivalent circuit. We will also give you some problems in the tutorial or
in the hand lecture notes some solve problem, I will try my best to include that, but it is
very interesting to study the autotransformer; because autotransformers are all both the
two winding transformer and autotransformers are used.

Although you can change the level of voltage from one level to another, for any ratios
theoretically it is possible, but there are some advantages of auto autotransformer while
the voltage ratios are not deferring too much. Then you choose auto transformer, then also
isolation problem we can easily see is not that urgent at the same time economically it will
be much attractive. And two winding transformer on the other hand gives you the isolation
where it is needed.

After completing this, our next topic will be a 3 phase transformers. But before 3 phase
transformer one small thing I would like to tell you a tidbits of see two winding transformer
for example, about one test I will just tell. We have talked about open circuit and short
circuit test on a two winding transformer mind you, in auto transformer I am not going to
those tests, but if this equivalent circuit is with you can easily find out these parameters by
doing similar test this.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:30)

But what I am telling is, for 2 winding transformer you recall for 2 winding transformer,
we have done open circuit test and short circuit test, to find out parameters equivalent

312
circuit parameters to find out that we have done. And I told you during open circuit test
you recall you apply rated voltage 𝑉1 rated at rated frequency rated frequency secondary
is open.

So, for this test open circuit test when you connect like that flux will be rated flux will be
rated and there will be core loss only core loss only; because the copper loss is negligibly
small secondary winding is not carrying any current and primary current is only two to
five percent. So, only core loss takes place during open circuit test.

On the other hand during short circuit test, you keep the secondary shorted, here you apply
not rated voltage such that rated current flows current is rated here 𝐼1 rated; since applied
voltage is pretty small and flux in the core is directly proportional to the applied voltage.
So, flux will be very less, but current will be rated. So, in this test what happens is this
practically core lose is can be assumed to be zero, core loss is absent, as if is absent
compared to copper loss all the losses will be copper loss to copper loss ok. And when the
transformer will be in use this is during test these I told, but I am once again perhaps
repeating, but it is better to repeat keep these points in mind.

When the transformer will be in operation it will be 𝑉1 rated here also and the windings
will carry rated current both the windings at full load condition, is not here load is
connected rated voltage. And secondary is not silent it is supplying power therefore, during
operation this is during operation at rated condition operation at rated condition both the
losses are present, both core and copper losses are rated are rated values are rated are
present you cannot neglect one from the other that is fine.

Therefore, during open circuit test and short circuit test when you are finding out the
parameter values, the temperature rise during this test or that test will never be close to the
temperature rise of a transformer which will be put to use at rated condition. Because here
both the losses are present temperature rise will be much higher than either of this test and
that test. We will continue discussing on a very simple test, I will just mention because
that test is so nice and this will also enhance our understanding of transformers. So, I will
discuss about sampler test briefly in the next class and then starts topics on 3 phase
transformer.

Thank you.

313
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 33
Polarity Test and Sumpner Test

Welcome to 33rd lecture on Electrical Machines I.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:32)

And you know we will be discussing first another very popular test which is called
Sumpner’s test which is also called sometimes back to back test ok. And as I was telling
if you carry out the open circuit test only core loss will be there and if you carry out short
circuit test only copper loss will be there. Both the losses will be there when the
transformer will be put two operation at rated condition. At that time, so, neither during
the open circuit test nor during the short circuit test, the temperature rise of the machine
will be the actual temperature rise when the transformer will be in operation.

So, what is the solution? Solution is in the laboratory then try to load the transformer in
the laboratory connect the load and apply rated voltage at rated frequency and connect a
load such that rated current also flows and so on. Then temperature rise can be measured,
but unfortunately for a large transformers for example, a transformers of ratings of 200
KVA 500 KVA distribution transformer or more I mean ratings, then such a load will not
be available in the lab.

314
And not only that during open circuit test from the source you are drawing only the core
loss power which is responsible for core loss only. During short circuit test burden on the
supply you are putting is only of what amount of power? Very little power which will be
corresponding to short circuit test. But if you put to actual loading of a large transformer
in the lab, that huge amount of power is to be drawn from the supply this must be
understood.

So, during testing always try to draw less power from the supply at the same time see that
whatever is your objective of the test that is performed. What is the difference? If the
temperature rise is different, because in open circuit test on the very low temperature rise
and so on.

See because of temperature rise, temperature difference the resistance of the windings or
the resistance which are representing losses their values will change. Suppose during short
circuit test you calculate 𝑟𝑒1, equivalent resistance refer to primary, but when the
transformer is put to use that should be corrected because of temperature rise there is
temperature rise coefficient

𝑟𝑡 = 𝑟0 (1 + 𝛼𝑡)

Anyway, so to have a better idea of the temperature rise of a transformer one test which is
called back to back test or Sumpner test is carried out it was suggested by most probably
Sumpner. And it is very interesting test, not only the test is interesting, but at the same
time since you are studying transformer for the first time it will also enhance your
understanding whatever we have discussed earlier that is why I have chosen this topic to
be included here.

In this test what is done do not use actual loading no never uses actual loading, but at the
same time creates such a situation that transformer will feel that it is fully loaded that is
rated voltage applied, rated flux will be there and also windings will carry rated current
ok. But without drawing very large power from the source only it will draw the powers
corresponding to copper loss and corresponding to core loss that is the beauty of the test,
sometimes it is called phantom loading type thing ok.

Now let us see what this test means, only condition for this test to be successful is that you
have to take two similar transformers not with a single transformer you can do that two

315
transformer because the transformers are manufactured in large numbers. So, after
manufacturing you test them take two at a time and test them although you can do
individual open circuit short circuit test that is there.

But to carry out the test you require two identical rated, very similar rated transformer. For
example, I will take two transformer whose I will use of course, small rating say 10 KVA
just to give you a feel of what is going on. 2 numbers of 10 KVA 200V/100V 50 Hertz
single phase transformers suppose you take.

And then first thing what you have to do is that you have to carry out the polarity test, I
will also take opportunity to explain to you how to ascertain polarity test. Because that is
essential to carry out the test, unless you do not know the polarity it will be not possible to
carry out the testing it cannot be left to chances. Now, what do I mean by polarity we told
you very simple that suppose you have a transformer whose rating is 200V/100V ok.

Now, what you do here is you apply, because the dot convention is not known. Dot
convention that is if I put a dot here what to put dot there I know what it means
theoretically. And also I can ascertain that without doing any test provided you know the
sense of the winding, but in general for a practical transformers only two terminals will
come out from the primary two terminals comes out from the secondary. And windings
really you cannot see is not it will be inside a sort of black box. I mean steel box everything
will be there two terminals only come out here two terminals will come out there that is
the problem.

But as I told you dots must be known, in fact, for three phase transformer connection that
is also essential to know. In case of open circuit test, short circuit test you do not bother it
is not necessary as you understand now, for this particular test why it is necessary. Now,
as I told you in this case if what you do you apply rated voltage see how to find out; find
out dots.

So, what you do is this? You apply say to this winding 200V you apply and there is no dot
markings here. Now, but you are free to choose one dot terminal of any of these windings;
for example, you say that this is this side you take it chalk and mark this is my dot terminal
of this winding.

316
But that is what you cannot do now here, if this is positive at any one time which terminal
is positive on the other side that is the goal ok. Now, this diagram what you do is this then
you short these two terminals, you make connected take a piece of wire connect these two
terminals and take a voltmeter connect it here, that is what you do.

Now the moment you apply 200V here no matter whether you have connected this or not
by transformer principle 100V will appear here. And this 100V I am not sure, whether this
is dot or this is dot. The thing is suppose let us assume this is dot suppose, suppose this is
also dot. These two coils are connected in series as you can see and I am measuring the
voltage, what will be the volt meter reading? 100V because there in this is plus this is plus
100V. What could be the other possible reading? It could be like this dot may be here also
I am not sure. If that is the case then what will be the volt meter reading 300V.

So, it is this volt meter reading which will help me to put dot correctly either here or there
depending upon the looking at the volt meter reading. If this reads the difference of this
two voltage, then I will put dot there. If it volt meter reading gives sum of these two voltage
I will put dot here very simple logic nothing like that. Only one thing is this about this test
the comment is suppose the ratio of the transformer is very large. For example, you have
a transformer whose rating is say 1000V/100V suppose you have a transformer, in this
case then what will happen is this.

So, if you apply 1000V here, you will certainly get 100V no doubt and you are free to
choose one dot terminals of one of the coils. So, I will suppose choose here and what I told
I will connect these two points here and I will connect a voltmeter there. In this case the
volt meter readings will be either 1100V or 900V one of them will come, but you will see
with a practical voltmeter these two voltages are close by. So, a slight misinterpretation or
somewhat wrong reading of the voltmeter you really cannot ascertain that is the problem.

If the ratios of the voltages are high then difference and addition become of the same order
therefore, it will be very difficult to distinguish these two readings confidently. So, in such
cases when the voltage ratios are high, it looks like this method is not reliable. So, what
people do is this in this case for very large voltage ratios another simple test can be done
and that is called the DC kick test.

317
(Refer Slide Time: 14:48)

Very simple test what is done, you do not require also large supply rated voltage those
things may not be required what you do? You connect a switch here much simpler than
this you switch here and take a DC source batteries say. And here you connect a zero
centered moving coil voltmeter mc voltmeter that is all and the positive of the battery
wherever you are connecting put the dot there, one you can you are free to choose. Now,
and it is also a voltmeter connected between these two points, now you close this switch.
The moment you close the switch it is not AC supply, but there will be a sudden change
in flux.

Therefore, we expect there will be instantaneously there will be an induced voltage and if
this is dot happens to be dot and see moving coil meters has got plus minus marking is not
moving coil meters has got plus minus marking if current enters it gives positive. So, zero
centered meter do you taken, zero centered meter. So, you close this switch there will be
a deflection in the moving coil voltmeter a short duration steady state will soon be reached.
If it gives positive deflection you are sure this is also dot, if it gives negative if this is dot
this is dot.

So, anyway this is called DC kick test, you select this voltmeter reading such that steady
state current does not exceeds the rated current of this meter these things, but very
interesting test. So, anyway this test by doing this simple test we can find out the in polarity
of a transformer ok, so you do this. Now, coming back to Sumpner test, so two numbers

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of similarly rated transformer you take and then connect like this that is this is one
transformer.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:12)

And it is secondary is here and suppose I know the dots, even if you do not know then you
have to do those two tests to find out either of this two tests conveniently, this is
transformer one ok. This is one transformer practical transformer and you take the other
transformer which I have drawn here it is core and here also suppose these two are dots.

Now the connection, suppose these are the HV side in this case 200V and 100V both are
available in the lab we will not bother. So, what you do, you connect these two transformer
HV in this case it could be LV also no problem and connect them in parallel. And then
here in this side you connect an ammeter and then wattmeter very interesting test and apply
rated voltage.

That is in this case for this transformer I will apply 200V 50 Hz is not that is what I will
do. Suppose secondary I have not done anything they are open, what do you think this
ammeter will read and this wattmeter will read? If you apply this these two transformers
are manufactured by the same manufacturer of same ratings they are expected to have
same parameters same core loss these that etc. it is a very good assumption.

Therefore, the current the no load current will be drawn, this transformer will draw it is no
load current only no load current secondary are open this transformer also will draw no

319
load current. Therefore, I would expect this ammeter will read 2 times the no load current
that is whatever ammeter reads, divide ir by 2 and tell that the no load current of each of
the transformer is half of this that is what.

And what this wattmeter is going to read, wattmeter with the secondary open for both the
transformers wattmeter will only record the core losses, sum of the core losses of this two
transformer, because rated flux is there in both the transformer. Therefore, it will also read
2 times the core loss is not, this wattmeter will read and ammeter will read 2 times the no
load current and this wattmeter will read 2 times the core loss.

Now, as I told you this that is all it is almost like an open circuit test is not secondaries are
open. But now comes the interesting part what is done now and what will be will there be
induced voltage here? Yes it’s value is 100V just I am putting this number, so that things
are very clear what I am talking about this way. Suppose I join by a piece of wire these
two terminals and these two I bring it here, these two terminals. If I connect a voltmeter
across this what will be the reading of the voltmeter you think a bit and then tell, because
polarities are this is plus this is plus, so they are opposing.

So, it will be zero voltage. So, between these two terminals although this is a connected
by piece of wire etcetera, but voltage existing between these two point is zero, so here
voltage is zero. Now, what you do? You take an auto transformer here I mean I should say
variac in the laboratory I should draw some space is necessary. So, you connect it like this
and here once again you connect an wattmeter and an ammeter and make an arrangement,
so that you can apply small voltage here across this.

If the pointer was at this point no voltage you have applied and net emf acting in this circuit
is zero nothing happens. Now, what you do with this primary energized mind you, you
apply little voltage increase slowly ok. Then what will happen this is, what is the net emf
acting in the circuit now this 100V and this 100V will cancel out there as if not there. So,
applied voltage divided by, so apply a little voltage current will start flowing is not current
will flow. If current flows suppose for some low applied voltage suppose current.

So, increase this voltage such that rated current flows what is the rated current of this side?
It is staying as I told you given the transformer rating immediately calculated rated currents
that is always important.

320
 10000
= 100𝐴
100

That is the rated current of the LV side, perhaps the test would have been better if you
have energized 100V side current anyway; 100Amp for understanding we are doing.

So, I will apply such a voltage such that 100Amp flows here, but the moment 100Amp
flows suppose this way 100Amp is flowing this way. This is a secondary, primary of a
transformer having a magnetic core and this is also primary, secondary having its own
separate magnetic core. But flux in the core cannot be changed because KVL is to be
satisfied here that good old reasoning argument.

Therefore, through the dot 100Amp coming out for this transformer means that through
this dot 50Amp must flow through the dot current commutes through the dot 50Amp must
flow. Now, similarly for this transformer it is just happening in opposite way, as I told you
if these two are dots you can consider these two are dot as well and remove this, see these
are the things you must understand. So, through the dots here 100Amp is coming out;
therefore, in this case through this dot a 100Amp must flow as so, called is not.

So 50Amp must flow is not. Therefore, I force some current to flow in this secondary coil
in this case LV side. I think it would have been better for this transformer even to consider
100V to be the rated supply because ammeter rating and wattmeter, but anyway for just
understanding purposes.

So, this is 100Amp and then reflected current here 50Amp 100Amp, reflected current this
way. Apply KCL here what will happen? 50Amp comes in this direction is it not 50Amp
comes in and 50Amp comes in here. So, this 50Amp business never comes here, this
current still remains 2𝐼0 whatever is the no load current got the point that is the most
important thing. Now, this transformer windings are carrying rated currents therefore,
rated copper loss will take place and rated flux is also present.

So, rated core loss will also take place and also winding carrying rated current, so rated
copper loss, so both the losses are present here. This watt meter draws supply from this
supply which is equal to 2 times the core loss of individual transformers, this watt meter
will record what? Only the copper loss 2 times the full load copper loss is not, because this
current equivalent resistance this set. From this source second source here which can

321
supply large current this ammeter reading of course, will be not two times these are in
series to. So, rated LV side current this ammeter then should be based on this one 100Amp.

So, this is equal to rated LV current, in this case LV side current. So, apply such a small
why small voltage will generate large current it is because of the fact that net emf acting
in this circuit was zero, 100V 100V which was caused by this application of 200V here
they always cancel out. And therefore, you can pump current now into this network, so it
will read full load copper loss. Therefore, transformer will feel I am being used under full
load condition is not, because my windings are carrying rated current and my core is also
carrying rated flux both the losses are at their rated values.

So, temperature rise and if you do this test for a long time say 1 hour. So that the thing
attains a steady temperature I mean telling just like that put some thermometer there you I
mean just telling that I can measure the temperature rise at some convenient places to say
temperature rise here. What I am telling? That temperature rise must be higher compared
to either for open circuit test whatever will be the temperature rise or short circuit test.

Therefore, by estimating these copper losses, I will now will be able to estimate the
equivalent resistance 𝑖⏟2 𝑟𝑒𝑞 from this I will be able to calculate new 𝑟𝑒𝑞 . And
𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

from short circuit test whatever 𝑟𝑒𝑞 I calculated it will be higher than that and from this
variation of the resistance I should be able to predict what is the temperature rise.

So, anyway this is a very nice test for which you do not require 10KVA load, it will only
draw core loss and copper loss. So, and it why it is called back to back test is also
understood you connect the secondaries in back to back manner. But only condition is you
must connect them in after noting down these dots correctly for dots do the previous test.

You should not connect the secondaries just like that, this is dot this is dot connect them
then 200V will appear is not then your basic idea of carrying out the test will be lost. Any
way I stop here today, but this circuit how it works please think physically what is
happening then it will further definitely it will enhance your understanding of transformer
always remember a transformer two winding transformer.

If secondary carries rated current, primary will also carry rated current the direction of the
current is decided by the dots as if through the dots rated current is coming out. Through

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the secondary through the dots current will come out and these concepts I have used not
only for two winding transformer, but also while analyzing the auto transformer ok. So,
with this I stop here I could not start three phase transformer next time we will start.

Thank you.

323
 Electrical Machines – I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 34
3 Phase Transformer Using 3 Single Phase Transformers

Welcome to lecture 34 on Electrical Machines I and we will start today 3 Phase

Transformers.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:32)

And just in my last lecture I told you about one very important test called Sumpner’s test
or back to back test and this was the picture. So, here the beauty is the transformer under
the condition of the test will have rated flux as well as rated current. And if you wish you
can find out the equivalent circuit parameters as well, because you know the no load
current of each transformers you know the wattmeter reading or core loss of each
transformer from which the parallel branch 𝑅𝑐𝑙 and 𝑋𝑚 can be calculated. And from this
side also you know what is the voltage needed to supply the rated current, half of that will
be actually appearing if you measure the voltage here if you connect also a voltmeter.

I mean suppose you connect also a voltmeter. This is the rated voltage similarly here you
connect a load and voltmeter. So, once again you have generated the short circuit test data
test as we carried out from the HV side in this particular example another from the LV
side and equivalent circuit parameters once again can be estimated. And these parameter

324
values will be corresponding to at rated temperature for example, while carrying out the
test you energize the transformer for a long time maybe hours, so that the steady state
temperature is reached, but it is an interesting test.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:25)

Now, today we will start 3 phase transformers ok; 3 phase transformers. They 3 phase
transformers can be of two type so, one is use 3 numbers of identical transformers. And in
this case when you use 3 numbers of identical transformers to be used in a 3 phase voltage
transformation, it is called a bank of 3 single phase transformers. Or a 3 phase transformer
can be manufactured as a single unit ok.

So, we will actually first examine this one that is 3 numbers of identical transformers I will
take. And the problem is because our system power system is of 3 phase and in 3 phase I
have 3 phase voltages and those voltages will be assumed to be balanced. And if you
require to change that voltage to some high or low 3 phase voltage, then we will be using
3 phase transformers that is the idea, that is suppose you have 3 phase system like this
which is suppose 6.6 KV on one side.

Then connect a 3 phase transformer and at the output you will get suppose 440 volt 3 phase
this is 3 phase 6.6 KV this is 440 volt 3 phase of course, 3 phase 50 Hz in our country and
this will be also 50 Hz because frequency remains same. And all these voltages here
whatever I have written is line to line voltage.

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A typical distribution transformer will have and of course, it will have a KVA rating
associated with it. So, 440 volt 50 Hz 3 phase and this 440 volt once again is line to line
voltage. So, the supply here is ABC and here the supply I may call on the secondary side
abc. So, this box will contain a 3 phase transformer, which may use 3 number of identical
single phase transformer. I must write it like this: 3 numbers of single phase transformer.
Or a 3 phase transformer as a single unit when 3 single phase transformers you use it is
called the bank of 3 phase transformers.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:19)

So, let us start with this. Now suppose let us assume that, I have 3 numbers of single phase
transformer each of rating say 5 KVA 200V/100V 50 Hz single phase transformer; this is
the rating of each of the 3 transformers I have used ok.

Therefore, each transformer will have its primary and corresponding secondary. For
example, so there are 3 three such transformers you take 3 numbers, 3 such transformers.
Now the moment there are 3 transformers for identifying the primary and secondary coils
so far in single phase there was one primary one secondary.

So, terminal markings was not that important although I could do it is only HV side LV
side that is all, but in case of 3 transformers there will be 6 number of coils, each
transformer will have two coils one primary one secondary, one high voltage one low
voltage. Therefore, it is essential to mark the terminals of the transformer appropriately.

326
So, what I will do is this suppose this is the transformer one, its primary and this time for
convenience I am sketching the secondary of one transformers like this.

And I will mark the terminals as 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 generally capital letters are used for the high
voltage side and small letters I will tell it is small 𝑎1 small 𝑎2 lowercase letter and this is
capital letters so this is one transformer. And also I will assume that this terminal capital
𝐴1 and small 𝑎1 are dot and that I know how to ascertain by doing some test.

So, polarity test I will do put the markings so this is one transformer and this transformer
I will call transformer A. In the same way I will have the second transformer which I am
drawing below, 𝐵1 and 𝐵2 you understand now and its secondary small 𝑏1 and small 𝑏2 .

And similarly these two fellows are dots, so 1 1 are dots and the third transformer in the
same way it will be 𝐶1 capital 𝐶1 capital 𝐶2 and small 𝑐1 small 𝑐2 . Therefore, I have very
clearly identified the terminals it looks like I named the transformers in A B C, and I will
assume it will be supplied from supply A B C that is why A phase B phase C phase like
that, this polarity marking is essential I am telling you.

Now suppose what I will be doing, so the rating of this winding is 200V, this winding also
200V rated voltage. And similarly rated voltage of this secondary coils are also 100V,
these I know and also I know the rated current of this side as you know

5000
𝐼⏟
𝐻𝑉 = = 25𝐴𝑚𝑝
200
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

5000
𝐼⏟
𝐿𝑉 = = 50𝐴𝑚𝑝
100
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

So, rated current of these transformers are also known rated voltages are known and I have
the mark the terminals. Now what I will do is this suppose I want to connect the primary
coils in star ok, individually I know there each one these; these; these are individual
transformers. But as I told you my supply is A B and C, 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵𝑠 , 𝐶𝑠 and I will assume the
supply phase sequence to be supply terminals, which is a 3 phase system I will marked as
𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵𝑠 , 𝐶𝑠 and phase sequence is phase sequence is 𝐴𝑠 -𝐵𝑠 -𝐶𝑠 you understand this.

So, this is about the supply so this is supply. Now these 3 terminals 𝐴2 𝐵2 𝐶2 suppose I
short them, then it becomes a star connected primary star connection means 3 coils are

327
there 3 terminals of each of them you short ok, so this is how you short it. And I will give
supply like this 𝐴𝑠 I will connect to 𝐴1 , 𝐵𝑠 I will connect to 𝐵1 and 𝐶𝑠 I will connect to 𝐶1 .

Now, since it is star connected, the supply voltage whatever it is line to line that divided
by √3 will appear here ok; since the rated voltage of the transformer is 200V therefore, I
can apply a line to line voltage of 200√3 safely is not line-to-line voltage 200√3V.

Because after all these transformers are identical transformers they will have equal
parameters, so √3 times less voltage will come across the primary windings of each of
these 3 transformers. If it is two winding because transformer rating was 200V/100V
therefore, I can apply a voltage of 200√3V.

So, that rated voltage will then be applied across these coils primary, secondary coil I have
not done anything they are separate now nothing has been done. Therefore, this is the thing
now let us see what is the phasor diagram of this applied voltage and let us assume this is
the thing now let us see. Suppose the phasor diagram of this side is mind you I have shorted
𝐴2 𝐵2 𝐶2 .

So, this is the point 𝐴2 𝐵2 𝐶2 they are shorted they will be at same potential let this be
called 𝐴1 , which has been connected to 𝐴𝑠 this is same as 𝐴𝑠 supply 𝐴𝑠 ; this point is 𝐵1
which is connected to supply 𝐵𝑠 and this point is 𝐶1 which is connected to supply 𝐶𝑠 ; 𝑠
stands for supply therefore, this point is the neutral point I can say.

So, 𝐴1 𝐴2 is the voltage phasor here, the moment and each length here it is 200V that is
why this length is 200√3 line to line. Now the moment you apply like that this transformer
see the rules of the single phase transformers only we will be using to understand what is
going to happen if you connect in a either star or delta we will see those things.

But I am sure about one thing, that the voltage phasor if it is 200V here it must be 100V
and induced voltages are in phase. Therefore, the secondary voltages if I draw with a
different color it will be half of this length although I am just drawing 𝑎1 𝑎2 and it will be
parallel to capital 𝐴1 𝐴2 because induced voltages or applied voltages are all in phase.

So, for this single phase transformer, this is what is going to happen you will get a voltage
like this. Similarly for the second transformer and mind you a 3 phase balance system
means they are 120° apart is not it lengths are same supply voltages these are 120° apart.

328
Therefore, 𝐵1 𝐵2 the second transformer what is the applied voltage which phasor is the
applied voltage 𝐵1 𝐵2 what will be the induced voltage in small 𝑏1 𝑏2 a line parallel to this
and since 𝑏1 is dot so it will be just parallel to this like this.

Although since I have not connected any of this they are allowed to leave alone therefore,
they there will be a voltage parallel to 𝐵1 𝐵2. Similarly there will be another voltage
available parallel to this C phase voltage which will be 𝑐1 𝑐2 then this will be the same
secondary coils I have not collected if you connect volt meters or see in the oscilloscope
you will find 3 voltages existing across the secondary terminals which are 120° apart.

Because 𝑏1 𝑏2 is parallel to this and 𝑐1 𝑐2 parallel to this angle between these two is 120°
here also the angle between these two is 120° and so on. Now what I will be doing is these
three terminals, I will short you imagine this three are shorted the moment you short this
3 secondary also gets connected in star.

So, this is star connection and then the secondary also becomes star connected and the
moment 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 are shorted this 3 phasor cannot live in isolation because 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 I have
forced to these three terminals to be at equal potential their potentials cannot be different
if it is connected by a piece of wire like this. Therefore, these 3 phasors, this, this and this
cannot now remain in isolation, but what will happen is this, it will be like this that 𝑏1 , 𝑎2
is connected to 𝑏2 and 𝑐1, 𝑐2 are you getting 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 I have forced them to be at
equipotential these 3 phasors were in isolation they cannot be. So, it will be like this.

So, what I have done I have applied 200√3 line to line voltage here, which will ensure
that across each of the primaries of these three individual transformers 200V appear of
course, these 200V are fine, but they will be displaced by time because of the supply is
balanced. And but I know if this is 200V it cannot be it must be 100V because of the rating
of individual transformer being known, 100V is known.

And then I draw the primary phasor diagram, then I have told you 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 a shorted so do
not leave this 3 phasors in isolation as for your connection you put them in. But one thing
is clear 𝐴1 𝐴2 will be parallel to small 𝑎1 𝑎2, 𝐵1 𝐵2 parallel to this one and this length is
200V this is 100V and so on that will be maintained single phase only. See, although we
have connected it in a particular fashion rules of single phase transformers will only I will
apply to carry on further.

329
So, this will be the phasor diagram and then I will say this is a 3-phase transformer which
is connected in star-star that I will write like this. And where are the output terminals
output terminals are here, if you bring it in this way these will be the output terminals and
I will write here perhaps small 𝑎 output 3 phase terminal 𝑎 this one is 𝑏 and this was in to
𝑐 this is output terminals going to load going to 3 phase loads.

So, it will be like this therefore, I have applied 200√3 line to line voltage here what will
be line to line voltage across 𝑎1 𝑏1? It is this length line to line voltage once again will be
balanced 3 phase. And the line to line voltage on the secondary side so if I write it like this

𝑉1𝐿𝐿 = 200√3

𝑉2𝑙𝑙 = 100√3

Small letters for the low voltage side.

So, I have been able to change the level of a balanced 3 phase voltage, which is 200√3 V
to a level 200√3 V that is how I have been able to make is that clear. Now the second
thing is we will discuss I mean I will be going a bit slowly do not worry about that. So,
this is the thing so there I will now draw a bit faster to say about loading of this transformer.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:29)

For example what I have done this is 𝐴1 𝐴2 this is corresponding small 𝑎1 𝑎2 these are dots
similarly, this is 𝐵1 𝐵2 the previous diagram only I am drawing 𝑏1 𝑏2 these are dots and this

330
is the third phase 𝐶1 𝐶2 and this is small 𝑐1 𝑐2 is it not. And what connection I have made?
I have made this a star connection and here I have connected 200√3 volt three-phase
supply 𝐴𝑠 -𝐵𝑠 -𝐶𝑠 and here the line to line voltage applied is 200√3 why 200√3 because
rating of each of the transformer was 200V each one is single phase 200V/100V 5 KVA
single phase transformer.

And rated current of the HV side was 25Amp this was 25Amp rated current and this rated
LV side will be higher 50Amp two times and what I have done is I have shorted this and
I have taken output here. These are my output terminal 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 who had 100√3 you will
get line to line that is what I have told I am just repeating this repeating this pins.

Now, the question is this supply I will connect a balanced 3 phase load ok, here I will
connect a 3 phase balanced load if you connect a balanced 3 phase load which may be star
or delta connected I do not mind. But the only restriction I will put what is the maximum
current I can what is the maximum line current on the secondary side will be the LV side
rated current is 50Amp and it so happens that this current the line current because it is star
connected happens to be same as the winding current LV side winding current.

Therefore maximum current I will allow to flow here is 50Amp here also 50Amp here also
50Amp ok. And be rest assured the moment through the dot 50Amp goes in for this
transformer, this fellow will draw 25Amp. Similarly this fellow will also drop 25Amp this
is also 25Amp will these currents be in phase no not at all they will be in time phase
difference depending upon the power factor of the load etcetera, but magnitude of the
currents will be same. Each one will start drawing.

So, I have taken 3 numbers of single phase transformer whose rating is this. Now what is
the total k VA total k VA will become then will become as a 3 phase transformer; as a 3
phase transformer is any side you can calculate for example, if you calculate from this side
you must be knowing that in a 3 phase system if the line to line voltage is 𝑉𝐿𝐿 .

If the line current is 𝐼𝐿 for balanced thing the total KVA is

𝐾𝑉𝐴
⏟ = √3𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝐼𝐿
𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑 3−𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

331
irrespective it takes care of both star and delta that is why people love to use this formula
so often, forget about start delta tell me what is the line to line voltage? only thing load is
balanced so that is a condition line to line voltage is 𝑉𝐿𝐿 line current is 𝐼𝐿 total k VA will
be √3𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝐼𝐿 .

So, if you calculate from the secondary side the total k VA then will become

𝐾𝑉𝐴
⏟ = √3 × 100√3 × 50 = 15𝐾𝑉𝐴
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒

which of course, will be same if you calculate from this side which tells you

𝐾𝑉𝐴
⏟ = √3 × 200√3 × 25 = 15𝐾𝑉𝐴
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒

Nothing surprising each transformer was rated at 5 KVA.

So, you have connected it as a 3 phase transformer with star; star connection, then total
KVA will become 15 KVA anyway we will continue with this in the next class.

Thank you.

332
 Electrical Machines – I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 35
Varians Connections 3 Phase Transformer – I

Welcome to lecture 35 and we have been discussing about 3 Phase Transformers and 3
single phase transformers I have taken earlier, each of rating this much.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:31)

And I showed you a simple star star connection ok. The terminals markings are essential,
along with polarity marking. So, I have assumed because three transformers are there, I
will name them A transformer B transformer C transformer. Capital 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 small 𝑎1 , 𝑎2
are the are respectively high voltage and LV side terminals and I have presumed that these
ones are the dots for all the phases so that is there, so they here also it was taught anyway.

333
(Refer Slide Time: 01:23)

So, and then I told you how to make a successful star connection and the rating of each
transformers were 5 KVA and maximum KVA this 3 phase transformer, which has been
formed by using three single phase transformer each of rating this will become 15 KVA
and it is pretty fine; I mean each one is 5 KVA you can handle 15 KVA that is good. Now
today I will go slightly we will try to tell you this one very important thing why polarity is
so much important. For example when you take three, because we will start delta
connection so, it is better to appreciate this point what do I mean by star connection?

(Refer Slide Time: 02:27)

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If suppose three resistances are there, three resistances are there I ask you to connect them
in star means any one terminals from each of these elements you short them. Either you
short it is a star connection or you could short it like this also, this and this will be also star
connection no difference.

So, star connection means two terminal devices three are there. So, one from each you just
short them without asking any polarity or this that is what I am telling similarly what is
delta connection? So, this is also star this is also star suppose their resistance or inductance
or capacitance any way you connect it is fine. Now suppose I ask you to connect this thing
in delta three resistances, what is this connection, connection this connection in language
we tell it that connect them in series first, series this series this series and close this path it
becomes delta connection.

And from the junctions you take the output. Although, we draw it like this that is fine here
also we are doing this second resistance third resistance, you connect and from the
junctions you take the output and it gets delta connected is this different from this? No.
So, this is the way we will be drawing delta connected here coils will be in series and
closed and from the junctions you take the outputs that is it.

If that be the case then suppose I say that, somebody a has a three single phase transformers
like this 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 ; its secondary small 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 . And then and then later three are there, so 𝐵1,
𝐵2 small 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 and this is small 𝑐1 𝑐2 identical transformer 𝐶1 𝐶2 .

Suppose he does not care a careless person for example, he argues that star connections, I
know one from each I will short and other three free terminals will become the terminals
of this star connected devices. So, he does like this. For example, he does not care about
polarity, he tells that this is also my star connection why not? And he tells that you connect
this although I know for discussion purposes, but I know that capital 𝐴1 small 𝑎1 are dots
capital 𝐵1 small 𝑏1 dot, capital 𝐶1 small 𝑐1 are dot.

This is the actual thing which is prevailing, but he does not care what he does he tells that,
this is the thing connect this star in the primary going by this general definition of star; and
decides that he will give supply to supply he has got three terminals 𝐴𝑠 𝐵𝑠 𝐶𝑠 of phase
sequence ABC. He gives supply to here 𝐴𝑠 , then this 𝐵𝑠 supply terminal what he does he
gives it to here are you getting me? 𝐵𝑠 and 𝐶𝑠 supply he gives it to there. And he tells that

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I have connected the primary in star and I have energized; secondary he has not done
anything.

Now, in this case if you look carefully the supply is balanced 3 phase ok, supply is a
balanced 3 phase system and you have connected like this. So, supply 𝐴1 is connected to
𝐴𝑠 𝐵2 terminal has connected to 𝐵𝑠 . So, with respect to neutral it will be just not correct in
terms of phase sequence; because what we know that 𝐴𝑠 𝐵𝑠 𝐶𝑠 is a balanced 3 phase system
for example, 𝐴𝑠 this is this is suppose supply neutral this is your 𝐵𝑠 , this is 𝐶𝑠 .

Now, you have energized the primary of this coil with a voltage this voltage and this 𝐴𝑠 is
1
𝐴1 is not? And your this 𝑁𝑠 is equivalent to your 𝐴2 , times. 𝐵𝑠 I have connected to 𝐵2
√3

is not I have connected to 𝐵2 therefore, this 𝐵𝑠 terminal is 𝐵2 and 𝐵1 is connected here.

So, 𝐵𝑠 is 𝐵2, I have connected. And here is your 𝐵1, similarly 𝐶𝑠 I have connected to 𝐶1
and this is 𝐶2 that is fine. This is what I have done.

Now, on the secondary coils there will be induced voltages, following the rules of single
phase transformer capital 𝐴1 𝐴2 , you will get a voltage here because these polarities are
correct polarities are like this. So, you will have a voltage here 𝑎1 𝑎2. For the second
transformer, you will have 𝐵𝑠 is connected to 𝐵2, you will have a voltage phasor parallel
to this; 𝑏2 𝑏1 that is what you will get.

And here 𝐶𝑠 is 𝑐1 𝑐2 you will get ok. Now the point I want to make it without doing polarity
test, you should never try to connect the 3 phase transformer. Either in star or delta and the
difficulty what will come that I am telling. I am telling somebody connects like this
although the polarities actual polarities are like this, but he does not care star connection
ok, I connect supply then what I am telling. Look at the individual applied voltage across
the primaries.

For the A transformer it is 𝐴1 𝐴2 . For the B transformer it is 𝐵2 𝐵1, 𝐵2 is connected to 𝐵𝑠

which is 120° apart. Because, your supply is balanced 3 phase supply with phase sequence
𝐴𝑠 𝐵𝑠 𝐶𝑠 ; for 𝐶1 of course, 𝐶𝑠 is connected to 𝐶1 . Therefore, induced voltage in the
secondary’s of each of the coils, will be parallel to the primary voltages, which for A phase
𝐴1 , 𝑎1 ; 𝐴2 , 𝑎2 parallel to this, for C phase 𝐶1 𝑐1; 𝐶2 , 𝑐2 ; for B phase 𝐵2 𝐵1.

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So, it must be this way getting the point. Now suppose he says that secondary I have to
connect in parallel, he has quite arbitrarily connecting the things. For example, let us
assume he is a crazy man he is telling that star connection, he decides that he will connect
like this. Secondary these voltages are available in this way. And he tells that I will connect
the secondary also in star in this way.

If he does, then these phasors are no longer staying in isolation some of the conditions you
have put. What is this condition? 𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐2 you have forced them to be at same potential.
Therefore, this three phasors I will write here so this is the thing.

So, here from this I now say that ok, this is how you have connected then these three
phasors will have their existence like that you cannot do anything. This is the this follows
from single phase transformer fundamentals. But what we have done is, you have made
𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐2 to be at forced them to be at same potential; so 𝑎1 𝑎2 and this 𝑏2 is there, but
𝑏1 𝑏2 will be parallel to this fellow that will not you cannot do anything.

So, move it parallel bring it here, here is the most important point 𝑏2 𝑏1. 𝑐1 𝑐2; 𝑐2 has been
joined with 𝑎2 , 𝑏2 . Therefore, it will be like this 𝑐1 𝑐2 that is what you will get. Length of
each of them will be 100V provided you have applied here 200√3. Length of this at 200V,
so 100V; 100V; 100V and then he tells that from this you take the output 3 phase output.
Is he going to get a balanced 3 phase voltage? And that is, no.

You get some three terminals, the voltage of each phase looks like same, but they are not
120° apart. So, a balanced 3 phase voltage you will not you are not getting. Therefore, a
just from the definition of star connections of passive elements one should not proceed. In
a 3 phase transformer connection, this must be connected of course, just to point it out. If
he would have connected in the same way here while connecting I think you are getting
my point. So, I will draw it here, what I am telling the secondary I am telling.

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(Refer Slide Time: 15:49)

He also connects the only the secondary’s I am drawing, I 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 and 𝑐1, 𝑐2 . Now
in the same way star connection he does in the same way like this as he has done in the
primary. Suppose he has drawn in the same way, in that case of course, this secondary
voltage is will be balanced 3 phase voltages why? Because, if you connect like that what
we have done 𝑎2 , 𝑏1 and 𝑐2 you have shorted. So, 𝑎2 and 𝑏1 you have shorted. So, bring
this phasor here; 𝑏2 𝑏1 and 𝑐2 bring 𝑐2 there, parallel to this you will get a balanced 3 phase
supply that is there. But it is left to chances whimsically if you do you do not know.

And not only that, the terminals are marked as that is why terminal markings are very
essential and we would also like to say that supply you are giving to 𝐴1 , 𝐵1, 𝐶1 , take the
supply output from 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑐1. Here although you will get balanced 3 phase supply if he
connects like that, but there is a mix up see this is 𝑎1 , that is 𝑏2 this is 𝑐1.

So, to avoid all confusions, we must adhere to the terminal markings. And this terminal
markings business becomes much more crucial if it is delta connections ok. Star
connection its somebody connects just like that without we with any due regard to the
polarity, then this kind of situations may happen you may not get to balanced 3 phase
output voltage of although you have connected a balanced 3 phase voltage there.

And if you see and you can argue I have connected the primary in star, secondary in star,
still I am not getting balanced 3 phase voltage. It is simply because; you have not followed
the proper dot polarity anyway. So, we have discussed about star star connection, correct

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star star connection here. Now this star star connection, as you can see which I have done
here in the first slide is called, star star Y. Generally, this is how it is written Y y star star
small y for the low voltage side, capital Y for the high voltage side.

And then, there is a number written 0° besides it Y y 0. It means that, the primary and
secondary are star connected and phase displacement of the A-phase voltage, with respect
to neutral of the secondary side. And A-phase voltage with respect to neutral of the primary
side they are same, no phase displacement vertical 𝑏1 𝑏2 this is the secondary neutral 𝑛.

So, with respect to neutral B phase voltage is in phase with B phase voltage of the primary
side 𝐵1 with respect to neutral. So, sometimes it is called Y y 0. In this connection, I will
use better a new page. So, better do not do star connection not like that ok, this is it is not
at all suggested to do like that. You always carry out the connections as per.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:33)

So, let me come back to this one, 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 and I will be henceforth drawing very quickly
and you have understood me hopefully what I mean this these are very important. 𝐵1, 𝐵2
primary, its secondary 𝑏1 small 𝑏2 these are dots. And this is the third transformer I have
named it C transformer, that is why its terminals are like this ok. This is the proper polarity
connection. Now and suppose let me go like this, I have joined 𝐴2 , 𝐵2, 𝐶2 , I have connected
supply 𝐴𝑠 to 𝐴1 ; supply 𝐵𝑠 and supply 𝐶𝑠 , I have connected like that phase sequence is A
B C.

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So, that the primary applied voltage I will connect, it will be 𝐴1 which happens to be 𝐴𝑠
supply. This three points I have joined, they would must be at the same potential and that
is the neutral. And then supply 𝐵𝑠 I have connected to 𝐵1 only. So, this is capital 𝐵1, which
happens to be same as supply 𝐵𝑠 . And then your and these are 120° apart; 𝐶1 and this is
also 𝐶𝑠 generally, 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵𝑠 , 𝐶𝑠 we may avoid. And in the secondary as I told you I have got
suppose I have not connected anything, but these things are available these voltages, 𝑎1 𝑎2
parallel to this 𝐴1 𝐴2 ; 𝑏1 𝑏2 parallel to 𝐵1 𝐵2. In this case and this 𝑐1 𝑐2 parallel to this 𝐶1 𝐶2
these are available.

Now, suppose somebody says I will connect the secondary coils in star, but this time I will
join it like this. I will short 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑐1 ok, I will short it. If you do this and I will take output
from 𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐2 , then what he is essentially doing, the moment you connect this phasors
are not in isolation, 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑐1 are at same potential. So, what you do is this you have to
now move this phasors in such a way that 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑐1 are at the same potentials.

But nonetheless 𝑎1 𝑎2 it will be parallel to capital 𝐴1 𝐴2 that is the boundary condition.

Because, single phase transformer each one of them is. Therefore, they must satisfy the
principle of transformer. So, the way if you connect these this is suppose 𝑎1 𝑎2 now I have
joined 𝑏1 with 𝑎1 therefore, what I will do is this I will move this phasor parallel and put
it here 𝑏1 𝑏2 getting the point. Similarly 𝑐1 𝑐2 I will put on a parallel and put it here 𝑐2 , 𝑐1.

Then you know it is also a correct balance 3 phase output voltage you will get across 𝑎2
𝑏2 𝑐2 . But this time this is the neutral this is the secondary neutral 𝐴2 𝐵2 𝐶2 , is the primary
neutral, then I will say and also see the supply phase sequence is ABC everything is fine.
And there is no mix up of this terminals if it is 𝑎2 then 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 . Earlier case there was a
mix up although balanced 3 phase you will be getting here, but it is 𝑎1 it is 𝑏2 , 𝑐1.
Technically correct I mean it will work, but the point is I should be very systematic in
doing that, so that things are standardized there are.

So, this is the thing here is also no mix up 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 balanced 3 phase sequence is ABC like
that. And if you apply here each one of them 200V this length the each one of them is
100V of course, scale I am not properly drawn and these are much less. Here I think you
got the idea just to explain that I am do here.

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So, anyway these are 120°. So, balanced 3 phase voltage will be available. Now this
connection diagram, how do I specify? Earlier one was Y y 0 and this one I must then say
it is Y y star connections secondary, star primary and perhaps I will write 180°. Because,
a phase voltage with respect to neutral of the secondary side is 180° A phase voltage of
the primary is this these are parallel know. So, A phase voltage 𝐴1 with respect to the
primary neutral and a phase voltage of the secondary with respect to neutral of the
secondary side, they are 180° apart the that is why it is called Y y 180° ok.

And sometimes we will soon tell you that this is also people say it is Y y 6 why this 6? I
will come slightly later, but I hope you have understood the importance of dot connections,
you cannot just have a general way of connecting star. Three resistance do not bother
connect, in anyways star star delta delta, but in case of transformer connection you should
be extremely careful. So, I will now discuss one delta connection let us see.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:23)

So, I take suppose I want to do star delta connection of the same 3 phase transformer. So,
once again follow me follow these steps, draw the coils 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 . Each secondary small 𝑎1 ,
𝑎2 second transformer B coil; 𝐵1 𝐵2 second transformer b coil 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 and third transformer
𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and its 𝑐1, 𝑐2 . Number of turns of each of these secondaries are same, each of the
primaries are same ok.

That is understood because the ratings of each of the single phase transformer, I have taken
three numbers of this transformer what is that? 200V/100V, 5 KVA 50 Hz, single phase

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transformers. Three numbers I have taken each one of them is this. Now what I say then I
will I have as I have told you I will always maintain these dots I have marked with one
and other things left of this so, this is the dot convention.

Now, suppose I connect them in star proper star 𝐴2 , 𝐵2, 𝐶2 . And here is my supply
terminals 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵𝑠 , 𝐶𝑠 phase sequence is, A-B-C. Therefore, the primary voltages I can
immediately draw, is not? That is this one is 𝐴1 𝐴2 . And 𝐴1 is 𝐴𝑠 that I am not writing.
Similarly here it is 𝐵1 𝐵2, 𝐴2 , 𝐵2, 𝐶2 , I shorted; 𝐶1 𝐶2 this whole thing is the primary neutral.
And the length of each one is 200V because I let us presume that I have applied 200√3
here.

Now, on the secondary as I told you next step is they first keep them in isolation and you
have this three phasors available with you, whose length is half of this length. And each
one of them is parallel to their respective primary voltages. So, 𝑏1 𝑏2 parallel to this line
and this line and this line 120° apart, so angle between them is also 120°.

Similarly, here parallel to 𝑐1 𝑐2 length of each one of them are same this slightly has
become more. So, this is the thing I hope you have understood, so this is how it is there.
Now what is delta connection? Delta connection means you have to connect for three
rheostat I was telling now, let me repeat this is. This way always think now you are now
much more matured, connect them in series closed this series and from the junctions take
the output, it has become a delta connection like this like this.

Now, here you see that suppose I connect without much discussion suppose somebody
knows this and he connects it like this he joins these two points. He joins these two points
and he is planning to join these two points. And suppose he has connected a switch there
to complete the delta suppose. Now, this three phasors are in isolation the moment you
make a connection like this, they are no longer in isolation.

So, now you position these phasors, based on these connections. For example; for example,
here was 𝑎1 𝑎2, I draw that once again 𝑎1 𝑎2, but I have connected 𝑎2 with 𝑏1 . So, what I
will do, I will ship this phasor here, keeping it parallel to this and put this 𝑏1 𝑏2 here are
you getting me? Because, I have connected so 𝑎2 and 𝑏1 must be at same potential.

Earlier I was joining 𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐2 or 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑐1, but I have joined only this 𝑎2 and 𝑏1 and
certain they are at same potential. So, move this phasor here, then you have to connect a

342
what you have done what connection you have made 𝑏2 with 𝑐1. So, move this phasor
here, such that 𝑐1 is connected here 𝑐1 is put there. And 𝑐2 is here is not, this is how it will
be connected got the point?

Now, suppose I take a voltmeter and connect across this switch, I measure the voltage
across 𝑎1 𝑎2 this all will be 100V. Here, voltage across this coil voltage across this coil V;
what will be the voltmeter reading across this coil? That is 𝑉𝑐2 𝑎1 here is a switch which is
kept open, I have connected them in series, but somehow I have I am telling you I have
not closed it yet. Tell me what is the voltmeter reading what will be the voltmeter reading?

If you can tell me, you are half way through yes, voltmeter reading is 𝑉𝑐2 𝑎1 is not 𝑎1 and
𝑐2 these two points. And what is the voltage between 𝑐2 and 𝑎1 it is 𝑉𝑐2 𝑎1 = 0. Therefore,
even if it is closed 𝑐2 will whether it is closed or not, 𝑐2 and 𝑎1 there is no potential
difference, so you can close this no problem, no circulating current. Although, each one of
the coil has become a seat of emf they are connected in series.

And you are closing those, but these are 120° apart balanced 3 phase voltages. So, resultant
will be 0, no circulating current nothing. So, this is a successful delta connection. We will
continue with this in the next class.

Thank you.

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 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 36
Varians Connection 3 Phase Transformer – II

(Refer Side Time: 00:24)

Welcome to lecture number 36 and we have been discussing about the 3 Phase
Transformer Connections. Recall that last time, I was discussing about star delta
connection. And referred to this diagram, where the primaries are connected in star HV
side applied voltage is 200√3, then I told you when this 3 coils no connections with this
red markings have been made. Then these phasors will maintain their 120° phase
difference, but they will be in isolated conditions they are separate.

But the moment you connect it in this way suppose, somebody says delta connections
means series and closed finally, then he joins 𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑐1 𝑐2 and before connecting 𝑐2 with
𝑎1 suppose, I have connected a shorting switch which is opened initially. And I would like
to know; what is the voltage between these two points? Because the why have connected
a shorting switch with the understanding there will be induced voltage here induced
voltage there induced voltage there and I am going to short these 3 voltage sources
connected in series will not there be any circulating current things like that perhaps
prompted me to connect a switch preventive measure. Let me try to understand, what is

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the voltage existing there? Because mind you this is the source of EMF, each one of them
has become small 𝑎1 𝑎2, 𝑏1 𝑏2, 𝑐1 𝑐2, because of what because they are primaries have been
energized with some voltages.

So, anyway there was a shorting switch; switch was open I want to examine; what is the
voltage between these two? How to do this 𝑎1 𝑎2 these things are there. So, based on this
connection 𝑎1 𝑎2 I bring it parallel 𝑎2 is connected with 𝑏1 . So, position maintained 𝑏2 𝑏1
parallel here, but 𝑏1 is connected to 𝑎2 , place it here and then 𝑏2 with 𝑐1 place it here.

Then you see 𝑐2 and 𝑎1 will coincide although I have not connected 𝑐2 𝑎1 here. It simply
tells you that there is no voltage existing there, not that I have forced it to be at the same
potential yet, but what will be the voltmeter reading with this open voltmeter reading will
be 0. Then I asked myself each one of them is a source of EMF, they are 120° apart the
resultant voltage existing between 𝑎1 and 𝑐2 that has become 0. Therefore, no EMF exists
between these two points therefore, you can close it does not matter.

So, each coil will have induced voltage the circuit is closed now and you get a successful
delta connection. And there will be no circulating current here mind you, there cannot be
then what I told where from to take the output that I will discuss now.

(Refer Side Time: 04:18)

So, this is the thing. So, here are the coils very quickly we you are also now used to it draw
it and do not forget to mark the terminals, 𝐵1 𝐵2 and 𝐶1 𝐶2 small 𝑎1 𝑎2 secondary of A,

345
secondary of B and secondary of C. And with the understanding that all 1 terminals 𝐴1 𝑎1 ,
these are dots polarity 3 individual transformers and I have shorted this fine and here I
have given supply 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵𝑠 and 𝐶𝑠 .

So, what I am telling the primary EMFs are like this 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐵1 𝐵2 and 𝐶1 𝐶2 . 𝐴1 is 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵1 is
𝐵𝑠 and 𝐶1 is 𝐶𝑠 on the secondary side what I am telling you have got these 3 voltages
available now, not yet connected I will play with these phasors. So, that it becomes a
meaningful delta connection and then 𝑏1 𝑏2 will be parallel 𝑐1 𝑐2 will be parallel. Why this
will be parallel? Because it is a single phase transformer, it must be parallel to its respective
primary voltage and so on. And since the input voltages are 120° apart, they will be also
120° apart.

Now, what I am telling here is your 𝑎1 𝑎2 ok. And suppose this time, I have joined 𝑎1 with
𝑏2 suppose 𝑏1 with 𝑐2 . Delta connection I will make they must be in series and these also
should be closed, I have not yet closed.

Let us first examine, what is going to happen? Since I have already joined 𝑎1 with 𝑏2 ; 𝑎1
and 𝑏2 cannot be an isolation they must be at same potential. So, what I will do is, I will
move this phasor I will now, since 𝑏2 has been connected with 𝑎1 I will move it here 𝑏2
winding and place it here ok. Anyway this I will write 𝑏2 are you getting this 𝑏2 𝑏1 , I will
put it like this. Similarly, I have joined 𝑏1 with 𝑐2 . So, 𝑐1 I will move and 𝑐2 has been
connected with 𝑏1 , it is move parallel and 𝑐2 will be connected here.

But only thing is they are of same length, it is because of my imperfection there in drawing.
It will then come here together; are you getting? 𝑐1 and this was 𝑎2 these becomes a
anyway you have got the idea.

So, what will be the voltage across 𝑎2 and 𝑐1 0 voltage. Not because I have joined 𝑎2 and
𝑐1 these three are sources of EMF voltage is 0 therefore, I will be very confident to short
this. So, this is also a successful delta connection and I will take the outputs from here
from the junctions; 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 that is the whole idea ok.

Therefore two ways; a successful delta connections will be achieved. I will show you one
case, where I make it delta the way suppose I do not care about polarity try to make a delta
connection, what will be the consequence that I will show now.

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(Refer Side Time: 09:50)

Suppose somebody says that, this is the primaries and these are the secondaries. So, that
you can appreciate that the points, here A is 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐵1 𝐵2 and 𝐶1 𝐶2 . And he makes star
connection this way he makes. And mind you dots are known, but he does not care. These
are 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑏2 and small 𝑐1 𝑐2 .

What he does, he knows delta connection means connect 3 coils in series and close this.
And suppose he says, he connects it in this way are you getting? He joins these points. So,
these two are in series, then he makes this series connection by joining these two. And he
is planning to join this two points also, now to make a delta he tells that three elements
must be connected in series and from the junction, so, you take the output. If he does like
that what is going to happen? Let us see. So, primary is this primary voltages are 𝐴1 𝐵1
and 𝐶1 , this point is 𝐴2 𝐵2 𝐶2 this is neutral fine.

On the secondary side earlier, when no connection was made these 3 voltages was
available to me; one was 𝑎1 𝑎2 another was 𝑏1 𝑏2. It is conditioned by the primary voltages,
this is 𝑐1 𝑐2 and they were in isolation, but the moment you have joined 𝑎2 with 𝑏1 this
phasor cannot remain in isolation, because 𝑎2 has been connected to 𝑏1 . So, this thing that
is I will move it such that it remains parallel to 𝑏1 𝑏2, but 𝑎2 get connected with 𝑏1 . So,
move it, it will be like this is not that will be the thing.

Then what he has done 𝑏2 he has joined with 𝑐2 is not; that means, he has moved this
phasor and 𝑏2 with 𝑐2 he has joined. So, he will connect it like this, is not? And he is

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planning to short 𝑎1 𝑐1, now there will be a problem because what is the voltage across 𝑎1
and 𝑐1. It is not 0 now it is this length this sorry this point if it is correctly done with 60°
120° it would have been this length. 𝑎1 and 𝑐1 a large voltage will exist, source voltage
will exist secondary after all is becoming a source of the voltage. And if you are planning
to short these two points, you are virtually short circuiting it. Large current will flow
transformer may be damaged and so on.

Therefore in star connection you may make mistake, but in delta connection something
terrible is going to happen, you cannot be whimsical just telling that delta connection
means all series and close it know this you should not do. It in fact, if it is 200V, this is
100V between these two points this length will be 200V.

𝑉
⏟𝑎1 𝑐1 = 200𝑉
𝑆 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑛

This is 100V this is 100V. Therefore, proper delta connection is either this way or the other
way. So, this is not the proper delta not proper delta connection, never do it not proper
delta connection.

So, you should be extremely careful. And you will be always be correct provided we have
followed this rule. First find out the dot, put the dots, mark the terminals accordingly do it
everything will be fine, that is why so many words I have spent. So, that you understand
the importance of dot conventions particularly in 3 phase transformer, at least making the
connection itself demands that you understand what is what. So, far as polarity of the
induced voltages are concerned. Now, after telling all these things, let us now so, this is
some star delta connections we are discussing.

(Refer Side Time: 16:20)

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And now star delta connection I will do star delta connection and see what are the variety
is possible star delta connection. So, you take this thing primaries and these are 𝐴1 𝐴2
maybe you will be feeling slightly bored, because same thing I am doing, but you practice
it so, that it will give you confidence. And these are dots, but bear with me. And suppose
I have connected correct star connection here and this side is delta corresponding
secondaries small 𝑎1 𝑎2 , small 𝑏1 𝑏2 and small 𝑐1 𝑐2 and these are also dots ok. And delta
connections only two ways it can be done correctly. So, I choose one and this way I will
connect correct delta, easy to remember either this way or other way. So, this is delta and
this side is star ok.

Now, let us come to be phasor diagram of this whole thing. Primary phasor diagram, if
you see it is like this 𝐴1 and this is 𝐴2 𝐵2 𝐶2 I am not writing 𝐴𝑠 𝐵𝑠 𝐶𝑠 it is understood and
this is 𝐵1 and this is 𝐶1 this will be the thing. Now, the secondary voltages, I will now draw
straightaway like this. Small 𝑎1 𝑎2 cannot, but be here parallel to this it will be there. 𝑏1
𝑏2 parallel to this and I have joined 𝑎2 with 𝑏1 . So, this line I will bring it here 𝑏1 with 𝑏2
and finally. So, 𝑐1 𝑐2 and 𝑐1 is connected with 𝑏2 . So, you place this phasor here, 𝑐1 and
𝑐2 and a secondary is delta primary star ok.

Now, listen to me carefully, this connection then I should write it like this. Y delta
generally Y d you can write. d stands for delta Y for star. Now in relation with this phase
angle, how to specify in the case of star I told you it is either YY 0 or YY 180°. Only these
two things are possible here, what is the thing possible? And how to specify the phase
angle business here, what should I write? That is the thing.

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Now, what I told you that to find out the phase angle, where from I am going to take output.
See it is 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 . So, I will take output from 𝑎1 the that is this will be my 1 output I will
call it 𝑎1 from the junctions. So, this will be another output secondary output 𝑏1 and 𝑐1 is
another junction, which is the output 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 is the output which will go to the load.
Therefore, I circle them these are my although 𝑐2 is present, but it is 𝑎1 is there it is 𝑏1 is
there it is 𝑐1 is there that way I will say the output terminals are 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐.

One may say why not you are telling 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 , it could be also circle and told this is 𝑎
voltage 𝑏 phase this is 𝑐 phase no I will not do that. This was 𝐴1 I will stick to small 𝑎1 ,
that is why it will make you much more discipline. Not that 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 that way if you mark
things will not work it will work, but be consistent that is what the idea is, so, 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1, 𝐴1
𝑎1 .

Now, why this 𝑎1 is stated? See on the secondary side I have no neutral available star
connection natural neutral is available. What I told you? To find out the phase difference
of the input side and the output side voltage, it is better you consider the a phase voltage
with respect to the primary neutral that is this one. This is the A phase voltage. Go to
secondary side, where is your a phase this one and what is this voltage with respect to its
neutral, but there is no neutral available.

So, what you do? You go to the artificial neutral, in delta where is the neutral? You can
always see here is the at the centroid the neutral is there. Are you getting? Or across abc
you connect three reactors in stars that point becomes neutral with respect to that this
voltage; got the point I hope. So, this neutral is not there in the windings, but artificial the
centroid of the triangle you go. Then you say with respect to the secondary neutral, the a
phase voltage will be this one. Do not forget that the these angles are 60° because of this
120° business, this angle has become 60°.

So, these angles has become 30°, this at this and this I call small n. So, I have got a phase
voltage with respect to neutral of the primary side that is 𝑎1𝑛 . I have got the a phase voltage
of the secondary side with respect to each neutral, which is just not available you have to
artificially create it or whatever it is, but it centroid it will become with respect to that this
is the a phase voltage. Is there a phase displacement between them? Yes, if you draw the
this primary voltage A phase only stick to 1 phase other phase it will be automatically
satisfied because, each one of them is 120° apart.

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So, what you do you draw a line here, parallel to this 𝐴1𝑛 suppose, this phasor this phasor
you shift it here 𝐴1 and n. And it is these angle, then because this is vertical with vertical
how much angle this is making will tell you the respective phase relationship of the
secondary a phase voltage with respect to its neutral.

What is this angle is? 30°. So, I will be rather telling that this is Y d and secondary voltage
is, lagging the primary voltage by 30° is not? Y d (-30°) I could right. Got the point?
Therefore, the this is called the vector group of transformer connection; vector group of 3
phase transformers is this Y d (-30°).

(Refer Side Time: 26:12)

And let us see another connection for example, star delta I will make, but delta this time I
will go other way around for example, this is 𝐴1 𝐴2 this is 𝐵1 𝐵2 and this is 𝐶1 𝐶2 these
are dots not these and these dot we are talking about each secondary dot that is each
secondary these are three separate transformers no question of mutual drop. So, this is dot
𝑏1 𝑏2 and this is 𝑐1 𝑐2 this is also dot.

Now, in previous case I told you there are two valid delta connection, these way I have
connected no not this way ; this way I have connected 𝑎2 with 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 with 𝑐1, 𝑐2 with 𝑎1 .
I will now go other way round 𝑎1 𝑏2 like that. So, here that is other way means, I will now
connect it in this way. That is also valid delta and these three you join and do not worry
the potential difference 𝑎2 𝑐1, even if you do not connect will be 0 that is why you are
allowed to short it that is what I want to tell. Where from and of course, this side is I have

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connected a valid star and here is your supply with phase sequence 𝐴𝑠 𝐵𝑠 and 𝐶𝑠 got the
point.

Where from should I take. So, what will be the phasor diagram first? Phasor diagram will
be 𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐶1 these are 120° apart, this is 𝐴2 𝐵2 𝐶2 and that is the neutral of this side.

On the secondary side, once again I will draw separately first the voltage. I not drawn
separately, I can now draw straight away. Because, this is the thing we got it will be like
this. So, first I will I am slightly drawing higher this is half of this length this is 𝑎1 𝑎2; 𝑏1 𝑏2
is available parallel to this capital 𝐵1 𝐵2, move it parallel and put such that 𝑏2 gets
connected with 𝑎1 ; that is it will come here 𝑏2 , 𝑏1 .

Then what I have done 𝑏1 with 𝑐2 . So, bring this c phasor 𝑐1 𝑐2 phasor such that, it gets
connected to 𝑐2 with 𝑏1 is not? And your connection is complete. So, I will write it here
star and secondary side is delta d now I have to examine what will be this phase angle. So,
what is the next step next step is this is your a phase b phase c phase.

I am going to take the outputs from this 𝑎1 𝑏1 and 𝑐1 from the junctions and I will say this
is my a phase this is my b phase this is my c phase. The reason I told you because capital
𝐴1 small 𝑎1 like that and this is also abc phase sequence. So, this terminal I will mark it as
small a small b and small c. This is the neutral of primary this is the a phase voltage here
𝑎1𝑛 where is the a phase here where is the neutral centroid.

Therefore, your a phase voltage with respect to the secondary artificial neutral is this length
and where is your primary voltage; primary voltage with respect to primary 𝐴1 and n it is
here is your 𝐴1 and n that voltage this you bring it. So, this angle is 30°. So, secondary
voltage is leading or lagging, the primary voltage, neutral voltage.

Student: Leading.

Leading. So, I will write here Yd(+30°). Got the point? Although, I have not told you
anything about when to use star; star connection, when to use star delta connection, when
to use delta star connection no nothing like that we are getting used to how to connect the
transformers correctly polarity marketing are so, important. And what is vector group?
This vector group is also specified in terms of some clock minute hand and hour hand, that
also I will discuss next class.

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But I hope you are understanding, the idea given a 3 single phase transformers without
doing polarity test. Do not go to connect the 3 phase connections, either star; star delta star
it is the it will be then left to chances. Particularly with delta connections you may face
disasters condition short circuiting the supply. So, the point is these dots must be
ascertained separately, terminals are marked be systematic and then connect correct star
and correct delta. 2 correct star connections are possible either short 𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐶1 or short 𝐴2
𝐵2 𝐶2 .

Similarly, two correct delta connections are possible, either go this way after we have mark
the polarities or you go this way. I hope you are not only understanding, but you are taking
interest that is much more important. Please go through this notes and discuss with your
friends, you will like it I hope.

Thank you.

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 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 37
Vector Group of 3 Phase Transformer

Welcome to lecture number 37 on Electrical Machines I and we have started discussing

about 3 Phase Transformer connections. And I have told you a 3 phase transformer can be
constituted by using 3 identical single phase transformers or as a single unit of 3 phase
transformers. So, to begin with I have started of taking 3 identical single phase
transformers and connected trying to connect them externally. So, that a balanced 3 phase
voltage can be transformed into another balanced 3 phase voltage in the secondary.

But while doing so, we should be knowing the a dot markings or polarities of the
transformers and we should be systematic in describing the current. In my last lecture we
just we were seeing that the there is a shift in the secondary voltage with respect to the
primary voltage. And how that shifting by what angle the voltage is shift that is called the
and that is generally written on the nameplate of a 3 phase transformer and that is called
vector grouping. So, we were up to that, but recall that; so this was the thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:04)

So, you have a 3 phase transformer and once again very quickly I will tell these are suppose
the this is one transformer A, it has got a primary terminals 𝐴1 𝐴2 and this is small 𝑎1 𝑎2

354
is the secondary terminal. Similarly you have the second transformer B and it has got its
primary 𝐵1 𝐵2 and correspondingly it secondary and 𝐶1 𝐶2 and this is small 𝑐1 𝑐2 . And
then you have the supply 3 terminals that is 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵𝑠 and 𝐶𝑠 .

Now, I have to connect the supply and connect this primary and secondary in a particular
fashion has desired and I told you that while connecting the transformers in star windings
in star either 𝐴2 , 𝐵2, 𝐶2 should be shorted or 𝐴1 , 𝐵1, 𝐶1 can be shorted valid star
connections. And also remember these 1 terminals are dots like polarities at any given
instant of time similarly for the transformer B and transformer C. And these how do I get?
I will test for polarity to this individual transformers put the dots and mark the terminals
accordingly. Anyway this is how the thing is.

So, suppose I say that I will connect the transformer primary in star, I would like to connect
these in star or Y. And secondary I would like to connect it in delta or in letter it is small
d and I will of course, make valid connections. So, what I do is this I make a valid star
connection 𝐴2 , 𝐵2, 𝐶2 shorted and I will connect 𝐴1 with 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵1 with 𝐵𝑠 and 𝐶1 with 𝐶𝑠 .
And suppose the phase sequence of supply phase sequence is 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵𝑠 , 𝐶𝑠 ABC, A stands
for supply.

Now, the easier way of connecting this I will going to tell you now we have seen the
interesting features, if somebody connects differently what is going to happen and things
like that. Now, today’s lecture is all valid connections we will be doing ok.

The moment you do this then what you say phase sequence is this and supply is balanced.
If the supply is balanced, then it is best thing to do is draw the supply voltage first. So, I
draw the supply voltage which will be equal to like this 120° apart equal lengths and this
is suppose 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵𝑠 , 𝐶𝑠 all lengths are equal here balanced.

And note that 𝐴𝑠 is connecting to 𝐴1 , then I will write it is also 𝐴1 is not this point.
Similarly 𝐵𝑠 is connected to 𝐵1, so comma 𝐵1 and 𝐶𝑠 is connected to 𝐶1 commas 𝐶1 and
since 𝐴2 , 𝐵2, 𝐶2 are shorted. So, 𝐴2 is here, 𝐵2 is there, 𝐶2 is there they are shorted, so
their potentials are same and this. In fact, is the neutral of the side, fine?

Now, suppose the secondary side I would like to connect it in delta and there are two
possible deltas delta connect two possible delta connections are there. So, first of all I will
connect it suppose like this; like this series and closed and output I will take from 𝑎1

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wherever 𝑎1 is there 𝑏1 and 𝑐1. Let the secondary output be 𝑎, 𝑏 and small 𝑐, I am not
writing 𝑠 because it will go to load.

Now, based on these you can easily see, the secondary voltages will be since voltage
applied across the primary of transformer A is 𝐴1 𝐴2 . Therefore, this side you have the
secondary voltage small 𝑎1 𝑎2 which will be parallel to this length. So, I write it like this
𝑎1 𝑎2 got the point parallel to capital 𝐴1 𝐴2 .

Similarly, small 𝑏1 𝑏2 the induced voltage in the secondary will be parallel to this 𝐵1 𝐵2
and 𝑏2 𝑎2 are shorted therefore, how to place these? So, 𝑏1 𝑏2 and 𝑏1 is connected to 𝑎2 .
So, so 𝑏1 𝑏2 will be like this here I am just drawing 𝑏1 𝑏2 parallel to this it is available, but
I have joined 𝑎2 with 𝑏1 . So, I will shift this fellow parallelly and bring it here like this
such that it 𝑎2 and 𝑏1 are joined. So, I must write it here 𝑏1 . So, 𝑏1 𝑎2 is this point.

So, 𝑏1 𝑏2 got the point parallel to this similarly 𝑐1 𝑐2 and 𝑐1 is joined with 𝑏2 therefore, this
phasor should be parallelly shifted and it must be this that is 𝑏2 is connected to 𝑐1. So, 𝑐1 𝑐2
got the point and this is absolutely fine.

Now, output see this is a input 𝐴1 is connected to 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵1 is connected to 𝐵𝑠 , 𝐶1 𝐶𝑠 .

Similarly, I would like to take the output from small 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 and 𝑐1 . So, I circle them just
this will be my output 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 and 𝑐1 although 𝑏2 is connected, but I will call it my 𝑎, this
one, 𝑎1 and 𝑐2 are joined from this I am taking the output I am calling this 𝑎 to be consistent
with the primary side. So, that is the thing.

Now, the question is if you connect like this I should write it as star, secondary is delta.
Now, what is the phase angle, what should I write? Now, while doing the phase angle you
can find out first where is the artificial neutral of the secondary side got the point. So, so
this is the neutral.

So, you see that this will be the. So, this triangle we have identified 𝐴1 , 𝐵1, 𝐶1 similarly
you circle the primaries 𝐴1 with respect to this will be talking. Now, I will examine with
respect to neutral on the primary side there is 𝐴1 voltage, similarly with respect to this
artificial neutral which is centroid of this equilateral triangle and with respect to that
neutral the a phase voltage is this phasor 𝑎1𝑛 .

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Then you draw these a capital 𝐴1𝑁 here suppose thing, this primary a phase voltage with
respect to its neutral is here 𝐴1 you should not make confusion that capital 𝑁 and small 𝑛
is connected no small 𝑛 is not there in fact,, but anyway that is the 𝐴1 phase vector if I that
is vertical. So, I find that the this voltage lags the a phase voltage with respect to the neutral
on the a phase side by 30° and this is the thing.

And I then write it as it is lagging, so may be Yd(-30°) I will be telling it. But one important
thing also you note that it is not only the phase voltages that 𝐴1 with respect to neutral that
maintains 30°. What about the line to line voltage? For example, primary side line to line
voltage 𝐴1 𝐵1 because phase sequence is this. So, this voltage is 𝐴1 𝐵1 which happens to be
equal to 𝐴𝑠 𝐵𝑠 this is the line to line voltage.

On the secondary side, what is the line to line voltage? It is this vertical line and this line
to line voltage two this is 𝑎1 𝑏1 if you just that is also 30° lagging. Not only the phase
voltage with respect to the neutral or artificial neutral that will lag which also means that
line to line voltage is too will be lagging by the same amount this point you must
understand because this is 𝐴1 𝐵1 line to line voltage on the primary side your small 𝑎1 𝑏1
becomes vertical 𝑎𝑏 voltage of the same line to line voltage that lags it will be true as you
can see for 𝑏𝑐 and 𝑐𝑎 phase as well. So, examine only the lag or lead with respect to a
particular set of line to line voltage that is the thing I wanted to tell. So, this is the
connection then Yd(-30°).

Now, sometimes this vector grouping this is the vector group is also expressed in terms of
a clock minute and hour hand positions angle between them that is how. So, I will first
explain that then explore more interesting connections after that. So, first clock convention
vector group which is can be also expressed instead of showing the angles by clock
conventions; clock convention.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:34)

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So, you let us let me go to next page and you see you have a clock here let me explain that
then I will go there. Suppose you have a clock of course, you have got all the markings
here 1, 3, 6 here and 9 ok; 1 3 6 9. And of course, no it is 12; 12, 3, 6, 9, then you have in
between of course, 1 and 2, 3, 4 and 5 and 7 and 8 and 9, 10 and 11 this is usual clock our
familiar clock.

And there will be two hands hour hands and minute hand; minute hand is longer. So,
minute hand is suppose in the position of 12, hour hand could be anywhere in our usual
clock I mean that will I mean minute and hour hand both can be anywhere and you get the
time. But here while following this clock convention to describe what is the vector group
of the transformer you note that the angle between two consecutive numbers on the dial of
the clock is 30° that is known that is this angle is 30° consecutive to any numbers you take
30°.

Now, what is done is this the minute hand; minute hand is shown at 12 always you will
show it and let this minute hand represents the primary side. Say A phase voltage with
respect to neutral that is this voltage 𝐴𝑠𝑁 or 𝐴1𝑁 that is the primary side neutral voltage
that voltage I will place in the minute hand and always show it in the twelfth position of
the clock this is the primary voltage.

And secondary voltage I will once again this is suppose 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐴1 or 𝐴𝑠 either of them with
respect to neutral. Similarly, show the draw or show the show the hour hand; show the
hour hand representing; representing the secondary 𝑎 or 𝑎1 voltage with respect to neutral;

358
neutral of the secondary side; of the secondary side. For delta connection use artificial
neutral that is small 𝑛 this is capital 𝑁 you have got the point.

For example the previous connection; in the previous connection minute hand is a 12
vertical 𝐴1𝑁 and secondary a phase voltage this 𝑎1 is once again a which is going to load.
So, this is 𝑎1 with respect to neutral this is my b, this is my c therefore, this a phase voltage.
Now, this angle been 30°, where do you think in the clock should I show this secondary
voltage at one is not.

Because we have seen that secondary voltage is doing this. So, this minute hand which is
bigger it is capital 𝐴1𝑁 and this is small 𝑎1𝑛 I should not write this, but I am writing you
should not be under the impression that if I write like this I meaning capital 𝑁 and small
𝑛 are shorted no it is just separate two things. Because two neutrals are located at different
positions and they are not connected electrically, but just to indicate what does this mean.

Anyway this is the thing, then I will write it as primary is star connected Y, secondary is
delta connected delta. Earlier I wrote it Yd (-30°) in the previous page this is same as Y d
1 that is the time is 1 then only this connection I mean this is the connection Y d 1 it simply
means that the with respect to neutral of a particular phase primary side voltage and
secondary voltage how they are dispersed. But since hour hand I will always represent to
indicate the secondary voltage therefore, secondary voltage lags the primary voltage by
30° ok

So, this is the vector group. For example, this I will just write for example, Y we have seen
that Y; Y with different color let me write so much space is there. For example, this
connection I will not redraw you know Yy 0° we have seen. What does this mean? It means
these are the primaries you short these are the secondaries, this is 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝑎1 𝑎2, 𝐵1 𝐵2 etcetera
𝐶1 𝐶2 small 𝑐1 𝑐2 and 𝑏1 𝑏2 and suppose you make star, then this connection indicates it is
Yy0° degree means I will write it as what, then this these voltage 𝑎1𝑛 both minute and
hour hand will be together. So, I will write it as Yy 12 time is 12, then only I will say this
is Yy 0°.

Similarly, if you short these I should have written Yy 6 because secondary voltage should
have been with respect to neutral here primary voltage is there they would have been 180°
out of phase. I hope you have understood this one. Now, let us try some more connections.

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Another connection is a see previously let me draw another one, so that with delta
connections you become comfortable. Suppose there are two ways of delta connections
either this way or other ways that is a cyclically you go this or it could be connected like
this. So, the second connection let me try, what is this?

(Refer Slide Time: 27:12)

So, once again star delta connection ok. So, these are the primaries 𝐴1 𝐴2 , 𝐵1 𝐵2, 𝐶1 𝐶2 and
these are the secondaries small 𝑎1 𝑎2, small 𝑏1 𝑏2 and small 𝑐1 𝑐2 and suppose I have shorted
these.

So, I get the primary voltages as supply voltages are this is 𝐴𝑠 , this is 𝐵𝑠 easier way of
drawing I am telling 𝐶𝑠 . So, supply voltage is balanced draw 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵𝑠 , 𝐶𝑠 first 120° apart and
this is 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵𝑠 , 𝐶𝑠 you draw and this will become the neutral and where 𝐴2 , 𝐵2, 𝐶2 are joined
this is capital 𝑁 this is over.

Then you know you connect it suppose like this you joined other way now and mind you
these are dots do not forget to show that which I have already told you that is important.
So, you connect this closed circuit there will be no circulating current because I have been
very meticulous very careful about polarity marking and that is why I am connecting and
this is my output terminals small a, small b which will go to load 3 phase load like that.

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Now, in this case the secondary voltage I am now drawing. Secondary voltage will be
mind you this 𝐴𝑠 is nothing, but your 𝐴1 is not; is nothing, but 𝐴1 , 𝐵𝑠 is nothing, but 𝐵1
and 𝐶𝑠 is nothing, but 𝐶1 .

Now, I will sketch the secondary voltage now you see there is the voltage 𝑎1 𝑎2 which will
be parallel to 𝐴1 𝐴2 . So, I draw it here a space is there this is suppose 𝑎1 𝑎2, it must be like
that then 𝐵1 𝐵2 parallel to that the secondary voltage has been induced that I get from single
phase funda that is induced voltages in each transformers will be co phasor with the
primary voltage that we have we know from.

So, 𝑏1 𝑏2, but this time I have joined 𝑏2 with 𝑎1 . So, move this 𝑏2 with 𝑎1 , so it must be
like this. I first write this 𝑎1 𝑎2 here this side 𝑎1 𝑎2 fine with this then 𝑏1 𝑏2 I will draw like
this with a little practice you will become conversant with this, this is the thing 𝑎1 and 𝑏2
I have joined. So, there must be at some potential and then 𝑐1 𝑐2 and 𝑐1 is joined with 𝑎2 .
So, is like this 𝑐1 𝑐2 is not`

So, it is a valid delta connection and then I am telling mark this please follow the
instructions carefully. So, that you will never make mistake while working with a 3 phase
transformer in the laboratory or in the site.

So, 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 these are the thing this is 𝑎 this is my 𝑏 this is 𝑐. So, balanced 3 phase voltage
will be obtained. So, here is the artificial neutral because delta connection no neutral. So,
a phase voltage with respect to this neutral and a phase voltage of the primary is this the
vertical line therefore, it is 30°. So, in terms of clock it will become this 12, 6, 3, 9, 10, 11
etcetera 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8.

So, primary voltage with the minute hand I will always show, so that was this and
secondary voltage with respect to same a phase voltage with respect to neutral is now
ahead of this. So, it must be shown here hour hand this is the secondary voltage and this is
30°. So, this connection I should say it is Y d (+30°) or you show Y d 11 like that ok. We
will continue with this try to understand very interesting, but at the same time people often
make confuse confusion I mean.

Thank you.

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 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 38
Vector Group (Contd.)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:21)

Welcome to lecture number 38 and you recall that we were discussing two connections Yd
11 and previously Yd 1 we have done and I hope you have got the idea what and do not
forget that not only the phase voltages but also the line to line voltages suffer same degree
of either lag or lead on both the sides.

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(Refer Slide Time: 00:28)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:54)

And then I have discussed about the clock this thing and we found that there are two
connections possible; so, Yd 11 or Yd 1.

Mind you if somebody says the connection is Yd 3, no you cannot realize it because these
such voltages are not available you must understand this point is not. It so happens that
30° phase displacement only possible with star delta connections. Therefore, anything you
cannot get means Yd 2 somebody says I have connected the transformer this is ridiculous,

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you cannot get it for a balanced 3 phase transformer this is just I point out. So, you should
be very methodical in drawing this.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:58)

Now, let us connect the same way, but now rather quickly these connections say D y I
would like to connect. I am not telling mentioning the vector group yet suppose and, but I
know there are two correct ways of connecting delta. So, primary I have to connect delta
secondary star and two ways of connecting star. So, suppose I say that two valid delta
connections are there. So, 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , this is the primaries 𝐵1, 𝐵2 and this is 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and one of
the valid connection is go this way that is first let me try.

So, this is the primary connection I will do and obviously, from 𝐴1 , 𝐵1 that is the
convention I am following 𝐶1 I will take the output, and not output I will connect my
source 𝐴𝑠 𝐵𝑠 and𝐶𝑠 this is what I will do and secondary small 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 small 𝑐1, 𝑐2 . See I
have taken a given input as if 𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐶1 . So, I would like to have outputs taken from 𝑎1 𝑏1
𝑐1 on the secondary side. So, suppose I shorted star connections.

Now, what I will be doing I have to draw the primary voltage phasors, voltage is coming
across each winding, and as I told you to begin with you better draw supply voltage is
balanced and phase sequence abc balanced. So, what you do is this, you draw this vector
diagram that primary vector as this primary side is delta connected draw it like this with
this is 𝐴𝑠 line to line voltage I am drawing 𝐵𝑠 and 𝐶𝑠 is not. This is the balance 3 phase
voltage what else 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝐴 they are 120° apart.

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Now, 𝐴𝑠 is connected to 𝐴1 and 𝐵2. So, I write here this point is 𝐴1 , 𝐵2 either of them or
together same point 𝐴𝑠 is connected to 𝐴1 and 𝐵2 similarly 𝐵𝑠 is connected to 𝐵1 and 𝐶2 .
So, this point is same as 𝐵1 and 𝐶2 capital and 𝐶𝑠 as you can see it is connected to 𝐶1 and
𝐴2 same 𝐶𝑠 is nothing, but 𝐶1 and 𝐴2 is not? This is the thing what is the voltage applied
across the primary of the transformer A? 𝐴1 𝐴2 where is 𝐴1 𝐴2 ? This is 𝐴1 this is 𝐴2 .

So, on the secondary side this voltage will be if I use a different color it is parallel to this
line is not parallel to this line and I will write it here 𝑎1 𝑎2 got the point. Similarly 𝐵1 𝐵2
voltage applied across the primary of the B transformer is 𝐵1 𝐵2 where is 𝐵1 where is 𝐵2
oh this is 𝐵1 this is 𝐵2. So, parallel to this small 𝑏1 𝑏2 will exist and not only that I have
joined 𝑏2 with 𝑎2 . So, bring this line parallel and it will be here 𝑏2 𝑏1 not 𝑏2 𝑏1 parallel to
this. So, this angle will be 120° apart. Mind you all these angles are 60°, I hope you
understand that geometry which I am not going. And finally, voltage applied to the primary
of the C transformer is 𝐶1 𝐶2 therefore secondary induced voltage will be parallel to this
𝐶1 𝐶2 line and 𝑐2 I have joined. So, 𝑐1 𝑐2 like this all angles are 120° I think you understand
that this is the thing

Now, if you choose a connection you get it in this way and your now I have to decide what
is the vector group of this connection primary delta D secondary star y I want to know
what is the what is the vector group. So, what I will be doing? I will identify on the delta
side there is no neutral small neutral that is artificial neutral or centroid of the triangle. So,
this is the and I will mark 𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐶1 this is where I will follow the convention, I have
connected supply similarly this is my output this is of course, obvious in this case no
problem.

Now, the a phase voltage of the primary side is this vertical line with respect to neutral.
This is the secondary neutral it exists this point this is secondary neutral. Now this a phase
voltage if you draw a this a phase voltage of the primary is this vertical line. So, this is 30°
it will be 30° and therefore, I will say that it is Yd secondary voltage lagging the primary
voltage with respect to neutral by that I could write it Dy(-30°) or you could write D y
what should be the time? 12 and this is Dy 1. So, 1 got the point that is in terms of clock
convention because your this thing it is here a phase voltage it is there.

Therefore this is how you and also do not forget that line to line voltage here that way also
one can do that line to line voltage of the primary side is 𝐴1 𝐵1 what is the line to line

365
voltage of the secondary side it is this one. So, this was this once again can be shown to
be equal to 30° that is what you must understand.

Therefore both the line to line voltages and phase to neutral voltages, will suffer the same
change star delta connection ok. I will just the other connection you can try delta this way
that you decide and you will soon discover that that will be Yd 1 that I am not repeating,
but what I will say to you is this one. The same connection I will do in a slightly different
fashion just to make you understand suppose see in this connection when I did, what I have
done? I just told connect Dy, I did not specify the phase angle difference this to begin with
I did not know what it is. It looks like as if I have connected first then told oh you have
connected this is this phase group.

But suppose I want to connect Dy 1 oh sorry.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:20)

Suppose I now say that connect Dy 1 the connection I know now. The point I want to make
it is interesting you see this is the 3 transformers you have 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , this is 𝐵1, 𝐵2 and this
is 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 good and this is secondary small 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 one terminals are dot terminals which I
am not writing all the time 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐1, 𝑐2 fine. Then what I am telling you connect this as
delta like this for example, same thing I am doing I mean do not worry this is 𝐴𝑠 this is
supply 𝐵𝑠 and this is supply 𝐶𝑠 .

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Now, after you energize this what I am telling. This is your supply voltages because supply
voltage I know it is balanced. So, I will write 𝐴𝑠 , draw this triangle 60° equilateral triangle
𝐶𝑠 and then say that 𝐴𝑠 is nothing but 𝐴1 𝐵2 etcetera 𝐴1 𝐵2 and 𝐵𝑠 is 𝐵1 𝐶2 and 𝐶𝑠 this is 𝐶𝑠 ;
is 𝐶1 𝐴2 and suppose secondary I have not connected that is what I am telling I want to
achieve this one connection. But what I know is this that I have now in the secondary these
phasors available to me what is that? Small 𝑎1 𝑎2 this is available then this voltage is
available, 𝑐1 𝑐2 and 𝑏1 𝑏2. Why I have shown them in isolation? Because I have not
connected yet I do not know, but since you want to connect Dy 1 what you would like to
have? Your 𝐴1 voltage with respect to neutral here that is this voltage, secondary 𝑎1
voltage small 𝑎1 must be I mean that way that is in the twelve o clock if this is your primary
you have you would like to have small 𝑎1 𝑎2 here

So, this indicates that you better join 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 I mean you ponder over this think these are
very interesting. So, such that this will be this way and then say I have joined that is in
effect what I am telling, it is not that these connections are arbitrary you can I can tell you
make this connection. Then the question is whether delta should be connected this way or
delta should be connected that way, connect it and try to get this one achieve this. So, I
have practice on this I think I have made things clearer now.

So, this is the better group, similarly you can have last connection here is delta delta
connection star star connection is so, simple.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:03)

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This I will just mention delta delta connection ok. So, delta delta connection means. See I
have not yet told you which connection to use at in what application? I am simply now
getting accounted with you what are the possible things you can do 3 phase means star
delta connection it looks like ok. 3 phase transformer, 3 coils there, 3 coils there either of
them you connect I am just telling you how to get the correct connections with confidence.
So, that is the idea of this lecture.

So, here also I say this is 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , this is 𝐵1 , 𝐵2 what are the vector group possible here that
is what I am examining with delta delta connection and these this is the secondary. Here I
will not take much time because you are now used to it small 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 and this is small 𝑐1,
𝑐2 proper delta I have to connect. So, these are dots. So, connected this is one of the proper
way of connecting and I will give supply connect supply here 𝐴𝑠 to 𝐴1 , 𝐵𝑠 and to this
junction 𝐶𝑠 ok.

Now, suppose there also there are only two possibilities here this way you connect
secondary you connect also this way same way. Let us see what vector group it results into
because of this connection proper delta connection correct.

Now, once again delta connection. So, better draw the primary voltages line to line
voltages first because there is no neutral that is why I start with line to line voltage and it
is the 3 phase it has nothing to do with transformer this is the supply voltages which are
available here you know? Line to line voltages are also balanced 𝐴𝑠 𝐵𝑠 𝐵𝑠 𝐶𝑠 voltage lags
by 120° you know this and 𝐶𝑠 𝐴𝑠 voltage for the lags by 120° ok. I am not putting the
arrows that is understood 𝐴𝑠 𝐵𝑠 𝐶𝑠 like this.

And then what is the next step oh 𝐴𝑠 you have connected to capital 𝐴1 and 𝐶2 . So, capital
𝐴1 𝐶2 𝐵𝑠 I have connected to 𝐵1 and 𝐴2 . So, 𝐵1 𝐴2 same potential because of this
connection 𝐶𝑠 is connected to 𝐶1 and 𝐵2, 𝐶1 𝐵2 is not? This will be the thing secondary
voltages 𝑎1 𝑎2 will be parallel to this line. So, 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑏2 will be parallel to this line correct
or not 𝑏1 𝑏2 will be parallel. So, 𝑏1 𝑏2 I will put it here bring it down so, but 𝑏1 is connected
to 𝑎2 .

So, 𝑏1 must be placed here 𝑏1 𝑏2 and finally, you know you bring this 𝑐1 𝑐2 you get this in
triangle where from I will take output to be consistent from 𝑎1 this I will call 𝑎, this will
call 𝑏, this I will call 𝑐 and this will be the thing what do you think. So, primary is delta,

368
secondary is also delta small letter and what is the phase angle difference; 0° because here
also no neutral exist, but anyway with respect to artificial. This is vertical line here also
this a phase A phase mind you that is also parallel. So, time is 12 that is; so, Dd 12.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:32)

Now, the same primary connection if I make say this is 𝐴1 𝐴2 this is small 𝑎1 𝑎2 I mean
same thing I am drawing you also draw so, that you get used to it I mean small 𝑐1 𝑐2 and
suppose primary I have connected like this as I have told you delta and these are from the
junctions supply 𝐴𝑠 supply 𝐵𝑠 and supply 𝐶𝑠 this is known and secondary I will now
connect not this way, but other way these are the only 2 possible delta connections. So,
suppose the this I have connected like this and I will take output from these junctions small
𝑎1 going to load from 𝑏1 going to 𝑏 and from 𝑐1 going to 𝑐 of the supplying load.

Now, here it is. So, so what should I do? Delta connection draw supply 𝐴𝑠 𝐵𝑠 𝐶𝑠 what is
𝐴𝑠 ? 𝐴1 𝐵2 we have done it 𝐴1 𝐵2 what is 𝐵𝑠 ? 𝐵1 𝐶2 and what is 𝐶𝑠 ? 𝐶𝑠 is 𝐶1 𝐴2 like that. So,
A phase voltage secondary voltage 𝑎1 𝑎2 phasor will be parallel to this line B phase voltage
phasor will be parallel to this line with this side small 𝑏1 that side 𝑏2 and C phase voltage.

So, let me start with the a phase voltage, this will be small 𝑎1 𝑎2 parallel to this is not b
phase voltage 𝑏1 𝑏2 and 𝑏2 is 𝑏1 𝑏2 is where this 𝑏1 we drawn correctly this? Wrong sorry
there is a mistake here see 𝑎1 𝑎2 is here have I made 𝑎1 𝑎2. So, 𝑎1 𝑎2 here I should draw
like this correct or not 𝑎1 𝑎2 parallel 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑏2 is here. So, that is parallel to this, but 𝑏2 is
joined with 𝑎1 where is 𝑏2 . So, 𝑏2 is joined with 𝑎1 , 𝑏2 phasor is this; so, 𝑏2 and 𝑏1 .

369
And finally, I think I have done the same connection is it looks like same thing. So, it will
be 𝐷 d 0 same thing I have done. So, let me change it. So, it will be once again by mistake
I have done it 𝑐2 𝑐1. So, once again 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 and this is D d 0. See there is no difference
between this connection and the previous connection like that here also these. So, that is
why no variety is obtained. I what I intended to do let me correct that. So, anyway this is
done.

So, let me do it like this. So, that you understand because this I have already done what I
wanted to do is, I will make another valid delta connection, but this way got the point. So,
it will be like this, then you say this is 𝑎, this is your 𝑏 got the point I actually did same
thing and this is your 𝑐. So, in this case then the phasor diagram will be like this, what will
be the phasor diagram now? On the secondary side voltage 𝑎1 𝑎2 here also it will be 𝑎1 𝑎2
is not this is the thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:48)

Now, then or I did once again same. Now 𝑏1 𝑏2 and parallel to this line, but 𝑏1 is connected
to 𝑎2 is not? So, it will be like this 𝑏1 𝑏2 and finally, 𝑐1 𝑐2 like this and 𝑐1 is connected to
𝑏2 . So, it will be like this now it is correct 𝑐1 𝑐2 got the point?

So, in this case if you do then people say that this is a Dd 0 connections sort of. Why I am
telling people say I will take output from 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 if I take it is indeed Dd 0, got the point?

370
See in this particular case it is like suppose I say that you take the output from 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
then it will appear as a Dd 180 or Dd 6 connection. If output is taken from 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 instead
of this one that is you take the output from say this you say 𝑎 this you say 𝑏 this you say
𝑐 in this case you compromise a bit and not that much a 1 for example, Yy 6 star star 6
connection what you do? Y ou have to take output from 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 , 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 shorted, but
nonetheless the phase sequence is maintained and things like that. So, this is the I will
circulate with red 𝑎2 𝑏2 and where is 𝑐2 , 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 180° apart. Therefore, you see there are
various ways of connecting the windings delta star, delta delta, star delta, star star and so,
on.

Now, in my next lecture what I am going to tell you is about a transformer which is a 3
phase unit, it is built as a 3 phase transformer at least some little bit of constructional
features of course, the connections here I have mentioned I started with threes identical
transformers these connections things will be equally valid as we will see, if there is a 3
phase transformer as a single unit. So, we will do that in the next class.

Thank you.

371
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 39
Open Delta Connection

Welcome to lecture number 39 on Electrical Machines I.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:19)

And we were discussing use of 3 single phase transformers to step up or step down voltage
it depends upon the connections, what will become the line to line voltage, transformation.
And also we have fairly understood what is the phase shift of the secondary voltage with
respect to primary voltage and what are the possible connections familiar conditions like
star delta, delta star, delta-delta and so on.

Now, you recall that, this 3 are individual transformers. And this is the delta-delta
connection with D d 0, we have discussed this earlier. That is the phase voltages are in
phase. In this connection, see this connection and I am talking in terms of 3 a bank of 3
single phase transformers; 3 identical transformers you take separate 𝐴1 𝐴2 and I can
connect them in delta-delta and so on.

Now, one interesting thing about this connection is that, you can have from this you can
derive an interesting connection which is called open delta connection. Now I will put it

372
in a question form, that is suppose you are given two single phase transformers of identical
ratings not three, then is it possible to change the voltage level from the source to the load
side that is the question asked. So, 2 transformers I will give, is it possible to still transform
a 3 phase balance voltage from one level to another that is a thing. In these complete 3
transformers when you are using, we have connected this transformers as delta-delta and
D d 0 is the connection ok.

Now, suppose I say that, in this connection I will remove one transformer, say transformer
A, I will remove; then what are the things will happen, that is a what I am planning to do
I will remove this transformer as if it is not there. And other connections remain as it is,
what do I mean by it is not there? It is physically not there; so it is open circuit here. A is
gone, there is no 𝐴1 𝐴2 , got the point.

Similarly, it secondary is not there; that is there is a open circuit in place of transformer A,
but nonetheless I have connected in this fashion. Then across a transformer B of course,
same voltage has been applied 𝐵1 𝐵2 because of this line voltage is balance 3 phase what
I have done I have applied a 𝐵𝑠 𝐶𝑠 across 𝐵1 𝐵2; across 𝐶1 𝐶2 I have applied a voltage 𝐶𝑠
𝐴𝑠 because this connection is there, A is not there. But 𝐴𝑠 is connected here and 𝐶𝑠 is
connected there. So, how much voltage I have applied, 𝐶𝑠 𝐴𝑠 . So, in other words what I
am telling if you 𝐴1 𝐴2 ; where is 𝐴1 𝐴2 here, remove 𝐴1 𝐴2 , then what I am telling I have
applied a voltage across this is 𝐶2 mind you.

So, across the C transformer 𝐶1 𝐶2 has been applied and across transformer B; 𝐵𝑠 𝐶𝑠 has
been applied this phasor this phasor, but across 𝐴𝑠 𝐵𝑠 it is also balance line to line voltage
that voltage phasor exist. But 𝐴𝑠 𝐵𝑠 has not been applied to any of the primary because
that transformer A is missing, are you getting. So, this is the thing, but since I have applied
a voltage here across. So, this I will first remove across 𝑐1 𝑐2 there will be induced voltage
parallel to these voltage these voltage across 𝑏1 𝑏2 there will be induced voltage parallel
to this 𝐵𝑠 𝐶𝑠 , 𝑏1 𝑏2 and 𝑏2 𝑐1 are joined. So, it will be like this only and I will take output
from this, from this and from this.

Then what I am telling that these 2 voltage has 60° apart therefore, these voltage also will
be 60° apart it is conditioned by these 2 phasors. Even if transformer A is not there, you
will still get a balanced 3 phase output voltage, is not. So, it looks like that delta is not
complete, open delta, got the point. Therefore, you can take output and once again supply

373
a 3 phase load; your 3 phase load will not fill anything balanced 3 phase voltage I am
receiving. What was the line to line voltage in the previous case when all the transformers
where there, these are the line to line voltage. Here also same, same line to line voltage
you will get.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:38)

In other words in simplified diagram, what I am telling; suppose you what you have
essentially done is, which transformers I have removed. If I draw it in a simplified diagram,
I will do it like this; this is one transformer, this is another transformer, this is it secondary,
this is it secondary and the third transformer is not there. And what I have done, I have
connected 3 phase supply there 𝐴𝑠 𝐵𝑠 𝐶𝑠 , 3 phase supply.

So these voltage will be this line to line voltage whatever it is; I mean now look at this
diagram separately ok. And what will be these voltage these will be 𝐵𝑠 𝐶𝑠 parallel to this
therefore, this third voltage gets automatically decided and 60° out of phase; therefore, I
will take output from this, these and this and supply a 3 phase load.

Then you can change the level of 3 phase voltage from one value to another just by using
2 single phase transformers; that is what I want to convey to you. You do not even require
3 transformers. Remember I took the rating of each transformer, so 2 number of
transformers mind you; and you get open delta connection like this it is mentioned. Rating
of each transformer I took as 200V/100V for easy calculation 5 KVA; single phase 50 Hz
what is the thing, what is the rated current of this side:

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This is 25Amp rated current and this is 50Amp rated current. Now I would like to know
that what is the KVA rating of this type of connections; in case of 3 phase transformers in
my first lecture on 3 phase transformer I told you, if the rating of each transformer is 5
KVA, total KVA which could be handled by this 3 transformers since 15 KVA quite
logical; each one will give you 5 KVA. But in case of open delta connection which is
called open delta connection; we would like to know how much KVA that can be handled
by this open delta connection. The idea is pretty simple, mind you in this case the
secondary winding in series with the line, what is the rating of the secondary side suppose
this is 100V side, how much maximum current I will allow to flow 50Amp because
winding rated current is 50Amp.

So, I can allow 50Amp current to flow in this line in all the line this line and if these two
are 50Amp, phasor sum will give you also this is 50Amp. So, I should not exceed this
rated current. The moment it delivers 50Amp here it will automatically by principle of
transformer will bring 100Amp there, are you getting. And these currents will be once
again balanced 3 phase current, why not load is balanced; balanced load. Therefore, what
is the total kVA handled by open delta connection will be equal to how much, if you
calculate from the L V side it will be

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐾𝑉𝐴 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

= √3𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝐼𝐿
= √3 × 100 × 50
= √3 × 200 × 25
= 8.65𝐾𝑉𝐴

So, if you apply line to line 200V here, line to line here you will get 100V. I will neglect
the no load current etcetera.

So, this much total kVA it can handle, but it may look like you are using 2 transformer
rating of each transformer is 5 KVA perhaps can you just calculate these two.

Approximately. So, this is 8.65 KVA, but you will be rather surprise to see ok, at least I
am using 2 transformers it is kVA rating should have been 10 KVA I mean I would expect
2 transformer I am using. So, without overloading any of the transformer I see that no, it
is not 10 KVA it is slightly less than that. Therefore, why it is because this is the line

375
current and the winding currents are same ok. And it is a 3 phase system and the factor by
which this KVA will be reduced is then I was expecting, see I will calculate this number
with respect to whom, when all the 3 transformers we were using what is the kVA handled
by these two transformers? 10KVA

√3 × 100 × 50 √3 × 200 × 25 √3
= = = 0.865
10 × 1000 10 × 1000 2

Therefore the capacity will be about 86.5% of the expected capacity or common sense tells
2 transformers you are using, then 10KVA you can extract from the transformer, no it is
not going to be like that, it will be only lesser. But nonetheless this connection was popular
I mean still may be also popular because of the fact see the advantage, although I have not
told you anything about a 3 phase single unit transformer, 3 individual transformers I am
connecting.

Now, in earlier days the advantage of using 3 single phase transformers are there are at
least two biggest advantage.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:49)

One is suppose your total KVA you have to handle 15 KVA, I mean I am going other way
around suppose my 3 phase load demand is 15 KVA. So, you by three 5 KVA transformer
to achieve this and connect this 3 individual transformers star delta whatever is necessary
depending upon the voltage level; but 15 KVA you will get. So, you will buy three single
phase transformer each of 5 KVA rating, is not. Each of 5 KVA rating you buy and no

376
open delta I am telling you connect this 3 phase star delta whatever way, so total KVA of
the system will be 15 KVA fine.

But the advantage of this method is that, if suppose one transformer develops a fault ok.
Let us take that previous example in this simple connection same number because then it
will be clearer, suppose it was delta-delta connected then you apply 200V here, here you
get 100V is not. Suppose the connection is same 5 KVA each, so 15 KVA you get; what
is the rated current of the LV side we have seen, 50Amp.

So, 50Amp here now, compare delta-delta full connection then line current you can apply
50√3𝐴𝑚𝑝 you can allow and then the total KVA becomes

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐾𝑉𝐴 = √3 × 100 × 50√3 = 15𝐾𝑉𝐴

And you are stepping down the voltage, you are, supplying 3 phase load that you should
be always in your mind that thing is playing.

Now, suppose in this case one of the transformer develops a fault, then I will say can I still
supply the load; I will say yes. If suppose this transformer develops a fault, because this
three are three separate transformers it has developed a fault, then this transformer you
remove from the circuit. So, that your connection will become something like this and I
will say look here you still will be able to supply the load, but not 15KVA not 10KVA,
but some 8.65KVA that is what I want to convey to you; but nonetheless it is better than
nothing. Suppose one of the transformer develop fault you can immediately restore supply,
but supply a load slightly less than the rated KVA, 15 KVA certainly you cannot supply,
but it is not 10 KVA as well to be slightly less, but something is better than nothing sort
of thing happens. Not only that when you use 3 single phase transformers in such cases
what people will do, each transformer rating is 5 KVA.

So, keep buy four at the very beginning and in case of fault keep one in reserve waiting.
So buy four, 5 KVA transformer, four numbers 5 KVA, one you do not connect; spare it
is the fourth one is spared transformer, spare, spare unit waiting outside. If such a situation
occurs one transformer develops fault you remove this transformer bring that fourth one
here. What is the advantage of this method? This spare unit which you are purchasing is
only of 5 KVA rating, you will see that if it is a single 3 phase unit of transformer of 15

377
kVA; if one of the winding develops fault then you have to take shutdown and correct that
faulty.

In case of 3 phase unit you will see this open delta connection cannot be used; because
after all this transformer has developed fault you will have to take some corrective action.
And there also that transformer has developed a fault of 15 KVA single unit then the spare
of that it will be of also of 15 KVA unit. So, lot of money is to be invested you know, that
is not a good solution. Therefore, in those applications where you can use take the
advantage of open delta connection, even if you do not have any spare units still you can
maintain supply till that transformer is repaired ok; then connect it if you do not have a
spare unit and like that you can maintain ok.

So, this is a very interesting connection open delta connection, I hope you have understood
what it means; but the capacity of the transformer is reduced.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:42)

Now, I will just today tell you about a 3 phase transformer we will come back to this
connection once again; a 3 phase transformer as a single unit ok. So, how it can be first let
me draw this diagram is slightly tricky to draw; what I mean to say that suppose you have
a transformer like this, very rough sketch I will do, but you will get the idea. This is the,
suppose one transformer and to understand what is going on, this is this transformer with
iron core. And what I will do here I will have 2 windings on this limb, imagine I have 3
such iron core got the point; because this diagram I cannot draw so nicely, next time I will

378
show some drawn diagram. But the idea is interesting, what is done is you take another
similar unit and suppose you have put it there, got the point you will get the idea hopefully.

Another iron core, and here also you have got 2 coils; one will be primary another will be
secondary on the same limb. Bring another third unit and put it here, this time I will make
a mess of it, but any way try to get the idea. This is the third one another similar this is like
this got the idea, you have and remove this one. Here is the third unit, where also there
will be this one its core. That is 3 units there is a central common iron; one goes like this
another like this, then need not be 120° apart nothing like that you join them somehow,
the central iron. And here also you have two windings in the outer limbs 1 and 2; I think
you have got the idea.

So, 3 iron structure of single phase transformer you have put together, mechanically. Now
what I will tell you name the terminals as 𝐴1 𝐴2 and it secondary small 𝑎1 𝑎2 on the same.
Similarly this is suppose 𝐵1 𝐵2 and this is small 𝑏1 𝑏2 and this is 𝐶1 𝐶2 and small 𝑐1 𝑐2 .
Now you imagine that this 3 coils while showing the connection I have done like this 𝐴1
𝐴2 suppose star connection I have done 𝐵1 𝐵2, 𝐶1 𝐶2 suppose primary; then this
transformer will develop a flux, secondary is open suppose 𝜑𝑎 .

Similarly 𝐵1 𝐵2 will also develop a flux say 𝜑𝑏 going these way, function of time. And
third transformer will develop a flux, this diagram so badly drawn any way try to
understand; the this is 𝜑𝑐 , but this 𝜑𝑎 , 𝜑𝑏 , 𝜑𝑐 will be 120° out of phase because the applied
1
voltage is balanced, is coming.
√3

So, how the flux path will be completed 𝜑𝑎 goes there, through the central iron it comes
then it goes there. How 𝜑𝑏 will be completing it is path, it will go like this through the
central iron it will come down and go there. And similarly 𝜑𝑐 it will go like this through
the central it will come. If you see the top view of this thing that is easier to draw; what I
am trying to tell this is one transformer iron, this one you will be able to see. This is another
transformer plan I am saying are you getting and oh sorry this is the third one like this, if
you look from the top you will see this three things.

Now, this is the common iron here this three you will be able to see like a finding out
things. Now if I ask you what is the flux in this common iron, how much it will be? It will

379
be 0, because 𝜑𝑎 (𝑡) + 𝜑𝑏 (𝑡) + 𝜑𝑐 (𝑡) they are 120° apart in time, their instantaneous
values will be

𝜑𝑎 (𝑡) + 𝜑𝑏 (𝑡) + 𝜑𝑐 (𝑡) = 0

as 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑐 in a 3 phase system summed up to be

𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑐 = 0

Balanced 3 phase system. Therefore, it looks like this central iron whether you connect it
or not it does not matter it does not carry any flux.

So, 𝜑𝑎 will get it is return path via 𝜑𝑏 this iron and this iron, as it happens in a 3 phase 3
line current system. 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑐 = 0 whether you provide that neutral path or not; if 𝐼𝑎 ,
𝐼𝑏 , 𝐼𝑐 are balanced 3 phase current it does not matter. Anyway so next step is therefore,
this iron portion central that thing can be removed. And not only that we will see in our
next class, if you remove this central iron, you save some iron definitely. Because central
portion I know it will not carry any resultant flux at any point of time if it is a balanced 3
phase system; then the weight will be reduced, but nonetheless still the structure of the
transformer will be pretty awkward. See in the working place if you keep it these
projections will make a very inconvenient piece of equipment to work with.

So, what people do is this.

(Refer Slide Time: 33:58)

380
They will I will just draw today and then they make it much more simpler. They say do
not go for this projections, make it absolutely rectangular. This is the iron laminations
stack one about them and this is one limb this is in plane. So, it will look like these are this
is, got the point. I do not know whether this we will be able to see and then you make your
connections like this is 𝐴1 𝐴2 this is we will continue with this next time do not worry,
small 𝑎1 𝑎2 . Similarly for B phase, so these are the 3 limbs 𝐵1 𝐵2 and small 𝑏1 𝑏2 and
finally, this is suppose capital 𝐶1 𝐶2 and small 𝑐1 𝑐2 number of turns of capital numbered
coils are same 𝑁1 , small number coils are same that is and this is called core type
transformer, core type 3 phase transformer. We will discuss with this next time.

Thank you.

381
 Electrical Machines – I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 40
3 Phase Type and Shcle Type Transformer

Welcome, to 40th lecture on Electrical Machine I course.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:16)

And, we have started discussing on three-phase transformer as a single unit and in our last
class I so, told you that you take three single phase transformer imagine that you have
taken three single phase transformer and you have joined the one of the limbs of each of
them together and then the secondary winding you put on the outer limbs. And, then the
flux in this central limb instantaneous value of the flux will be 0, because 𝜑𝑎 , 𝜑𝑏 and 𝜑𝑐
they are 120° out of phase.

So, that material can be avoided and still this structure is somewhat awkward. So, a
simplified way of making a bit of constructional features that is in fact, I am telling is that
you take plane laminations with two windows like this. So, this is the lamination in one
plane and put several of them to get the height or the width of this transformer that is in 3-
dimension it will look like this which sectional view will be like this.

382
So, there will be three limbs and in each of the limbs you put coils of one phase say 𝐴1 ,
𝐴2 and its secondary instead of putting it some other place we should not do it in case of
three-phase core type transformer core type transformer which is very easy to construct.
And, then you have it is secondary and this terminals will be marked as 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 .

Similar is the case with B-phase winding. You have several its primary and its secondary.
And, they are 𝐵1, 𝐵2 primary small 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 secondary and finally, the C-phase winding 𝐶1 ,
𝐶2 and small 𝑐1, 𝑐2 . And, so, basically the analysis will remain same as that of a bank of
three single phase transformers. That is the representation of these in terms of coil I will
show it similar to the previous one 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 and its secondaries with the understanding that
capital 𝐴1 and 𝑎1 they will be the dot terminals. 𝐵1, 𝐵2 and this is small 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 and this is
capital 𝐶1 capital 𝐶2 and small 𝑐1, 𝑐2 .

And, then I could connect them in star-star, delta-star, star-delta and what not with some
specific vector grouping ok. But, only thing here one must understand that suppose you
connected this three in star in star and excited with secondary open circuited secondary
also suppose star. So, this will perhaps give me know why perhaps it will give me Y y 0
connection.

But, the point I want to tell you that with secondary open circuited primary energized, the
reluctance of the flux of 𝜑𝑎 and 𝜑𝑏 will be different because the flux 𝜑𝑎 will get divided
like this into two parallel paths sorry, 𝜑𝑎 𝜑𝑏 will be like this it will divide here itself in
two paths and 𝜑𝑐 will be once again like phi a it will be like that. Therefore, the reluctance
may be different slightly. Therefore, the no load current required, magnetizing current
required will be slightly different in the phases.

Now, if you energize it with balance three-phase source then one thing is clear as I am
repeatedly telling you. Suppose, primary star connected; so, flux created by A phase 𝜑𝑎 ,
𝑑𝜑
its value gets fixed by this voltage is not 𝑁 𝑑𝑡 suppose this primaries are capital 𝑁1 . So,

what is the value of 𝜑𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑥 for a phase? That phase voltage whatever you have applied

across capital 𝐴1 𝐴2 that divided by √2𝜋𝑓𝑁1 . Similarly, if these voltage supply voltage is
balanced so, this 𝜑𝑏 will be also like that its strength 𝜑𝑏 and 𝜑𝑐 will be also like that,
getting the point?

383
Now, this three fluxes as if we will presume they come here and meet they vanish because
𝜑𝑎 , 𝜑𝑏 𝜑𝑐 are 120° apart clear. But, nonetheless in the limbs this limb it has to be 𝜑𝑎 , in
this limb it has to be 𝜑𝑏 because KVL is to be satisfied in the primaries and this is 𝜑𝑐 . So,
𝜑𝑎 , 𝜑𝑏 𝜑𝑐 perhaps will meet here and vanish annihilate themselves because they are 120°
apart. So, things are expected to work why not ok. So, this is the thing.

Then you can proceed. So, far as connection is concerned with the understanding that these
are dots there is no difference in the making connection. So, like star-star, delta-star, star-
delta and so on with this transformer also. So, no point in repeating in that but so, this is
called core type. There is another type of a three-phase transformer possible that is called
shell type I will just sketch that shell type and write it like this shell type.

Here it is much more symmetric so far as the reluctance this dash is concerned and the flux
paths are independent. What they do is this as if you have taken. I will just mention this
core type is much more popular easier to construct, shape is fine and this is the third one
this is the sectional view of the stampings. These are windows, this is the iron portion.

Here what is done the windings are placed here primary, secondary. Similarly, this is for
A-phase I am not going to mark the terminals it will become too clumsy. So, this is for A-
phase say I will take this color and this is for say B-phase it is primary, it is secondary and
C-phase primary, secondary got the point? So, here you see how this flux paths will be
there this. So, you see the windings are placed on the central limb not on the outer limbs
and the flux if you energize the primary A-phase it will produce 𝜑 here, it will nicely
closed onto itself getting the points?.

Similarly, for B-phase flux paths will be like this as if they are independent three single
phase transformers. In fact, they are, but only thing the windings are on the central limb
and here also C-phase flux will be somewhere playing this, but here the fluxes do not have
that is they interact 𝜑𝑎 , 𝜑𝑏 𝜑𝑐 directly that is why the no load current will be slightly
different. So, this is called shell type oh I have written.

Anyway in this cell type some people say a shell type is that type of transformer where
iron similarly in the single phase single phase transformer also you could have a in fact,
there are single phase 3 number of shell type transformers you can make a single phase
transformer in this way. In contrast with the core type; core type single phase was what?
It was like this here is primary winding, there is secondary winding and they may be put

384
in the same limbs distributed on both the limbs primary, secondary, but effectively it is
like that.

Here the primary and secondary will be put here just get the idea that is all. So, this is
single phase shell type people say that in single phase I do not impresses the winding in
the core type coil impresses the one as you can see iron is also showing, but anyway
operation etcetera will be similar flux paths will be different. So, so this is shell type
transformer three-phase of which this core type is more very much popular and they are
use to to make say power transformers all core type.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:38)

Now, after telling this I must tell what about the nameplate rating of a I will draw a vertical
line and write like this nameplate rating of a 3 phase transformer unit. It will be written as
suppose 30 KVA say I am just giving some number say 600V/200V which is not very
practical numbers, but just I am giving you for easy computation 600V/200V, 50Hz and
before that 3 phase 3 30 KVA 600V/200V 50Hz transformer. Mind you, it is not the
collection of three single phase identical units and this is the name plate rating.

Also you will be provided with the connections for example, it may be given as Yd1; that
means, the high voltage side will be connected in star, low voltage side in delta and I know
how to connect them. So, henceforth what I will do because connections once I have
understood, I will just tell that this transformer the normal way of drawing star and delta
connection I will do the primaries are connected like this even I will not mark 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ,

385
𝑎4 . We know that whoever has connected he has connected properly so that you achieve
this Yd1. Similarly, the secondary; secondary is delta connected. So, it will be like this is
not and connected correctly ok.

Now, for solving problems this that it is better you draw this so that easily you can interpret
the data. Now, what this 600V means? This 600V means that this is HV side, this is LV
side, this you listen carefully. This means line to line voltage, mind you. Similarly,
secondary side voltage unless otherwise specified which will never be it is like that only,
but still I am telling if nothing is specified otherwise this will be also line to line voltage.

So, this is line to line, mind you and this is also line to line voltage. This is very important
thing to note, not that this primary winding voltage rating is 600V or 200V what about the
current rating I told you in a transformer KVA and voltages are given, current values are
not explicitly specified. From KVA and voltage informations you have to find out the rated
currents of the winding. In this case, this 30KVA is the total KVA total KVA.

Therefore, from the total KVA and line to line voltage I will be able to calculate the line
currents of the respective side not the winding currents. For example, if I say the if I call
this is side 2, this is side 1 I will say this line current 𝐼𝐿2 will be given by

𝐾𝑉𝐴 = √3𝑉𝐿𝐿1 𝐼𝐿1 = √3𝑉𝐿𝐿2 𝐼𝐿2

√3 × 600 × 𝐼𝐿1 = 30𝐾𝑉𝐴

30 × 103
𝐼𝐿1 = ≈ 28𝐴𝑚𝑝
√3 × 600

√3 × 200 × 𝐼𝐿2 = 30𝐾𝑉𝐴

30 × 103
𝐼𝐿2 = ≈ 84𝐴𝑚𝑝
√3 × 200

I will be able to calculate 𝐼𝐿2 . Mind you, this from this formula you will be able to calculate
the line current of this secondary side.

Similarly, primary side line current that is 𝐼𝐿1 neglect that no load current which will be
5% of that rated; this is the rated line current of the secondary side.

386
So, this is these are the line currents I will be able to in ampere mind you calculate it.

So, this currents I will be able to calculate I will write it down. Now, then one may ask
question what is the turns ratio of the windings? How to find out turns ratio turns ratio of
HV and LV windings or turns ratio per phase. If you are asked to calculate the turns ratio
suppose the number of turns of the primary winding is 𝑁1 and secondary winding is 𝑁2
𝑁 600
then I will say 𝑁1 will be how much the voltage across this which will be divided by
2 √3

𝑁2 line to line voltage is 200V by 200.

600⁄ )
𝑁1 ( √3 = 3 =
= √3
𝑁2 200 √3

This will be the turns ratio.

28Amp this will be this is the HV side. So, LV side it will be higher and we will be able
to calculate. So, the rated currents of the lines are known. Therefore, rated currents this
can you calculate tell me this value? rated current of rated currents of.

So, this is around 84Amp. So, rated currents of windings, it is not this 84Amp or 28Amp
𝐼𝐿𝑉
rated current that is this current . Rated current will be this is 84Amp, therefore,
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐼𝐻𝑉
that divided by √3 because it is delta connected so much ampere. Similarly,
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
rated current that will be same as the line current. So, that is 28Amp, getting the idea?

𝐼𝐻𝑉
= 𝐼𝐿1 = 28𝐴𝑚𝑝
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝐼𝐿𝑉 𝐼𝐿2 84
= = 𝐴𝑚𝑝
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 √3 √3

Therefore, you must remember on the nameplate of a three-phase transformer of a single

unit compact three-phase transformer no three separate transformers you have put together
for connecting it a to work it as a three-phase transformer not like that a single unit of
three-phase transformer, whatever KVA is given it is the total KVA whatever voltage
ratings are given at the line to line voltages of primary and secondary side.

387
So, from which directly you will not be able to say what is the turns ratio of the coils.
Unless it is same connection that is star-star connection, turns ratio will be same as line to
line voltage, got the point, any mistake? So, so this is this point must be very clearly
understood. On the other hand, when I was using three single phase transformers the rating
of each one is known and then depending upon the connections we decided what should
be the line to line voltages that I have discussed earlier you must refer to that.

But, so far as three-phase transformer is concerned this is how it will be it is rating will be
specified ok. Unless once again I am telling the same connection star-star or delta-delta
ratio of this line to line voltages will be same as ratio of the turns ratio of the transformer
ok. So, this is how it is to be done ok. Let me correct it. So, this connection this will be.

So, so given the ratings you will be able to calculate everything including the turns ratio
of the coils. [FL] Now, I will.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:39)

Tell you about another connection first, then I will discuss about when to use stars
connection, delta connection, on the high voltage LV side etcetera those some points I will
discuss, but before that another connection I will discuss. So, now I know that so far as
connections are concerned only thing you will ask for where are my primary terminals
with polarity marking 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 capital where is secondary small 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 and so on, then you
can connect it and it is same for both the kinds.

388
Now, another connection I will just tell which is also very interesting connection which is
called zigzag connection in zigzag connection it is usually denoted by z; like star Y delta
D zigzag connection is denoted by z and why zigzag connection is necessary that also we
will discuss. But, first let us for academic interest let us try to see what this connection
essentially means. At the end it will turn out to be equivalent to star connections.

Let me explain. Suppose, and it does not matter whether you are using three single phase
units or a three-phase transformer as a single unit. For example, to connected zigzag
transformer you must have for a particular phase say I am drawing here suppose three
single phase transformers I have taken. So, far I was telling this is the primary winding
and there was one secondary winding 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 is not and similarly, another transformer with
𝐵1, 𝐵2 small 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 .

But, in this case to carry out zigzag connection for each primary phase you must have two
secondary coils, identical. This connection is very interesting 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 and I will say that all
odd number terminals are dots, it means this. Similarly, for B-phase and C-phase which I
am not drawing three single phase transformer. Naturally if a you apply a voltage phasor
if the voltage applied in the primary across this transformer 𝐴1 𝐴2 on the secondaries you
will have two separate, but equal length phasors or the secondary because their number of
turns are same 𝑁2 , 𝑁2 and this is 𝑁1 , is not? If you excite it with some voltage then same
voltages will be induced and the this lines will be equal.

Therefore to carry out zigzag connection we must have for each phase two identical
secondary’s. In case of three-phase transformers it mainly means that that is if I go to
previous page which I have already drawn for A-phase I have drawn only small 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ,
but there is no space to accommodate another coil what I will do here is that this limb only
I am sketching. Suppose, I can also do like this. This is the primary winding 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 and
there will be two secondary’s like this 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 and 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 and this I will do for B-phase and
C phase as well that is each phase must have two identical secondary coils. So, through
that is the thing.

Therefore, the connections will be. So, now, I will simply draw the coils to execute
connection for example, 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 . Now, there are now two secondary coils 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 and small
𝑎3 , 𝑎4 then for B-phase 𝐵1, 𝐵2 and it will also have two coils 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 and 𝑏3 , 𝑏4 and finally,

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it will have 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and small 𝑐1, 𝑐2 and 𝑐3 , 𝑐4 with the understanding that these are dots all
odd numbers. The arrangement is understood absolutely.

Then what I will do? I will make it suppose primary I have connected in star ok. So, I will
clean this portion now. I know what it is ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 33:53)

Now, primary I will connect in star a valid star for example,. I will connect short 𝐴2 , 𝐵2,
𝐶2 and give supply to 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵𝑠 and 𝐶𝑠 supply and these are the primary phasors. And, this is
𝐴1 which is same as 𝐴𝑠 , this is 𝐵1 same as 𝐵𝑠 and this is 𝐶1 lengths are equal and this is
your neutral 𝐴2 , 𝐵2, 𝐶2 . Now, on the secondary coils I have not connected it anything, but
I have now these voltages available to me to play with. What I mean by this that is I will
then have on the secondary side this two voltage 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 and 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 .

Similarly, I will have parallel to 𝐵1, 𝐵2, 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 and 𝑏3 , 𝑏4 and also I will have these voltages
𝑐1, 𝑐2 and 𝑐3 , 𝑐4 , is not? Six voltage phasors will be available to me to belonging to each
phase. Now, what is zigzag connection means these two phases two secondary coils you
connect them in series ok. The rule is these two coils take this is suppose group 1, this is
group 2 you say take a phase coil and connected in series with either b or c phase coils in
the second group that is you do not connect 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 and 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 in series there will be mixing
of phases.

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So, the these voltages are this one 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 of course, you can connect them into series then
it will be normal effectively a single coil of 2 into turns see this is 𝑁1 , this is 𝑁2 and this is
also 𝑁2 all of them are 𝑁2 , 𝑁2 , 𝑁2 , 𝑁2 , 𝑁2 , 𝑁1 , 𝑁1 . So, what you will be doing in a sense
is that you will connect two coils in series and try to achieve the connection.

So, one coil from this group this is a suppose group I and this vertical coils group II. So,
take one coil here and take either b or c whatever will be relevant that we will discuss.
Similarly, B phase and other from this one. These two you go on connecting in series and
to achieve some what is called zigzag connection ok. So, the question is, what is to be
connected and how. The whole idea is that for example, I would like to connect the primary
in Y, secondary in z I would like to connect.

And, here also it is like say 1. Zigzag connection although it is not yet done, but I told you
it will come effectively a star connection that is.

Um most probably 1, let us see ok. Y z 1 effectively star connection, but two coils will
belong to two different phase groups and at the end 3 terminals will be shorted. Therefore,
whatever will be the neutral just like start this side that will be a neutral and from neutral
to one of the lines if you try to go you will encounter two coils in series belonging to two
different phases ok.

Now, if this is the thing this is 𝐴1𝑁 therefore, A-phase from the secondary if it is 1 suppose
this is the secondary neutral which one will become neutral I am not sure yet. Suppose, it
is neutral, this is the A phase of the primary and I am telling it is one means 30° lagging.
So, what I will do I will draw a line 30° lagging here. So, neutral to A-phase on the
secondary side must lag this was my 𝐴1 this vertical line primary; secondary A phase
voltage, we will lag the primary a phase voltage by 30°.

Now, the question is how this phasor can be achieved? It can be achieved see this was 𝐴1 .
So, I must this phasor this phasor can be realized by bringing this 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 here and then you
can easily see this phasor is parallel to C-phase. Suppose, I have decided in this outer coil
see it will be 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 . So, so I will write here as 𝑐4 , 𝑐3 . See this phasor is 𝑐3 , 𝑐4 plus 𝑎2 , 𝑎1
can give me this one.

So, this is one phase voltage now once you have drawn this the result is obtained B-phase
will be 120° apart from this line. So, draw a line here and here I must expect some 𝑏1 must

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come. How that 𝑏1 will come and this phasor can be broken up into this plus this. So, if it
is 𝑏1 , 𝑏1 is available this must be 𝑏2 and who will provide me this phasor? It must come
from some A-phase 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 has already been used now 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 is remaining. So, 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 , got
the point?

And, where will be my C-phase it must be horizontal after this one this is 30°, this is 90°.
So, here it must come and these voltage must belong to some 𝑐1 .

Hm. So, so, what it should be this is 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 is available fine 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 . I mean this lines are all
equal please forgive me for this one and this will be provided by whom by B-phase. B-
phase one voltage I have used 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , so, 𝑏3 , 𝑏4 . Therefore, effectively now after knowing
this I will come for connection it will be as I told you sort of star connection three terminals
must be shorted. So, and I now know which 3 are to be shorted. So, 𝑎3 , 𝑏3 , 𝑐3 are shorted
then what I see 𝑎2 must be joined with 𝑐4 .

So, this you take a piece of wire and connect here. So, so 𝑎2 is to be connected with 𝑐4 ;
connect it, and this will go to your load, a phase. Similarly, come to the. So, this is over
𝑎4 , 𝑏2 is to be shorted where is 𝑎4 ? So, 𝑎4 and 𝑏2 are to be shorted it will be like this and
this will come as b phase terminal. Similarly, 𝑐2 , 𝑏4 are to be shorted 𝑐2 and 𝑏4 are to be
shorted and that will come as your secondary c phase terminals. So, you can see this is
called zigzag connection.

So, zigzag connection is essentially a sort of star connection three term, you must required
two identical coils you cannot do anything and we have just discussed how it can be done.
Now, the big question is what for all this things that is there, but suppose I say you that a
transformer each phase has got two secondary’s, then it looks like these way also one can
get a balanced three-phase output voltage. Rule is you take one coil here I specify the rule
belonging to one phase a-phase then you see this coil is in series with c-phase coil
belonging to a other phase; b-phase coil in series with a phase coil. And, mind you, these
are the dots and c-phase coil is connected to b-phase and you get this connection. More on
this connections in next class.

Thank you.

392
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 41
Zig Zag Connection

Welcome, to lecture number 41st lecture.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:18)

And, we were discussing Zig Zag Connection of three-phase transformers this three-phase
transformers could be three individual units. So far as connection is concerned you can
implement any connections, but to implement zig zag connection of course, there is a
condition that each phase must have two secondary coils 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 this is small 𝑎1 𝑎2 and 𝐵1,
𝐵2 B phase primary it will have two coils 𝑎1 𝑎2 and 𝑎3 𝑎4 and then small 𝑏1 𝑏2 and here
it is 𝑏3 𝑏4 and finally, the C phase and this I have assumed these are dots odd numbers.

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(Refer Slide Time: 01:36)

And, last time I told you how to implement Y z 1 connection see Y z 0 is not possible you
cannot have a Y z 0 connection you think about that, but Y z 1 is possible. Now, let us try
today say Y z 11 so that you can practice it Y z 11 connection whether it is possible or not
that will also come out Y z 11. So, in this case primary I will short steps are like this and
then primary phases I will draw. It is star connected, it is like this is 𝐴1 , this is 𝐵1, this is
𝐶1 , this point is 𝐴2 , 𝐵2, 𝐶2 , this side neutral and, on the secondary the moment you do like
this you apply voltage secondary you immediately get two sets of voltage for each phase
and these two sets are identical 𝑎1 𝑎2 , and 𝑎3 𝑎4 .

Similarly, 𝑏1 𝑏2 and you draw these not 𝑏3 𝑏4 and then finally, this two parallel to c phase
𝐶1 𝐶2 small 𝑐1 𝑐2 and 𝑐3 𝑐4 . Now, in this case this is the primary voltage whether 11 is
possible, zig zag connection I know three terminals will be shorted. So, there will be a
neutral point available looks like a star connection. Therefore, whatever will be the phase
voltage staring from that neutral of the secondary side that a phase voltage must lead this
a phase voltage.

Therefore, I draw first this a phase voltage that is at 12 and then I am expecting my thing
here at 30° you know this is also straight forward; similar to the previous one, I am just
doing so that you get used to it. So, this must here from the a phase from the secondary
side must come in and I will prefer that it comes out from small 𝑎1 , that is what I prefer
and naturally and similarly your b phase with respect to whoever will become the neutral

394
that I will see after completing this b phase also should come from 𝑏1 I would prefer and
similarly the this is 120° apart c phase must come out from this.

Now, as you can easily see this 𝑎1 it can be nicely placed here 𝑎1 𝑎2 ; then how to reach
from this point to this point by a b-phase voltage; should I use 𝑏1 𝑏2 ; no, better use 𝑏3 𝑏4 .
You can use 𝑏1 𝑏2 mind you, but you should be systematic. So, this is group 1, this is group
2. It does not matter whether you either of them you can use, but I will use put this
conditions. So, this will be your 𝑏3 𝑏4 ; is not?

Similarly, this 𝑏1 phasor is this 𝑏1 𝑏2 I will quickly draw and this must be come from 𝑐3
𝑐4 and I know 𝑏2 𝑐4 is to be shorted and this fellow will come from this; that is this is 𝑐1
𝑐2 and then this is only left out thing is 𝑎3 𝑎4 . Therefore, you will be joining this time 𝑎3 ,
𝑏3 , 𝑐3 I will short and then I will take out the secondariess from this, this, this then 𝑎1 𝑎2
should be joined with 𝑏4 𝑏3 coils.

So, I will take a piece of wire then 𝑎2 should be joined with 𝑏4 . So, 𝑎2 I will take and join
with 𝑏4 then 𝑏2 I will join with 𝑐4 that is this one and 𝑐2 with 𝑎4 and your connection is
over and this is Y z 11 ok. Similarly, you can try D z connection. These I leave you as an
exercise whether primary delta, secondary zig zag can be connected or not and what are
the possibilities.

So, zig zag connection essentially means that it will be two coils in series essentially star
connections, but they will belong to two different phases there are some advantages of this
connection. Now, after I have given you how to connect logically how to implement
logically different connections I give it to you that I will be able to do. Now, I will discuss
that after this discussions I am now familiar with the connections the question is when to
use what connections.

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(Refer Slide Time: 08:36)

Before I start discussing on that now I will tell you one very important things that happen
in particularly three-phase transformers, three-phase practical transformers. You know that
if the B-H curve of a core material is linear. Suppose, the B-H curve is linear of the core
material B means this is also 𝜑, where 𝜑 = 𝐵 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎.

So, if the core material and H means what? Effectively magnetizing current it means also
that you we are now familiar with this. If this informations are important to understand
what I will be talking about; what I am telling if I say in the core of a transformer I will go
fast but it will be a qualitative discussion primarily. Suppose, you have a transformer single
phase transformer. What I told you that you apply a sinusoidal voltage, a sinusoidal flux
is guaranteed nothing doing because it has to satisfy the KVL equation there and your
supply side is a sinusoidal voltage that is fine.

So, I will now examine two things: one thing is, suppose, flux in the core of the transformer
is sinusoidal, what will be the nature of the current? Nature of the current if the flux is
sinusoidal, suppose flux is varying like this, this is B-H curve. So, go to a particular B and
sketch this side is what should I say is this the thing I mean yeah this is 𝜔𝑡 suppose I mean
be it different values and here it is 𝜔𝑡.

Then if this is B or should I have being drawn here. So, for sinusoidal flux, the projection
if you want to generate this much flux the current value too will be maximum there. It will

396
be also sinusoidal because projections it is a linear line nothing is everything is fine.
Sinusoidal flux you want to create you require sinusoidal current that is the conclusion.

Reverse way, if you pass sinusoidal current you are guaranteed flux will be sinusoidal in
the core ok, but we know that B-H curve of the core of a practical transformer is neither
linear not a single valued function because of the presence of the hysteresis. See, in our
derivation of hysteresis laws I did not discuss that because till this time because I now it
is now you will appreciate this point because what happens is this B-H curve is not linear
not only linear it is double valued function for a particular H for going up.

So, it will be B-H curve will be something like this, This is the B-H curve; this is for rising
value of current you have to use this for decreasing value of current you have to use this.
Of course, we must see that this area is thin. I have drawn it exaggerated it should be like
this very thin, but nonetheless there is some hysteresis in order why it should be thin
because hysteresis loss you want to minimize. Area of this curve represents the hysteresis
loss per unit cycle per unit volume or kg of the iron material that we have discussed.

So, this side is the current and this side is the B or flux I can denote it. Now, I will ask
myself that if I say the value of the flux with respect to time changes like this I will better
do not put 𝜔𝑡 like this suppose this is time axis and I say that B value is changing 𝜑 or B
value is changing with this. The question is very innocent. Suppose, this is B or 𝜑, suppose
I want to create a sinusoidal flux what should be the nature of the current? I now know it
cannot be purely sinusoidal because it is not a linear line relationship.

For example, what I am telling when B is 0 at this point and it is increasing where from
should I read the value of the current? This is 𝜔𝑡 = 0 say, B is increasing. So, from this
curve so, you drop a for example, take this point at 𝜔𝑡 = 1 at this time, this is the flux how
much current is necessary, go horizontally. Which point should I read; this point or this
point; it is a double valued thing, phi is increasing. So, 𝜑 is increasing means this one. So,
come here and read the value of the current this much current and this where should I plot?
I will plot it at 𝜔𝑡 = 1. This much I will say is the instantaneous value of the current
needed.

At 𝜔𝑡 = 0, 𝜑 = 0 but flux is increasing; should I read from this curve or this curve; from
increasing flux. So, from this curve only. So, at 𝜔𝑡 = 0 also it will have some value here;

397
not 0, 𝜑 = 0 it is not that exciting current is 0 because of the presence of this one. So, in
this way I can map each value of flux and get the current wave form.

Now, this current waveform will be periodic no doubt, but will be distorted not pure
suppose it is 50 Hz 𝜑 is changing I want to create a 50 Hz flux, one frequency and why I
want to create a single frequency flux here because my induced voltage across the
secondary which is going to supply a load that will have a single frequency voltage I do
not want any other harmonic component of voltage to be induced. Only 𝜑 should be there,
that is my ideal thing I am desiring here whatever 𝜑 is there that must be 𝜑 =
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos(𝜔𝑡). But, what I am telling this flux distribution the current distribution here
will not be linear it will be distorted but periodic in nature.

I am not sketching in the notes I have drawn nicely. So, the thing is the conclusion is
because of the hysteresis loop because B-H curve is of this type to create sinusoidally
varying flux in the core current needed is periodic but distorted. What this distorted means?
It means that since the current wave form is periodic I can do the Fourier analysis.

Periodic with same frequency 𝜔, I mean time period will be 20ms what with that supply
periodicity this because this flux is moving with some period periodic time. So, with the
same periodic time it will be changing, but the question is that can be then Fourier analyzed
that is it will be a 50 Hz only this.

So, current waveform may be it will be like this and repeating, are you getting? This is the
magnetizing current but not sinusoidal and it can be broken up into a fundamental 50 Hz
and lot of odd harmonics because it is the negative half is same as the positive half and so
on. Therefore, only odd harmonics will be present if you Fourier analyze this exciting
current and you know with higher order harmonics the amplitude of the coefficient of the
harmonic terms they get reduced generally and therefore, is periodic, but distorted with a
strong fundamental component with predominant third harmonic component; got the
point?

That is the exciting current, in this coil then I will demand do not pass pure sinusoid
current. If your goal is to pass to create a sinusoidal flux in the core and you are planning
to get one frequency voltage across the secondary of the coil of fundamental frequency,
then the exciting current pure sinusoid will not do. If you neglect the other higher order

398
harmonics you will demand that there should be a 50 Hz component current as well as 150
Hz component of current must be present.

In order that flux in the core can be sinusoidal of 50 Hz one frequency flux 50 Hz to be
created and you require a 50 Hz component current and 150 Hz component current other
higher order harmonics fifth harmonic 250 Hz ok, we are neglecting for the time being.
So, this is the thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:30)

The reverse problem is that exciting current is suppose sinusoidal; sinusoidal of one
frequency say 50 Hz. Then, how the flux will look like means what I do not know very
good English but anyway it is there. So, the problem is like this same core, but this time
you pass sinusoidal current from a current source.

This exciting current I will pass some 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin(𝜔𝑡), I have forced it current a current
source imagine, you need not bother. Suppose, sinusoidal current it is excited I want to
know what will be the nature of then what will be the nature of flux waves; then better
what will be then what will be the nature of B or 𝜑? That is what. So, same problem; so,
draw the B-H curve as I have drawn previously this is the B-H curve.

Now, what I am telling is this is 𝜔𝑡 and I am telling now this current waveform mind you,
this axis is either current or H this axis is B or 𝜑 for a transformer. Now, what I am telling,
I will make the current waveforms sinusoidal 50 Hz, one frequency will B the reverse way

399
current is sinusoidal what is the nature of B? In the previous case, what I told, if you want
to create the B sinusoidal what is the nature of the current; current is distorted.

In the same way if you want to create pass a 50 Hz current what is this axis? 𝑖 then the flux
will be produced once again I will sketch it suppose current is 0 and increasing this point.
Current is increasing and 0, this is the B produced, not 0; is not? So, B will be some
negative value at this time and I can go for each of the point when the current has positive
some value that is this value this is corresponding to say 𝜔𝑡1 how much is the flux;
negative.

Oh flux is 0, correct at 𝜔𝑡1 flux is. So, it will be some somewhat it will now be distorted
are you getting point by point if you go because of this double valued nature of the function
of the B-H current. So, the nature of B or 𝜑 will be distorted will be distorted, but periodic
why not, but periodic. Then this B distribution or 𝜑 once again can be Fourier analyzed
and you will see that it has got a strong fundamental with lot of odd harmonics because
the positive and negative excursion of this B will be same.

Therefore, I will say that what will be the nature of B or 𝜑? The answer is it will be
distorted, but periodic after Fourier analysis I am sorry. After Fourier analysis, you will
come to the conclusion that a strong fundamental that is 50 Hz in this case with a
predominant third harmonic component.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:22)

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So, in summary I will say that to create flux to create 50 Hz flux in the core I am not
writing this we require we require magnetizing current magnetizing current having 50 Hz
component 50 Hz fundamental plus 150 Hz component; amplitude I am not telling a little
a thing it will be required for majority will be this.

Similarly, to create similarly I will say if magnetizing current if magnetizing current is

forced to be sinusoidal to be sinusoidal core flux will have will have a strong fundamental
strong fundamental that is 50 Hz component same result opposite way and plus 150 Hz
component of flux. So, this is necessary to know and this is all because the B-H curve is
not a straight line ok, it is because of the hysteresis loop.

So, what happens is, if suppose the core flux want to create 50 Hz one frequency that is 50
Hz only sinusoidally varying, then I am telling exciting current then should have a 50 Hz
component plus a 150 Hz component. The reverse way if somebody says magnetizing
current I will somehow manage it to be 50 Hz one frequency fundamental 50 Hz
component; no distortion. Then what will be the nature of the flux; then also the core flux
will be distorted and it will have both 50 Hz and a 150 Hz predominant harmonic
component.

We will continue with this discussion in the light of transformer connections.

Thank you.

401
 Electrical Machines – I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 42
Effect of 3rd Harmonic Exciting Current and Flux

Welcome, to lecture number 42nd and we were discussing about some 3rd Harmonic
Exciting Current and 3rd Harmonic Flux. And, the conclusion drawn from discussions in
my last lecture is that if the exciting current or magnetizing current is 50 Hz sinusoidal
only pure sinusoidal 50 Hz exciting current, then flux created in the core will have a
fundamental and a third harmonic component in the reverse way if you want to create
sinusoidal flux 50 Hz pure sinusoidal flux then the exciting current must have along with
a 50 Hz component, a predominant third harmonic component exciting current will be
needed.

So, this is because of the fact the B-H curve of the material has a loop double valued
function sort of thing that creates the problem although the area of the B-H curve is very
thin, but nonetheless that third harmonic thing will be produced. Now, in the light of this
knowledge it has nothing to do with I mean as such transformer magnetic material is given
whose B-H curve is like a hysteresis loop. Then I can come to these conclusions thinking
that somehow I will pass sinusoidal current, what will be the nature of the flux? I ask
myself and get the answer.

Similarly, if I want to create sinusoidal flux what should be the nature of the exciting
current this is the thing we have discussed, although qualitatively no mathematical
analysis, but which was reasonably good it can be appreciated yes, this is going to happen.

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(Refer Slide Time: 02:43)

Now, today I will discuss for example, take the star-star connection of a three-phase
transformer ok. Now, continuing with that so, consider start star connection of three-phase
transformer and this connection can be obtained by using three single phase transformers
or a single three-phase unit transformer first let us see that, but the connections are same
in both the cases. So, suppose I will simply draw like this now because we will presume
that whoever is connecting is connecting correctly.

So, primary is star connected so, draw it star; secondary is also star connected, draw it star
this is the thing and what I told you that I will connect it to supply 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵𝑠 , 𝐶𝑠 is the supply.
Here the output is 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 star-star connection. And, the neutral point of neither of them
is grounded nothing is done, but what have done is this I have applied a three-phase voltage
source here voltage source balanced voltage source, supply may have a neutral, but that
has not been connected anywhere only the three lines I have connected.

Now, the with secondary open suppose nothing I have connected here what in general I
was discussing you have applied line to line voltage, you will get √3 times less this voltage
𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝑁
is not will come across a phase that into 𝑁2 etcetera you will get phase voltage like that
√3 1

we are discussing. Now, first thing I will say in this connection one thing is clear. Now, it
will draw some magnetizing current with secondary open magnetizing current it will draw
and in the core of the transformer my attempt will be to make the flux sinusoidal.

403
Why? Sinusoidal with 50 Hz component alone because of this fact that I want to get 50 Hz
voltage only to be generated in the secondary coil. I do not know want that third harmonic
voltage in any way coming across the secondary and creating problem for the load I want
a 50 Hz supply for the load.

But, if the connection is like this and with our previous knowledge we immediately
conclude that this currents whatever current magnetizing current it will draw it cannot have
a third harmonic component. To create flux in the core you require a 50 Hz suppose 50 Hz
source in that term will say and to create 50 Hz flux in the core of this transformer I require
a 50 Hz plus 150 Hz component of the exciting current also higher order fifth, seventh, but
those I am neglecting predominant thing is third harmonic.

But, what I am telling is in the line; in the line in this type of connection in the line 150 Hz
component of current will not flow will not flow ruled out why because third harmonic
which is 50 Hz third harmonic currents are co-phasor because if you say

𝑖𝑎 = 𝐼𝑀3 sin(3𝜔𝑡)

Then

𝑖𝑏 = 𝐼𝑀3 sin[3(𝜔𝑡 − 120)] = 𝐼𝑀3 sin(3𝜔𝑡)

𝑖𝑐 = 𝐼𝑀3 sin[3(𝜔𝑡 + 120)] = 𝐼𝑀3 sin(3𝜔𝑡)

Fundamental component, this will be sin(𝜔𝑡), this will be sin(𝜔𝑡 − 120) and
sin(𝜔𝑡 − 120).

So, they are co-phasor meaning that if third harmonic current flows here at any instant if
this current going this way is 5 Amp, this will be also 5 Amp, this will be also 5 Amp and
they will meet here they will not vanish KCL will be violated which is not the case with
fundamental component. Fundamental component if it is at any time suppose the instant
when a-phase current is maximum positive say 10 Amp then b-phase and c-phase will be
minis 5 Amp and minus 5 Amp. So, it will return via this path.

Therefore, in the lines I am here about one thing if no neutral etcetera is connected to the
system here about this fact no one can contest. In these lines only 50 Hz component of
current will flow, no third harmonic business. So, exciting magnetizing current will be

404
sinusoidal of 50 Hz only no question of other it will be. If that be the case then we have
learned you are exciting the coils with 50 Hz current can be flux in the core be sinusoidal?
Certainly not; the flux in the core then will have both 50 Hz component and 150 Hz
component.

That is the conclusion is therefore, flux in the core will have will have both 50 Hz and 150
Hz component of course, the amplitude of the harmonic flux will be much less compared
to may be 10% of the rated flux fundamental component, that is there. But nonetheless
both of them will be present. So, in the core of this transformers there exists now two
fluxes of 50 Hz and another is 150 Hz.

Therefore, induced voltage in the coils say this is 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 this is small 𝑎1 , small 𝑎2 and so
on 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , etc. So, here these coils will then be linked with 𝜑1 fundamental say for a-phase
𝜑𝑎1 (𝑡) plus 𝜑𝑎3 (𝑡) both of them will be linking this. Therefore, both of them will induced
voltage; induced voltage remind you it is equal to

𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

= √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥1 𝑁1

𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

= √2𝜋3𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥3 𝑁1

And, this induced voltage will be also here in this secondary because same flux links both
primary and secondary. Therefore, across the phases of both primary and secondary as if
there will be two sources of emf between 𝑎 and this small 𝑛, there will be one source 𝐸𝑎1
and another source rms value 𝐸𝑎3 of course, they are of different frequency 𝐸𝑎3 3𝑓 and
this is 𝑓 two sources of emf will be existing between 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 and, similarly for b-phase
and c-phase.

Therefore, across the phases both in primary and secondary coils, the induced voltage will
have a 50 Hz component as well as 150 Hz component and that is what I am telling is not
desirable. Now, the question is what about line to line voltage? So, the conclusion is here
the phase voltage will be corrupted with a 150 Hz component apart from that 50 Hz
component.

405
So, so phase voltages will write here phase voltage phase voltage that is this diagram
suggest will have both 50 Hz and 150 Hz. Now, what I am asking is what will happen to
line to line voltages? See once again this is the a-phase. Let me go to the next page.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:11)

So, I am telling that I am drawing the secondary induced voltages suppose. So, I told this
is 𝐸𝑎1 50 Hz in series with another induced AC another induced voltage 𝐸𝑎3 , a-phase third
harmonic 150 Hz and then this is your a terminal. Similarly, for b-phase 𝐸𝑏3 this is 150
Hz. Then 𝐸𝑏1 fundamental component 50 Hz and finally, this c-phase 𝐸𝑐3 third harmonic
component plus minus AC 150 Hz and then fundamental component 𝐸𝑐1 50 Hz is it not?
This will be the thing, this is your b terminal going towards load c terminal. Similarly, in
the primary coils, do not worry about that.

Now, so, if you take a voltmeter, connect it here across the here suppose I take a voltmeter
connect here what it is going to read? It will be reading there are two AC voltages of
different frequencies, but this voltmeter reads rms values. So, this rms values square plus
this rms value square by √2, is not? Whatever is that formula I can I will be able to
calculate that rms value. So, it will not read this fundamental component rms value, that is
what I am telling if you connect it here.

The question is what will be the if I connect a voltmeter here between the lines what will
be it is reading? See, third harmonic voltages once again are co-phasor. Therefore, if you
traverse this path third harmonic voltage will cancel out therefore, in the line to line

406
voltage. Third harmonic component will be absent and here you will get this reading will
be √3𝐸𝑎1 what I am trying to tell because 𝐸𝑎1 , 𝐸𝑏1 , 𝐸𝑐1 that is rms value.

Therefore in the line to line voltage only 50 Hz will be there, but across each phases the
third harmonic component will be there, got the point? Therefore, in star-star connection
like this with no neutral connected anywhere isolated, the supply neutral I have never
connected, but I can tell you one thing about this.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:12)

Suppose, I say that this is the primary star this is the secondary and for a change what I
will do this is 𝐴𝑠 I wrote this is 𝐵𝑠 I wrote like that. So, anyway so, this is 𝐵𝑠 I wrote is not
𝐵𝑠 and this is 𝐶𝑠 I have drawn and the supply neutral listen to this point also I have
connected to this primary neutral.

Suppose, it is this connection is slightly different from the other balance three-phase
voltage to this and also neutral to this; supply voltage is balance three-phase voltage.
Therefore, I have applied across 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 a sinusoidal voltage across 𝐴1 𝐴2 to it I have
applied a sinusoidal voltage. Earlier how much voltage I have applied here I cannot say
the voltage across the terminal of the coil is V a by root 3 where neutral was not connected
that is the let me draw on the same page.

What I am telling in this case when neutral was not connected situation was like this 𝐴𝑠 ,
𝐵𝑠 , 𝐶𝑠 supply neutral was not connected. I can only claim that between these two lines I

407
have connected a 50 Hz voltage. But, I am not sure if I did not know anything about third
harmonic voltage I would have perhaps concluded that the voltage appearing across these
is this by √3.

But, that notion is to be changed now because of the fact that we know similarly, in the
primary side there is a fundamental component voltage and there is a third harmonic read
this capital 𝐴1 , 𝐵1, 𝐶1 also same thing. So, between the lines only fundamental will come
it is matching that KVL is not disturbed so far as supply is concerned. Only thing is that
𝑉𝐿𝐿
is phase voltage you will never get because of the fact in the primary coils also the
√3

fundamental and third harmonic will appear, got the point?

But, now in this connection when you have forced this supply neutral to be connected with
the primary side neutral of the transformer supply is being balanced. So, 𝐴𝑠 𝑁𝑠 connected
across these one is a 50 Hz voltage I am sure about that are you getting here this voltage
𝑉𝐿𝐿
applied is that I nobody can contest 50 Hz, only pure 50 Hz because supply is balanced
√3

50 Hz. Supply I am considering it has got no harmonics.

So, it will come here, but if this voltage is 50 Hz then the flux in the core has to be
sinusoidal because KVL is to be satisfied here. Then in this connection the core flux will
be sinusoidal 50 Hz, no this way that way. So, so in this case core flux is forced to be
sinusoidal 50 Hz only 50 Hz nothing. But, we have learned core flux is sinusoidal then
exciting current must have a fundamental and third harmonic.

Is there a path for third harmonic current to flow? Yes, there is. This current drawn from
the supply third harmonic current can be drawn very easily, because of what? They are co-
phasor, but there is a return path for the third harmonic current each this current, this
current, this current their instantaneous values are same so far as third harmonic current is
concerned. But, they will converge here and through the neutral it will go back to this
supply.

Therefore, in this case flux is forced to be sinusoidal with 50 Hz and magnetizing current,
then must have both 50 Hz plus 150 Hz component. Is it possible? Answer is yes because
of what? Third harmonic current will find its return path by this third harmonic current
will return via this path the neutral line, got the point?

408
And, if that be the case third harmonic current can flow in this connection flux will be
sinusoidal. Therefore, in the secondaries of this transformer small 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 etcetera only 50
Hz voltage you will get both line to line as well as phase because not third harmonic flux
exist, very nice, but only objection to this connection is this neutral wire will carry 150 Hz
current and it may disturb other electrical utilities. Earlier we used to say transmission line
used to go via the telephone lines also, earlier days telephone lines where there. So, they
can interfere with communication lines 150 Hz slightly higher frequency.

Therefore, that way it is slightly disturbing, but otherwise things will work everything will
be fine. So, third harmonic current 3 times the third harmonic current will flow for A phase
third harmonic plus B phase third harmonic plus C phase third harmonic. So, you
understand. So, 3 times the third harmonic current for each phases will flow here, but
everything will be fine, got the point? We will discuss with these with other connections,
but now looking back to single phase transformer what is going to happen?

(Refer Slide Time: 28:47)

It is qualitative discussion let us do that. So, in single phase transformer what is the
implication of this knowledge third harmonic flux, third harmonic excited current etcetera?
In single phase transformer you know this is the supply you are connecting; single phase
50 Hz voltage source and this is your secondary. And, I have ensured that this voltage
applied is 50 Hz. So, what will be the core flux? If this voltage is 50 Hz core flux has to
be 50 Hz core flux also we have only one component 50 Hz.

409
How? Because you have applied sinusoidal voltage it has to satisfy and secondary voltage
you will be also sinusoidal 50 Hz. But, then we ask what about if the core flux is sinusoidal
the magnetizing current must have a third harmonic component. It cannot be 50 Hz current
alone. The question is there a path for third harmonic current? Yes, it can flow like this no
problem because no three-phase business is there return path through star nothing like that.

So, third harmonic current can flow here like this. Now, only question is where is the
source of this third harmonic voltage? People say that you imagine first that the core flux
is suppose the magnetizing current drawn is 50 Hz only suppose you start arguing like that
50 Hz current is drawn flux will be distorted fundamental and third harmonic. So, this coil
will have a fundamental voltage induced third harmonic voltage induced and this third
harmonic voltage itself will circulate that current because it is a closed path it is getting.
Therefore, it will self correct itself and the flux will be restored to 50 Hz component alone.

So, the problem in a single phase transformer so far as third harmonic flux etcetera is
concerned is not that very critical, in the sense that if you assume the current drawn is
sinusoidal only then you will say then flux must have got disturbed 50 Hz and 150 Hz. So,
here there are two sources that is the way I drew, fundamental component and third
harmonic component. But, this circuit is closed, and third harmonic component can
produce its own third harmonic magnetizing current to restore the flux to the sinusoidal
value something like that and everything will be fine.

So, further discussion on these I will do in the next class where then will try to understand
which connection to use when.

Thank you.

410
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 43
Choosing Transformer Connection

(Refer Slide Time: 00:19)

Welcome to lecture number 43 and we have been discussing about Transformer

Connections and then we told you that in transformers because the B-H curve is in fact, a
loop although very thin loop, but nonetheless it is not a straight line relationship between
B and H. So, what happens is this in our last class the conclusion was qualitative
discussions on that.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:59)

411
Remember that these are the two things that is, if magnetizing current happens to be
sinusoidal 50 Hz then core flux will have both 50 Hz and 150 Hz component ok. On the
other hand if the flux in the core is 50 Hz only then magnetizing current must have 50 Hz
component as well as 150 Hz component, then depending on situations the current may
not have a 150 Hz component.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:54)

In case of say star star connections without neutral connected anywhere no scope for any
third harmonic current to exist in the lines of this transformers and therefore, the flux must
be having a 50 Hz as well as 150 Hz component; other higher order harmonic components
are also there, but we are neglecting that because their amplitudes will become smaller.

412
But your voltage phase voltages then will be distorted, although there will be no effect of
the line to line voltage that will only have 50 Hz components ok, but phase voltage will
have that 150 Hz component.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:44)

Anyway this sort of thing happens and we must have we must give importance to these
because of this fact. Now, although I have not drawn any voltage or current waveform
showing the fundamental flux and the third harmonic flux and the associated induced
voltages.

Today I will just draw those waveforms, so that we will understand what happens if the
flux is distorted. Suppose flux in the core has both 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥1 50 Hz component plus 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥3
that is the 150 Hz component this is sin(𝜔𝑡) and this is sin(3𝜔𝑡).

𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥1 sin(𝜔𝑡) + 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥3 sin(3𝜔𝑡)

Then both of them are going to induce voltage. So, in essence what I have assumed is these
the exciting or magnetizing current is 50 Hz component that is why flux has come out to
be this and then I want to see that 𝐸1 and 𝐸3 third harmonic component and the fundamental
how they will look like.

𝑑𝜑
Remember each one of them will induced voltage if you do and the angle with which
𝑑𝑡

that induced voltage will appear is 90° that is known because you remember we draw like

413
this is the flux wave 𝜑1 then I draw 𝐸1 like this 90° relationship or in books some of the
books they will write −𝐸1 , but nonetheless the angle is 90° between them.

So, let us try to sketch that flux and induced voltage waveform to understand whether this
is really detrimental because phase voltage as in case of star star connection we will have
both fundamental and third harmonic component, what happens to the with respect to time
how the resultant voltage looks like that is the goal.

So, what I do is this suppose I say that I will try to sketch the waveform. Suppose I say
that this is suppose it is necessary I divide these are suppose fundamental 60° 180°, then
another 180° ok. So, let us see suppose the fundamental flux I am sketching; so this is half
period ok. So, it will be suppose like this; this is the fundamental component one to three
and it will be like this. So, this is this 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥1 sin(𝜔𝑡) I draw it.

Similarly, on the same graph I will draw and this amplitude is 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥1 . Then I sketch the
third harmonic component in the time axis. Now, since it is 3𝜔𝑡 when it completes one
cycle the third harmonic component will have 3 cycles over the period fundamental period.
So, it will be then how, it will look like it will be like this; this; this. So, it will be the third
harmonic component if I sketch it will be like this to 3 cycles over 360° fundamental and
this amplitude is 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥3 .

Then the induced voltages that is 𝐸1 and 𝐸3 I will sketch with respect to time that will be
displaced by 90°, it does not matter whether you show leading or lagging to understand
what is going to happen. So, I will just sketch the induced voltage which will be; so this
angles are 60° in the fundamental understand. So, the induced voltage because of the
fundamental I will sketch it say 90° lagging I am sketching it does not matter. So, it will
start 0 here this is 90° and where it will end it will be here half cycle, 180° this one.

Here it will be, this is becoming 180°.

Here. So, the induced voltage corresponding to fundamental it is also I am drawing blue.
So, it will end over here, but I have shifted by 90°, so it will be here.

So, this and this. So, induced voltage is suppose like this because of fundamental and it
continues. So, this is the fundamental induced voltage 𝐸1 and because of 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥3 that
voltage also will lag this red coloured curve by 90° with respect to its angle. So, this is 90°

414
here, is not. So, it will start from here and where will be the first cycle, it will be that is it
will be where?

That is this will be one half of this cycle are you getting. So, it will start from here, it will
go there, it will come and then it will go there and here.

Here, this will be the induced voltage and let us draw this is 𝐸3 mind you 𝐸3 and then I
draw the next cycle it will be like this it will come here.

Like that. So, 𝜑3 this is 𝜑3 first one 90° lagging with respect to this 𝜑3 if this is 𝐸3 like
that it will continue. Now, if you see the resultant voltage below this I will sketch that is
here I will sketch (𝐸1 + 𝐸3 ) that is this one and this voltage, you see the peak voltage this
voltage waveform will be peaky in nature. So, it will be in one half cycle that is in this
time frame if I sketch other half will be similar. So, you see it will be like this here this
peak and this peak coincides. So, it will be somewhat decaying next half it will continue.
So, the peak of this instantaneous voltage across the coil will become this much.

Now, the question is what is the order of the third harmonic flux? It may be of the order
of 8% to 10% ok. Suppose then if this is 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥1 , 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥3 ≈ 0.1 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥1 suppose let us do
that, then this induced voltage third harmonic may be as high as 30%. Why? Because
number of turns is more remember the RMS voltage is

𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑀𝐹 = √2𝜋𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁1

For third harmonic it is

𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑀𝐹 = √2𝜋3𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥3 𝑁1

Therefore, that induced voltage will be then about 30% or so. So, the induced voltage this
𝐸3 amplitude will be about 30% of the fundamental voltage therefore, the peak voltage
will be this much.

Therefore, if third harmonic flux is present your transformer insulation there will be stress
upon the insulation of the transformer. Suppose we have not thought about third harmonic
flux and we design the transformer for the normal way 220V fundamental, 220V comes
induced voltage is also 220V based on that suppose we have designed the insulation level.

415
But now I find that every 20 ms there will be 2 peaks and whose voltage will be 1.3 times
the rated voltage, so insulation will be stressed. So, that is why people try to avoid this
third harmonic flux to be created, not only that there will be on the secondary side there
will be also not 50 Hz you will get if the flux contains third harmonic component, but at
the same time the insulation level will be under stress.

That is why you try to reduce them as far as possible or if it is not 10% it is less perhaps
you can carry on with that there will be a little bit of third harmonic voltage like that. So,
assuming the third harmonic flux to be 10% this will be the picture. So, this is the thing
ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:44)

Now, what I will tell we have discussed star star connection, then in star star without
neutral connection that we did last time. This was the situation across phases voltages
comes, across lines no 150 Hz component because third harmonic flux voltages will be
cancelling out in the lines because they are co phasal. Then to avoid this and therefore, this
terminal this voltage what I was telling is instantaneous value may be 30% higher than the
fundamental component of this voltage that is how this stressing upon the insulation comes
in, we cannot allow this to happen in general.

So, to avoid this I told you one method you connect this to supply neutral. The moment
you do this the flux in the core cannot, but be sinusoidal 50 Hz and therefore, current must
have a third harmonic component. Can third harmonic component of current exist? Yes, it

416
can because the return path is through this neutral wire. Mind you the third harmonic
current will be contributed by all the other phases they are co phasal, 3𝐼3𝑟𝑑 will flow
through the neutral line.

And the disadvantage of this method is that it is it may interfere with nearby
communication circuit it is not a good solution, but nonetheless it will force the phase
voltage to be 50 Hz as well as line to line voltage 50 Hz that is what we desire so far as
load is concerned is there any better method of avoiding this. We will come back to this
connections star star after some time once again to tell you another interesting observation
or right now should I tell let us see. So, this point you have understood.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:55)

Another disadvantage of star star connection let me continue with that. Suppose we have
a star star transformer primary and secondary is also star star and this of course, is and
neutrals are not connected anywhere they are living their own life it is not a member of 𝑁𝑠
supply neutral. So, this is your 𝐴𝑠 suppose 𝐵𝑠 , 𝐶𝑠 and here is your low terminal 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 say
or better you call this 𝑏 this 𝑐.

Now, this neutrals are isolated totally; one thing is if you apply a balance free phase voltage
line to line voltage is balanced, then I told you in this case across the phases there will be
third harmonic component of voltage and now we learned about some idea if third
harmonic flux is 10% these voltage instantaneous voltage of this may be 30% higher than
the rated voltage we were thinking of, so put pressure of insulation.

417
Apart from that suppose we allow that to happen, but another thing is and if you load it
will supply load line to line voltage is sinusoidal no problem, but another interesting thing
happens here. Suppose I want to put a single phase load on the secondary of a transformer
only qualitatively I will tell you.

This is suppose transformer neutral here this is the neutral on this side, suppose I plan to
connect a load like this that is I want to attempt to supply a single phase load out of this
transformer. And these are suppose dots here 𝑏, 𝑐 are open this is quite interesting and
suppose I have connected an ammeter in series here to understand what is happening. If
you close this with some 𝑧2 connected close the switch the question is how much will be
the current in this phase.

It will be tempting that open circuit voltage whatever we had that divided by 𝑧2 will come
as the current. So, suppose some current flows here suppose, but this current will. So, far
as this transformer is concerned we will have a reflected current here and this reflected
current has to flow through the other windings whose secondary is not carrying any current
therefore, balance will be disturbed. Is not?

So, what is going to happen? I am telling you will find even if you close it ammeter reading
will be very small or no current, that is you cannot connect a single phase load. But then
𝑣
the question is what happens to Ohm’s law? This 𝑧 is the current there was voltage when
2

I when the switch was opened we have connected a 𝑧2 .

𝑣 𝑣
So, 𝑧 should be the current where then that 𝑧 = 𝑖 goes that relationship, it goes like this;
2

this secondary voltages this neutral point voltage. It can only happen if I say that after
closing you find this current is very little or no current, then I must tell that if very little
current then the voltage 𝑣 a must have been very small otherwise how that is how Ohm’s
law is also satisfied.

In other words what happens is this the moment you try to put a single phase load this
neutral will oscillate, situation will be like this. If suppose I say I will put a direct short
circuit 𝑧2 = 0, then also I am telling it is 0. What does all this mean? If you imagine the
impedance is so small 0 then the potential of 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑎 are same.

418
If it is 0 this point and this point that is secondary voltage, I am telling this is neutral this
is a; these are the line voltages etcetera this 𝑛 point suppose this is the point 𝑎 this is point
𝑏, 𝑐 this 𝑛 has come here. So, that the voltage applied across the secondary is the line to
line mind you here is a balanced 3 phase voltage you have applied this voltage comes here
all the time this voltage comes here between 𝑏 and 𝑐 line to line voltage exist.

So, when you try to load the secondary of a transformer by a single phase loading this
neutral point has come over here indicating that the voltage applied to the other transformer
is 𝑏𝑛 which is almost line to line voltage 𝑏𝑎 because this is shorted. So, this neutral point
will oscillate somewhere depending upon the value of 𝑧2 you have connected and single
phasing loading you do not do do not ever try to attempt to load a Y-y connected
transformer with single phasing load because of the fact, then the voltage across the other
two coils where we have not connected load will approach to line to line voltage.

Shift sift means with 𝑧2 it will get to somewhere else.

So, in extreme case I told you 𝑧2 = 0, 𝑛 will come here that is this is not a stable point of
this neutral this must be understood and this problem will be much more great if 3 single
phase transformers with different cores are used. They will not allow a single phase loading
because other cores are other cores all the cores are magnetically independent ok.

So, this is another observation this is bank of 3 phase transformer. Anyway you think about
it, but single phase loading is not possible, but what happens if you connect the neutral to
the source neutral next step, then try to load this fine absolutely no problem. Load this it
will invite current and that current will flow here 𝑏 𝑐 is not carrying any current they are
mmfs in this line also will be 0 and everything is fine.

Therefore, without neutral connection single phase loading will not be possible with star
star connection because then the secondary coils will be very much stressed. In fact, phase
voltages it will come out to be across the secondary coils which phases are not carrying
any current shifting 𝑛 to 𝑎 in the worst case of loading that is you short circuit this. Anyway
so, this is just for your information you must remember that. Now, one way of avoiding
this third harmonic current in case of star star transformer we have discussed. Therefore,
it will be always you will be feeling that, then should I avoid star star connection.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:44)

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Now, there comes the other connections for example, star delta connection or delta star
connection one of the coils are suppose delta suppose star delta connection I will just draw
like this now correct star connection you have made and correct delta connection you have
made.

Here will be your load terminals and here is your supply terminals see this is 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵𝑠 , 𝐶𝑠 .
Once again the neutral I have not connected to the source neutral, there is another neutral
available suppose 3 phase 4 wire system, but I have not connected. Will there be any
problem in this case? Here also I find since neutral is not connected to 𝑁𝑠 can there exist
a third harmonic exciting current? No, in the lines third harmonic current cannot exist. So,
what will be the conclusion? The exciting current whatever will be magnetizing current
that will be of 50 Hz component only and pure sinusoidal.

So, if exciting current is sinusoidal I am sure the core flux will have a fundamental and
third harmonic component and that is going to induced voltage both in the primary coils
as well as in the secondary coils and those third harmonic voltages are co phrasal. So, in
this line also there is no scope for any third harmonic current to exist on the load side
because there is no return path, but what thing happens is it is a delta winding there will
be induced voltage third harmonic component only I am telling fundamental is there they
will sum up to 0 and there will be no circulating current. But so far as the third harmonic
induced voltage is concerned in this three coils they are co phasal, is not.

420
And they find a closed path. So, in this delta inside this in this closed path you find there
will be 3 emfs, 𝐸3𝑟𝑑 , then 𝐸3𝑟𝑑 ; 𝐸3𝑟𝑑 . Along with E fundamental it will be more scientific
you also sketch E fundamental this is the situation 𝐸1 . Here I will clean it better draw a
nice diagram. So, 𝐸3𝑟𝑑 𝐸1 , then once again 𝐸3𝑟𝑑 𝐸1 is there and 𝐸3𝑟𝑑 𝐸1 is there and they
are closed is not and these are the output terminals.

Now, in this closed loop you see, so far as fundamental component is concerned this
voltages are 120° apart they will sum up to 0 and no circulating current will be able to
exist here because they are 120° apart, but what happens to 𝐸3𝑟𝑑 third component of
voltage they are co phasal. So, when this is minus this is plus and have some instantaneous
value similarly this fellow same voltage same polarity and they are connected in series.

So, there will circulate a third harmonic current and this current will not be reflected in the
lines because in the lines there is no path for return that is 𝐸3𝑟𝑑 will come here and find a
path here no that is not possible. So, even if you connect a load there will be fundamental
component can only exist 3 lines only cannot have any third harmonic current. But now if
you look at the operation of the transformer I will say that fundamental component of the
magnetizing current will come from 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵𝑠 , 𝐶𝑠 and the third harmonic exciting current
which is needed the transformer will self correct it by circulating a current third harmonic
current here.

It is not important that you pass the fundamental and third harmonic component of current
through the same primary winding it does not matter because the coils are wound on the
core and net MMF decides what is the flux. So, what all you have to see is this although
here neutral is not connected I will say fundamental 50 Hz component of current is drawn
from this side and third harmonic component of magnetizing current can circulate here
therefore, flux will be reasonably sinusoid.

And your line to line voltage here available which will go to load will be more or less
sinusoidal that is how qualitatively it can be explained to. Therefore, it looks like that
whenever you connect a transformer you want to decide whether star delta delta star in
delta delta also there is no problem because there third harmonic current can circulate see
if the connection is delta delta this is delta this is delta. You please think about it
qualitatively I am not doing any analysis it can be done, but you will never forget.

421
Here also if you apply balance 3 phase voltage here, can third harmonic current exist? No,
nothing it cannot exist only fundamental component of current will be drawn. If that is
there then I will say flux will not be will have a third harmonic component, but if flux has
a third harmonic component it will third harmonic voltage induced here as well as there
and both will circulate the needed third harmonic current which will not be reflected in the
lines.

Therefore, delta winding having a delta winding on a transformer connection becomes

perhaps a very good option that is transformer connection one winding is delta at least you
can get relieve of this third harmonic problems you do not have to think too much. So, we
will continue with this in the next class.

Thank you.

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 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 44
Choosing Transformer Connection (Contd.)

Welcome to 44th lecture and we have been discussing the effect of third harmonic flux
and third harmonic currents in particularly 3 phase transformers. Star star connection
without neutral always causes problem, including single phase loading is not possible
because secondary neutral becomes oscillating and so, on.

So, the, but if it is a delta connection, if exists either in primary or secondary at least one
is delta connected, then in the lines there will be there is no possibility of any third
harmonic current to exist if it is that side is delta connected because they are co phrasal
and so, on. But nonetheless there will be induced voltage then in the coils itself and this
coils are close to itself therefore, the magnitude of the third harmonic current circulating
third harmonic current will be then, they are co phrasal 3𝐸3𝑟𝑑 of that divided by the leakage
impedance of suppose the secondary side is delta.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:23)

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This 3rd harmonic current will circulate like this. So, 3𝐸3𝑟𝑑 divided by the leakage
impedance of this side, but if the at the fundamental frequency leakage impedance is 𝑥1 it
should be 𝑗3𝑥1 .

3𝐸3𝑟𝑑
𝐼3𝑟𝑑 =
𝑟2 + 𝑗3𝑥1

So, impedance also increases and there will be circulating current little bit and this may
cause extra heating no doubt because of this circulating current, there will be copper loss,
extra copper loss and so, on. But nonetheless that major problem of getting at the output a
voltage which will also have third harmonic component is avoided that is what is
important. So, it causes extra heating slight extra heating will be caused. In any case now
the question is what is the I will tell only general guidelines. For example, generally HV
side. So, it looks like one of the sides better be having delta connection.

So generally HV side is chosen as star connection. Why? Because the voltage per phase
will be less, so insulation level etcetera will be lesser. And LV site since the coils will be
delta connected this will be low voltage, this is high voltage side this voltage will be also
less because of this one and let this be delta connected that is the guideline delta.

But this is not all in fact, there are situations other reasons will override this that is may be
the low voltage side is star, primary side is delta. For example, a distribution transformer
typical rating is 6.6KV and 440V, what is done? Because this side it is a distribution
transformer you must have the 3 phases as well as neutral. So, this must be of star
connection and this must be this can be selected as delta because of the fact one of the
windings I want to be delta that is the idea.

And from this I will be able to supply A phase with neutral to a group of consumers from
B phase and neutral to another group and C phase to neutral to another group 220V supply
etcetera can be done and everything is fine. So, depending upon the situations general
guideline is high voltage side better select star, low voltage side delta as perhaps. So, one
of the windings be delta connected is always preferable and sometimes if the voltages are
high, what people do? They use star star high voltage on both the sides relatively high
voltages. So, then select star star, but with star star there are problems we have seen, but
what people will be doing they will also put another coil which will be delta connected.

424
That is there will be 2 secondaries because it is always preferable to have a delta and you
suppose you require star star nothing doing high voltage this side high voltage that side, I
will take advantage of lower insulation level this that. So, it is like this and you connect it
and another additional windings therefore, for each phase then if I draw the limb of say A
phase it will be like this 𝐴1 𝐴2 and then small 𝑎1 𝑎2 and another 𝑎3 𝑎4 . Two separate
secondary’s are there for a for each primary similarly for B phase and C phase. Now, in
this case we have seen and these two turns may not be same. In case of zig zag connection
we saw this type of secondary’s present, but those two secondary’s were identical having
same number of turns you recall that. So, here it is 𝑁1 may be this is 𝑁2 this is 𝑁3 . Now,
what I am telling is this is star connection 𝐴1 𝐴2 , 𝐵1 𝐵2 like that.

And perhaps this is the main secondary, this is main primary which is star connected may
be this is 𝐴1 this is 𝐴2 𝐵2 𝐶2 etcetera and this is also star connected this is say 𝑎1 , this is
𝑏1 and this is say 𝑐1 correct way I have connected and this is the neutral 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 I have
connected. And this will go to the load and this one I have connected in delta this 𝑎3 𝑎4 ,
similarly you will have 𝑏3 𝑏4 I think you are understanding what I am telling and you will
have 𝑐3 𝑐4 like the other two limbs and these I will connect in delta got the point.

So, you connect them in delta and 3 terminals will come out, here this winding which is
connected in delta is called tertiary winding which is primarily added so, that third
harmonic current about that problem you need not worry about circulating third harmonic
current will flow. Not only that you can get then two different level of voltages and supply
it two different loads also ok. Suppose some people use primary star secondary main
secondary star and also here whatever voltage you get you supply another three phase load.

That is which two secondaries then, but sometimes no load is connected it is merely it is
present because you provide the flow of the third harmonic magnetizing current in this
winding. So, depending upon the turns ratio two levels of voltage you will be load may or
may not be connected load may or may not be supplied; may not be supplied from tertiary
winding.

I think you have got the idea. So, high voltage high voltage star star then delta, since I was
telling you it is always better you have a delta connection somewhere and all this windings
are wound on the same magnetic circuit. So, like A phase you have B phase C phase like
here. So, that you 𝐵1 𝐵2 here also small 𝑏1 𝑏2 and 𝐶1 𝐶2 small 𝑐1 𝑐2 and then 𝑐3 𝑐4 . So,

425
you have two secondary coils and they need not be of same turns depending upon your
voltage requirement, you can decide what should be your 𝑁2 this is 𝑁1 , this is 𝑁1 , this is
𝑁2 , this is 𝑁2 and this is 𝑁3 is not this is the thing.

So we now understand that the things goes 3 phase transformer connection we have learned
that is if I ask you make a 3 phase transformer connection star delta, delta star without first
really questioning where should I use it that first I discussed confidently how can you do
it do polarity test do that. And then we have pretty qualitatively of course, discussed about
the third harmonic importance of third harmonic magnetizing current we present in the
transformer in order to make the flux sinusoidal, hence the load voltage will be sinusoidal.

I do not know whether I have a previous one is there no. Let me tell you one interesting
thing; for example, zig zag connection also we have done apart from star delta and this
one, let me try today to do another zig zag connection just to telling you.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:24)

See suppose I want to make a delta zig zag connection ok. Why I am coming back to zig
zag once again is because of the fact in star star zig zag connection if you recall 2 phases
of the secondary side belonging to two different groups they are connected in series ok.
And the polarity dot polarity of this one we discussed about Y z 1 for example, let me tell
that once again so, that you also have a practice and for example, suppose I want to do Y
z 1, what should I do?.

426
Primary it will have two identical secondary’s, this time it is identical not tertiary or
secondary this is 𝑁2 this is 𝑁2 this is 𝑁1 and this is 𝐴1 𝐴2 , let me do first 𝑎1 𝑎2 and 𝑎3 𝑎4
is not, then 𝐵1 𝐵2 this is small 𝑏1 𝑏2 this is 𝑏3 𝑏4 and finally, you have C phase 𝐶1 𝐶2 and
small 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐4 . And all this odd numbers are dots relative to its primary this is one set,
this is another set and this is another set and suppose I connect this two in star because
primary is to be connected in star, then the I will connect this to supply 𝐴𝑠 𝐵𝑠 and 𝐶𝑠 and
your primary phrasal diagram will be very simple like this.

This is suppose 𝐴𝑠 𝐵𝑠 because supply voltage is balanced 𝐶𝑠 and 𝐴𝑠 mean 𝐴1 only this is
𝐵1 and this is 𝐶1 and this are 𝐴2 𝐵2 𝐶2 this is the neutral of the transformer 𝑁. Now, on the
secondary you know you have got this voltages 𝑎1 𝑎2 and 𝑎3 𝑎4 I am not explaining
because we know this and this is 120° apart 𝑏1 𝑏2 and 𝑏3 𝑏4 and finally, you are also having
parallel to C phase and this is 𝑐1 𝑐2 and 𝑐3 𝑐4 is not in this way it is there. Now, suppose I
because zig zag connection is essentially star connection we know this is group 1 and this
is group 2 ok.

So, I want to get Y z 1 means this is the primary voltage with respect to the secondary
voltage will be lagging a line voltage with respect to secondary neutral will be lagging by
30°, is not? These will be the phase voltages, this we have done I will do very quickly. So,
this is the thing. Now, while getting this voltage I want to get 𝑎1 generally here. So, your
output voltages will be this and this and as you can see it is 𝑎1 𝑎2 and this is parallel to C
phase and this I will take 𝑐3 𝑐4 is not.

Similarly, this fellow can be broken up into this 2 phasors and this is 𝑏1 𝑏2 and this is 𝑎3
𝑎4 and this can be broken up into this 2 phasors this one parallel to 𝑏3 𝑏4 and this is parallel
to 𝑐3 𝑐4 , 𝑐1 𝑐2 is not then based on this I come here and connect accordingly. For example,
𝑎1 𝑎2 is connected to 𝑐4 . So, take a piece of wire connect it and which 3 are shorted 𝑎3 𝑏3
𝑐3 short them is not short them and I connect. So, ones will be the output terminals 𝑎1 𝑏1
𝑐1 these will be my output terminals then 𝑏2 is connected to 𝑎4 . So, 𝑏2 is connected to 𝑎4
and 𝑐2 is connected to 𝑏4 and your connection is over.

Now, only one point why I have redrawn once again is that only one point I want to tell.
So, it is effectively a star connection there is a neutral point solid neutral point 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
and there are 3 lines only thing is between the neutral secondary neutral that is 𝑛 to one of
the lines, if you start your journey from neutral you will come across two coils belonging

427
to two different phases that is a phase and b phase in this case if you start from 𝑛 traverse
𝑎3 𝑎4 then traverse 𝑏2 𝑏1 and get your supply 𝑏 this is supply 𝑎 load supply side this is 𝑐.

So, two coils are in series, now suppose in this connection neutral is not connected
therefore, and there is no delta connection. Therefore, I am sure the current no third
harmonic current exists here only 50 Hz component of current will flow and in the core of
the transformer third harmonic flux must exist. And that third harmonic flux is going to
induced voltage both in the primary and the secondary coils is not and the polarity of those
voltages are shown here.

Now so, far as the third harmonic voltage is concerned you see they are co phasal. If this
is plus this is minus 𝐸3𝑟𝑑 fundamental I am not showing and then this is also third harmonic
𝐸3𝑟𝑑 in all the coils third harmonic voltage will be induced and so, plus to minus and then
minus to plus and you reach the neutral. So, what is the third harmonic voltage present
across the phases? Zero. Although in each coil third harmonic voltage exists, but in the
phases no third harmonic voltage.

So, it is a superior thing compared to simple star star, but I take a zig zag coil which will
at least ensure that there will be no third harmonic voltage in the phases that is this voltage,
it will be RMS value only in the phases neutral to any of the lines and between the line of
course, it will not be there therefore, it is a better proposition that way is not. So, zig zag
connection has another interesting connection that perhaps, I will tell later or in your course
of power system you will learn very easily now after you have understood this that, it can
be used as a grounding transformer a better choice for a 3 phase transformer anyway that
I am deferring now. So, for example this connection we have understood.

428
(Refer Slide Time: 23:07)

Another small connection as I was telling with D suppose I want to do a delta zig zag
which I have not told, but let me do it. Suppose the primary winding is no delta connected
zig zag winding I have done. So, that is why I am doing so, that you become more confident
𝐵1 𝐵2 and 𝐶1 𝐶2 and delta connections and it has got 2 secondaries identical 𝑁2 and 𝑁2
turns mind you it is not tertiary one of them and this is 𝑁2 and 𝑁2 turns and what is the
point of writing. These are all same turns this is also 𝑁2 , this is also 𝑁2 two secondaries
corresponding to each phase. It is essential to make a successful connection to mark the
terminals meticulously I mean you cannot do arbitrarily something 𝑏3 𝑏4 and 𝐶1 𝐶2 small
𝑐1 𝑐2 small 𝑐3 𝑐4 .

Now, suppose I have decided I will connect it like this a delta like this and I will give
supply 𝐴𝑠 here supply 𝐵𝑠 there in the B phase and supply C phase that is how I will give
supply. Now, this side is delta delta connected. So, what is the rule? Rule is pretty simple
supply voltage is balanced better draw that; that is 𝐴𝑠 𝐵𝑠 𝐶𝑠 which is balanced I know that
is why I could make a equilateral triangle and show it and 𝐴𝑠 is once again you write with
different colour say 𝐴𝑠 means what? 𝐴1 𝐶2 𝐴1 𝐶2 and 𝐵𝑠 means what? 𝐵𝑠 means 𝐵1 𝐴2 and
𝐶𝑠 means what? 𝐶1 𝐵2 𝐶1 𝐵2 is not same points.

And on the secondaries now you have these voltages available to you, what are the
voltages? 𝑎1 𝑎2 you know 𝑎1 𝑎2 similarly parallel voltages of equal length 𝑎3 𝑎4 , similarly
𝑏1 𝑏2 another voltage is available to play with 𝑏3 𝑏4 and 𝑐1 𝑐2 ; so 𝑐1 𝑐2 and 𝑐3 𝑐4 . Now, I

429
want to make some connection delta and secondary side zig zag. In this case you will find
D z 0° or D z 60° and 180° is possible or so, how it is possible?

Because with respect to neutral on the primary side, this is the artificial neutral secondary
side voltage will be also in phase with this parallel to this, a phase voltage of the secondary
side and zig zag connection means star connection. Two coils belonging to two different
phases are to be connected in series, one should be taken from group 1 other should be
taken from group 2 the same rule.

So, and I would like to have the secondary voltage because no phase displacement, perhaps
it will be I will take 𝑎1 𝑎2 and is this voltage available? Yes 𝑎1 𝑎2 . Then I have to connect
a another voltage from other group of this kind which is available in c and I will take it as
𝑐3 𝑐4 , is not? And the b phase voltage will be 120° apart and b phase is horizontal actually
do not put it like this it is horizontal 𝑏1 𝑏2 and this is 𝑏3 𝑏4 these are horizontal why?
Because 𝑏1 𝑏2 is this. So, this voltage is the secondary phase voltage and it will be it can
be obtained like this a and b.

So, it can be drawn like that I mean this no. So, here I would like to have 𝑏1 . So, I will
sketch it 𝑏1 first which will be horizontal here 𝑏1 𝑏2 and then a like this and what is this
voltage 𝑎4 𝑎3 and finally. So, you can sketch it like this, this is 𝑎1 which is this, this is 𝑏1
and this is some c phase here similarly this can be drawn like this here and you can see
this will become 𝑏3 this will be horizontal actually 𝑏3 and 𝑏4 and this point is 𝑐1 𝑐2 is this
ok 𝑏1 𝑏2 was like this. So, this is fine 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 are to be shorted you short them and then
𝑎2 𝑐4 you join 𝑎2 𝑐4 you join and then 𝑏4 𝑐2 you join; 𝑏4 𝑐2 you join. And finally, 𝑎2 𝑐4 I
have joined 𝑎4 𝑏2 you have to join 𝑎4 and this is 𝑏2 you join these two will be output
similarly you will be able to calculate this one. Only one thing I will tell in this case
suppose I want to this turns are known 𝑁1 , 𝑁1 , 𝑁1 this is 𝑁2 , 𝑁2 . Now, same flux is linking
this suppose you have applied a line to line voltage 𝑉𝐿𝐿 here try to understand what I am
doing, I know the turns ratio I have applied 𝑉𝐿𝐿 which is known. I want to know what will
be the phase voltage on the secondary side and what will be the line to line voltage in terms
of this 𝑉𝐿𝐿 , how should I proceed?

What is the voltage per turn?

𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 =
𝑁1

430
Because it is delta connected line to line voltage comes here and what will be the induced
voltage? RMS value,

𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑁
𝑁1 2

This RMS voltage will be same for all this coils because they are all having same turns.
𝑉𝐿𝐿
So, I know the length of each phasor here to be 𝑁1
𝑁2 across each secondary coil, is not?
𝑉𝐿𝐿
That is voltage here 𝑁2 .
𝑁1

So, the lengths of this are known, then what will be the phase voltage? Secondary phase
voltage very simple this is 30°, this is 30° and I know this length. So, each length that is
𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝑁2 cos 30 will give you half and twice of that, because projection of this is also same.
𝑁1

So, this it will come out to be

𝑁1 √3 𝑁1 𝑁1
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 2𝑉𝐿𝐿 cos 30 = 2 × 𝑉𝐿𝐿 = √3𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝑁2 2 𝑁2 𝑁2

What will be the line to line voltage available on the secondary side?

√3 times this phase voltage that is this one is the phase voltage. So, secondary line to line
voltage will be

𝑁1 𝑁1
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 − 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = √3 × √3𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 3𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝑁2 𝑁2

So, what are the things it comes out to be this? Similarly try your on your own that star
star star zig zag connection if the line to line voltage is known, what is going to be the
phase voltage and the line to line voltage. So, we will continue our discussion on
transformer in next lecture.

Thank you.

431
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 45
Phase Conversion Using Transformer: Scott Connection

Welcome to lecture 45 on Electrical Machines-1 and we were discussing various

connections of 3 phase transformers and give you a sort of guideline owing to select what
connections ok; star delta, delta star or zigzag.

And zigzag connection as I told you is essentially a star connections and in my last class I
told you because with delta connection, I just view once digit 0 and it was like this and I
told you if you know the input line to line voltage and the turns of each primary and each
secondary coils, then you will be able to calculate what will be the phase voltages of these
zigzag connections between the neutral. And one of the phases of the output at the this
goes to load 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 and what is the line to line voltage and phase voltage, how to
calculate you can easily relate them ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:51)

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(Refer Slide Time: 01:59)

Now, another interesting thing with transformers is that using transformers it will be
possible to convert a given polyphase system to another poly phase system. That is called
phase conversion. We will briefly discuss that phase conversion, of which one very
popular connection is called Scott connection; which changes a given 3 phase voltage. It
converts to a 3 phase balanced voltage of course, to a 2 phase balanced voltage. See our
supply system is all 3 phase; generation; distribution; transmission.

Then of course, you get single phase voltage you can get between one line and neutral.
Like that that is there, but sometimes 2 phase balance voltage may be needed. For example,
if you have a 2 phase induction motor ok, then you must supply the stator coils by it 2
phase supply instead of a 3 phase balanced supply, because the motor is 2 phase and 2
phase induction motors are also used in control system and other applications.

There similarly there maybe 2 phase electric furnaces, where 2 phase supply is necessary,
but the problem is first understand the problem; problem is you have a 3 phase supply
available to you 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵𝑠 , 𝐶𝑠 may be with a neutral 𝑁𝑠 supply is available, and you have a 2
phase load this side. So, how to convert this 3-phase supply to a balanced 2 phase supply
voltage system and then feed your load that is the problem.

So, the connection is called Scott connection and it uses 2 single phase transformers. Two
numbers of single-phase transformer; that is 3 phase to 2 conversion requires 2 single
phase transformer, separate transformers and you can show that it will give you a balance

433
two phase voltage; the idea is very simple ok. So, let us start what is done is this you have
one transformer, whose primary coil I will say, because transformers are to be named, in
case of 3 phase case 3 isolated transformers can be used and there were 6 coil, so proper
naming is required.

So, in this case of course, two transformers are there, and let us call these transformer to
be transformer A with terminal say 𝐴1 𝐴2 and its secondary is having small letters 𝑎1 , 𝑎2
like the 3 phase and you have another transformers which I am drawing horizontally the
reason will be clear and its secondary is this one ok. This is suppose 𝐵1, 𝐵2 and this is also
𝑏1 , 𝑏2 .

Now, we required two transformer; one transformer is transformer A another transformer

is transformer B. Now, are this two transformers are identical? Really not. What happens
is this you select this two transformers in such a way that the secondary turns are equal
𝑁2 , 𝑁2 and primary turns of this transformer is B transformer is 𝑁1 . So, secondary turns
are same, primary turns of transformer B is equal to suppose 𝑁1 then, primary turns of
transformer A should be this is let me write

𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐵 = 𝑁1

√3
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐴 = 𝑁
2 1

That is how the transformer turns we have to select of this two transformers and not only
that then in transformer B primary at the 50% you must have a tapping such that this turns
𝑁1 𝑁1
become then and this turns becomes ; so, total turns is 𝑁1 . So, at 50% there will be a
2 2

tapping ok.

Now what you will be doing is this 𝐴2 you join it here with this 50% tapping and these
three, I will connect it to supply 𝐴1 say this I connect to 𝐵1 and this I connect to 𝐵2.
Suppose I connect like that and secondary I have not connected anything it is just isolated
and leaving like that.

Now, first of all you can see that what is the voltage applied to the primary of transformer
B. The voltage applied is line to line voltage is not and total number of turns is 𝑁1 . Mind

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you this transformer has its own magnetic circuit separate; this transformer has its own
magnetic circuit. So, volt per turn of transformer B is equal to

𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐵 =
𝑁1

Therefore, what will be the induced voltage between in the secondary of the transformer
B.

𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐵 = |𝑉𝑏1 𝑏2 | = × 𝑁2
𝑁1
𝑁2
= × 𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝑁1

Now, you see I will draw here so, that I do not have to or shall I go to next page. I will
select this one, this diagram is needed. So, select this so that I do not have to draw, copy
and I go to next page, paste it here. So, that is the thing. Now I will erase this things, so
this was the thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:11)

Now and we have examined what is now, suppose I want to see in phasor term so, what
are the voltage I have applied on the primary side. Since the supply voltage is balanced
like the previous one in transformer connections, I can draw this voltage triangle and
supply is phase sequenced a𝐴𝑠 s, 𝐵𝑠 , 𝐶𝑠 . So, first I will draw this, this is 𝐴𝑠 , this is 𝐵𝑠 , and

435
this is 𝐶𝑠 I will draw and 𝐴𝑠 is 𝐴1 , 𝐴𝑠 and 𝐴1 same 𝐵𝑠 and 𝐵1 is same and 𝐶𝑠 with 𝐵2, it is
also same, it is like this. So, what is the voltage applied across the primary of the
transformer B? It is this one; 𝐵1 𝐵2.

Therefore, if we say that like the previous one, this one ones are dots this one one are dots
suppose I say then, on the secondary coil I will have this induced voltage, which will be
𝑏1 𝑏2 . We have done much more complicated case in case of 3 phase ok. Now, here it will
be like this what else. So, this will be the secondary this voltage phasor parallel to 𝐵1 𝐵2
of course, I have not correctly named. So, it should be I am sorry you know this is 𝐵1 is
connected to 𝐵𝑠 and 𝐶𝑠 is connected to 𝐵2. So, voltage applied across this is 𝐵1 𝐵2. So, the
secondary induced voltage 𝑏1 𝑏2 So, I should name it accordingly nah 𝐵1 is here so, it must
be 𝑏1 and 𝑏2 , now it is correct.

So, this is the available voltage, if any mistake please point out this is the thing. Like this
several times we have done in case of 3 phase. Now, the question is what is the voltage
applied and this point I will call O where that 50% tapping has been taken. Now the
question is where this point O is in this phasor diagram? It must be at the middle point. O
lies here because half of the voltage if you move from here you get O, is not this total
𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝐿𝐿
voltage is this , and will come here. So, this point is O.
2 2

The moment I get this O point is a nothing but also your 𝐴2 point, because you have
connected like that and what is the voltage applied and this is 𝐴1 . So, voltage applied
across the primary of transformer A is this vertical line; is not this is the voltage applied
across the primary of transformer A. If line to line voltage is 𝑉𝐿𝐿 , what is the magnitude of
the voltage applied across 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 ? It will be this length this is 60°.

So, length 𝐴1 𝑂 is nothing, but

√3
𝐴1 𝑂 = 𝑉𝐿𝐿 sin 60 = 𝑉
2 𝐿𝐿

See my goal is to get at the secondary 2 voltages which will be 90° apart. What is balanced
two phase voltage? Balanced 2 phase voltage is like this phase voltages will be equal and
they will be 90° apart. Maybe 1 phase is A, another phase is B; that is what I want to get.

436
So, one voltage phasor is like this to the primary of transformer A, I have applied this
√3
voltage whose magnitude is 𝑉 therefore, induced voltage on the secondary will be also
2 𝐿𝐿

parallel to this. That is 𝑎1 𝑎2 . I want this length to be same as this length. What is the
voltage per turn? This voltage divided by number of turns of the primary. So, voltage since
secondary turns I have said to be same, I must ensure that the voltage per turn of
transformer B and voltage per turn of transformer A they must be same.

So, I write that; so,

𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐴 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐵 =
𝑁1

They must be same then only the secondary voltage magnitudes will be same. I will simply
multiplied with 𝑁2 to get the secondary voltage for this transformer. What was the voltage
𝑉𝐿𝐿 √3
per turn? . Now, this voltage I have right now seen it is 𝑉 . Therefore, its number of
𝑁1 2 𝐿𝐿

√3 𝑉𝐿𝐿
turns if you set it to capital 𝑁1 as before, it voltage per turn would have been then 2 𝑁1

√3 𝑉𝐿𝐿
and its secondary voltage would have been 𝑁 and that will not be same as this one.
2 𝑁1 2

So, to make the voltage per turns same, that is why its number of turns of transformer A
√3
primary is chosen to be 𝑁, then I will write you see
2 1

√3
𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐴 = 2 =
√3 𝑁1
2 𝑁1

Same as the transformer B therefore, the length of this phasor length of 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 and 𝑏1 , 𝑏2
𝑁
will be then 𝑁2 × 𝑉𝐿𝐿 they are will be same. So, you see at the secondary coils of this two
1

transformers there exist 2 voltages whose magnitudes are same and which are 90° apart.

So, it was a balance 3 phase voltage and on the secondary coils although I have not
connected them yet, I get a balanced 2 phase voltage, is that correct no confusion fine. If
that be the case then what I will tell is this I will now join 𝑎2 and 𝑏1 to create the neutral
of the two phase system and I will take output 3 terminals I will take one will be marked
as 𝑎 another will be marked as 𝑏 another will be neutral. So, the moment you join this 2

437
phasors cannot remain in isolation what I have joined 𝑎2 with 𝑏1 , therefore, I must place
this as 𝑎1 𝑎2 and I have joined 𝑎2 with 𝑏1 so, it should be placed here.

It will be like this or what you could do is this if you want to make the a phase voltage
leads the b phase voltage you can join 𝑎2 with 𝑏2 . Are you getting me? What I will do is I
will join 𝑎2 with 𝑏2 to create the neutral. In that case what how it will look like please be
with me what I am telling this is fine balance two phase system you will get and a phase
voltage will lead the b phase voltage and neutral is here. Another way you could do connect
the secondary coils this was the thing this was 𝑎1 𝑎2 , this was 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 is not and 𝑎1 𝑎2
voltage is here.

So, I could join 𝑎2 with 𝑏2. Did I not join that? No, why I did not join; 𝑎2 with 𝑏2 I could
short. So, in this case 𝑎2 with 𝑏2 I will short and get the output from this, get in the neutral.
Therefore, let me clear this I will do like that. So, let me slightly modified this, but you get
the idea that will also work no problem.

So, what I am telling is this is 𝑏1 𝑏2 I have drawn these are the voltage phasors like this.
So, what I will do now? I will join 𝑎2 and 𝑏2 together that is and call this to be by neutral
and I will take output from this as a phase and take output from this for b phase. And if
you do like that 𝑎2 and 𝑏2 you join then your phasor diagram will look like look like 𝑎1
𝑎2 , 𝑏1 𝑏2 and I have joined 𝑎2 and 𝑏2 and this is my neutral. That is what I made. the earlier
one will also do. But any way let us draw like that.

So, that 𝑎1 𝑏1 supply comes out like that and this is your balance 2 phase voltage. In case
of balance 2 phase voltage and this I will say as the line to line voltage; line to line voltage
will be route 2 times the phase voltage. You can easily understand; so far so, good. So,
this is what is Scott connection is. So, this two transformers in terms of number of turns,
they are not identical.

Secondary turns are must be same, 𝑁2 𝑁2 , but primary turns of transformer a which is just
drawn vertically, this vertical drawing has nothing to do with really 90°, this axis that axis;
no on the table you draw. I have drawn it so, that I understand this phasors much more
easily. So, this is transformer B having 𝑁1 turns and also I will demand a 50% tapping
available from the primary of transformer B and then I will connect like this connect it to
a balanced 3 phase system and the number of turns of primary of transformer A is not 𝑁1

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 3
has that of B, but it must be √2 𝑁1 and secondaries are connected like this. Is that clear? So,
that is the thing.

Now, the question is that I will connect a balance 2 phase load on the secondary side. So,
I have got a balance 2 phase voltage, the magnitude of the voltage also I know. So, I will
connect a balance 2 phase load here on the secondary side so, some balanced current will
flow. Then how to estimate the current which will be drawn from the supply 3 phase
supply? That is important; is not I must examine, because after all you see you are
connecting a balance 2 phase load here is a 3 phase system; 3 phase voltage supply system
here.

We like that it also supplies the balance 3 phase current, not a unbalanced current like that.
So, if you connect a balance 2 phase load on the secondary side, does the primary side
current which is drawn from a 3 phase supply remain as a balance 3 phase current and how
the magnitudes of this secondary current and primary current will be related to? That will
be the next thing.

Suppose you have connected a balance two phase load; so, between 𝑎 and 𝑛. So, this is
the balance 2 phase load of same magnitude of impedance ok. If it is 𝑧2 this is also 𝑧2 per
phase impedance, got the point. Now, suppose it supplies a current 𝐼𝑎 direction of the
current I have assumed. So, 𝐼𝑎 here depending upon the power factor angle of 𝑧2 it will be
positioned. So, 𝐼𝑎 maybe there, this is I secondary. What is this angle? Is the power factor
angle of the load, is not a phase current 𝐼𝑎 . But the moment it supplies a current these are
transformer so, rules of transformer must be satisfied what is that voltage ratios are in the
ratios of turns.

Similarly, if through the dot a current comes out its primary will draw additional current
through the dot whose magnitude will be

𝐼𝑎
𝐼𝑎′ =
𝑎𝐴

√3 𝑁1
𝑎𝐴 =
2 𝑁2

So, that is how it will be reflected upon ok.

439
So, so, this is 𝐼𝑎 and this is 𝐼𝑎′ which is the line current of A phase happens to be. So, a
phase current will be also in phase with these, that is what we have learnt. So, primary side
a phase current if I show it will like I mean it will be in same phase. I am just drawing
here. It has it does not mean any connection etcetera current I am drawing, this is your 𝐼𝐴𝑆
which is same as which I am calling it as Ia dashed this will be thing and this angle will be
𝜃2 .

𝐼𝑎
𝐼𝐴𝑆 = 𝐼𝑎′ =
𝑎𝐴

So, the line current of the primary side I have drawn, but there are two other line currents.
Let this line current be 𝐼𝐵𝑆 , that is how in a 3 phase system I show, let this be 𝐼𝐶𝑆 ok. Now,
I must find out in terms of the secondary current what will be the value of 𝐼𝐵𝑆 and 𝐼𝐶𝑆 . So,
same rule that is MMF must be balanced. Now, in this case it will be slightly tricky; in the
sense that this current suppose the this current I say this is 𝐼𝑏 secondary line current through
the dot 𝐼𝑏 current is coming out.

Therefore, there will be reflected current here on the primary side and that reflected current
in terms of 𝐼𝐵𝑆 and 𝐼𝐶𝑆 if I write, I will balance the MMF. Here also I could do like this 𝐼𝐴𝑆
will be such that; see this is I have followed, but I could write it like this 𝐼𝐴𝑆 , the value of
3
𝐼𝐴𝑆 I could calculate the MMF produced by primary √2 𝑁1 must be equal to

√3
𝐼𝐴𝑆 × 𝑁1 = 𝐼𝑎 × 𝑁2
2

Same thing I will get this is

𝐼𝑎
𝐼𝐴𝑆 = 𝐼𝑎′ =
𝑎𝐴

If you bring it down here the same thing you will be getting. Got the point?

√3 𝑁1
𝑎𝐴 =
2 𝑁2

Similarly, I will balance the MMF of the secondary and primary for transformer B. Now,
let me write only on this page let it be clumsy; so that we do not miss the point. What is
the MMF produced by transformer b, current coming out from transformer b is how much

440
Ib. So, 𝐼𝑏 × 𝑁2 therefore, through the dots currents will go in, but you see here there are
𝑁1
two half’s of this 𝑁1 having the primary total 𝑁1 turns of which turns is carrying 𝐼𝐵𝑆
2

current entering through the dot.

Therefore, these MMF must be equal to let me write here only so, that you understand. So,
𝑁1 𝑁1
this must be 𝐼𝐵𝑆 × 2
that is the thing. But this portion is 2
, but it is carrying current see

if this is dot this is dot. So, this plus so, current flowing into the dot of this part is −𝐼𝐶𝑆 ×
𝑁1
and this should be equal to
2

𝑁1 𝑁1
𝐼𝐵𝑆 × − 𝐼𝐶𝑆 × = 𝐼𝑏 × 𝑁2
2 2

See this is crucial see secondary MMF through the dot 𝐼𝑏 current is coming out.

I am just telling. So, through the dot current is coming out. So, through the dot if current
comes out in its primary through the dot current will be invited as here was small 𝐼𝑎 through
the dot if there was no complication only, but here these two parts carrying different
currents.

So, I have to calculate. So, through the dot current coming out is 𝐼𝑏 therefore, I must expect
through the dot what is the current flowing. 𝐼𝐵𝑆 by virtue of its direction enters through the
𝑁1 𝑁1
dot, but that 𝐼𝐵𝑆 last for only turns. So, it is 𝐼𝐵𝑆 × I have done. Through this portion
2 2

of the coil I have assumed 𝐼𝐶𝑆 flowing like this, that is what we assume for 3 phase circuit
analysis and if this is dot this is dot we have learned in auto transformer this that. So,
current flowing in this direction is −𝐼𝐶𝑆 .

Or this is equal to

2 × 𝑁2
𝐼𝐵𝑆 − 𝐼𝐶𝑆 = 𝐼𝑏 ×
𝑁1

This is crucial. This is the thing we get. See what my problem what is the statement of the
problem statement of the problem is you get a balance 2 phase voltage, connect a balance
2 phase load. Secondary currents which are balanced this will be 𝐼𝑎 where will be 𝐼𝑏 , I will
make it more clumsy on the same paper so, that you understand. 𝐼𝑏 will be here of same
magnitude lagging the b phase voltage by 𝜃2 , this too I know.

441
What I am trying to do now, then for this loading what should be my 𝐼𝐴𝑆 , 𝐼𝐵𝑆 , 𝐼𝐶𝑆 ?
Directions I have assumed in accordance with the 3 phase circuit directions. Then what
should I do? I must balance the MMF. I will neglect the no load current etcetera. So, write
the MMF equation here, what is the current coming out through the dot 𝐼𝑎 ? What will be
the current coming in through the dot? It is 𝐼𝐴𝑆 , it has to be. So, these two MMF’s are same
because they will nullify the flux.

√3
So, that is the first equation, 𝐼𝐴𝑆 × 𝑁 = 𝐼𝑎 × 𝑁2 over. But for this portion it is slightly
2 1

you have to be careful the current direction 𝐼𝑏 I have assumed like this, coming out from
the dot 𝐼𝑏 like this. So, 𝐼𝑏 × 𝑁2 that is the secondary side, then through the dots must
current enter and that MMF I have to calculate. Now, 𝐼𝐵𝑆 enters through the dot, so 𝐼𝐵𝑆 ,
𝑁1 𝑁1
but this 𝐼𝐵𝑆 is up to this point ; so 𝐼𝐵𝑆 × .
2 2

Now, what about this portion, you have assume this current to be 𝐼𝐶𝑆 so, I can always
presume −𝐼𝐶𝑆 is flowing and this is dot. So, this MMF plus this MMF must be equal to
this. So, this is one equation. 𝐼𝐴𝑆 in terms of secondary current so, I have already calculated.
𝐼𝐴𝑆 was how much, I have calculated. See 𝐼𝐴𝑆 already I have got

2 𝑁2
𝐼𝐴𝑆 = × × 𝐼𝑎
√3 𝑁1

So, I have to find out the 3 phase side current in terms of secondary current of which 𝐼𝐴𝑆
already obtained.

Now, I have to find out 𝐼𝐵𝑆 and 𝐼𝐶𝑆 in terms of secondary currents, that is what we are
planning to do. To do that I find another equation is missing, because I must have 2
equations in order to express 𝐼𝐵𝑆 and 𝐼𝐶𝑆 in terms of secondary currents ok. This is one
equation. So, where is the third equation? Third equation is it is a 3 phase system,

𝐼𝐴𝑆 + 𝐼𝐵𝑆 + 𝐼𝐶𝑆 = 0

𝐼𝐵𝑆 + 𝐼𝐶𝑆 = −𝐼𝐴𝑆

Right hand side is known 𝐼𝐴𝑆 has already been obtained. I will put it here then I have two
equations I will just simply solve them. We will continue this discussion in the next class.

Thank you very much.

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 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 46
Scott Connection (Contd.)

Welcome to lecture number 46 and we have been discussing Scott connection which is
used to transform a 3 phase voltage to a balanced 2 phase voltage.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:37)

And for this you required 2 transformers, one transformer is 𝐵1 𝐵2 and its corresponding
secondary terminals is also 𝑏1 𝑏2 and an another transformer which is a separate
transformer of terminal markings capital 𝐴1 𝐴2 and small 𝑎1 𝑎2 . What is the thing we
discussed that the number of turns of the secondaries are same.

And the primary number of turns of B transformer that is 𝐵1 𝐵2 turns

𝑁𝐵1 𝐵2 = 𝑁1

√3
𝑁𝐴1 𝐴2 = 𝑁
2 1

443
So, that the voltage per turn in both the transformers become same ok, and we do the
phasor diagram it is better we draw that, so that once again and the phasor diagram will be
the supply is balanced 3 phase with phase sequence 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵𝑠 , 𝐶𝑠 .

So, this was my primary voltages 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵𝑠 and 𝐶𝑠 , 𝐴𝑠 happens to be also 𝐴1 and 𝐵𝑠 happens
to be 𝐵1 and 𝐶𝑠 happens to be your 𝐵2. Now, the question is what will be the applied
voltage across 𝐴1 𝐴2 , mind you in this transformer B primary has a tapping at 50% and
that point I called 𝑂 from this point such that the number of turns this side that is

𝑁1
𝑁𝐵1 𝑂 = 𝑁𝐵2 𝑂 =
2

√3
Total number of turns is 𝑁1 and the number of turns of this transformer is 𝑁, and so
2 1

this is the thing. And now, the question is what is the voltage applied across 𝐵1 𝐵2, it is 𝐵𝑠
𝐶𝑠 that is this voltage since 𝐵1 𝑏1 are dot.

So, you will get on the secondary a voltage here which I should call 𝑏1 𝑏2 that is straight
forward ok. Primary side the question is what is the voltage applied across the primary of
transformer A, this point mind you is 𝑂; because it is between 𝐵𝑠 and 𝐶𝑠 at midpoint, so
this will be 𝑂.

And this point 𝑂 happens to be your 𝐴2 , 𝑂 and 𝐴2 are same ; therefore, voltage applied
across the primary of transformer A is this one which is at 90° to voltage applied to the
transformer primary B. Therefore, you will get a voltage here which will be parallel to 𝐴1
𝐴2 and if you join this 𝑎2 and 𝑏2 . Then the phasor diagram tells you that this will be 𝑎1
this will be 𝑎2 .

Suppose the line to line voltage applied is 𝑉𝐿𝐿 therefore, a voltage applied across the
primary of B transformer is 𝑉𝐿𝐿 number of turns is 𝑁1 . So,

𝑁1
|𝑉𝑏1𝑏2 | = 𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝑁2

What will be the magnitude of the voltage available across 𝑎1 𝑎2 ?

√3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐴 = 𝑉
2 𝐿𝐿

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 √3
𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐴 = 2 =
√3 𝑁1
𝑁 1
2

𝑁1
|𝑉𝑎1 𝑎2 | = 𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝑁2

So, magnitude of the secondary voltages will be saying and that is why you require the
√3
number of turns of transformer A to be root 𝑁. If you take same 𝑁1 turns voltage per
2 1

turn will not be same, our goal is to get a balance 2 phase voltage at the secondary points.

So, this is the star point and that is what we did and then we will connect a load here say a
balance 2 phase load balance load. Suppose 𝑍̅ and write 𝑍
̅̅̅2 to indicate secondary load, so
this is a balance 2 phase load and these are the voltages. Then what I told you this point is
crucial that when you connect a balance 2 phase load on the secondary side there will be
balance 2 phase current. Let this current be called 𝐼𝑎 , where this 𝐼𝑎 will be; depending upon
the power factor of the load this 𝐼𝑎 will be here lagging this voltage by the power factor
angle, 𝜃2 that is the thing.

Similarly in the b phase 𝑏1 𝑏2 same load I have connected, so this current these are the line
currents 𝐼𝑏 will be also lagging this by same angle, 𝐼𝑏 phasor and this angle too will be 𝜃2 .
Obviously, since these 2 phasors are shifted by same angle 𝜃2 and angle between the
voltages where 90°, so this angle too will be 90°. So, a balance two phase current will be
flowing to the load.

Now, the question is you have been able to transform a balance 3 phase voltage to a balance
2 phase voltage. Now, if I want to examine what will happen to the currents on the 3 phase
side, will it also remain balanced or not. The answer we will soon see that it is yes and
how it is to be calculated; therefore, I know 𝐼𝑎 what will be my 𝐼𝐴𝑆 that I want to find out,
what is my 𝐼𝐵𝑆 and what is my 𝐼𝐶𝑆 . From where shall I find out secondary currents are
known I will calculate reflected currents on this side and if you see that 𝐼𝐴𝑆 , 𝐼𝐵𝑆 , 𝐼𝐶𝑆 are of
same magnitude. But 120° apart then I will conclude that the ac side current is also
balanced.

Now how do I do that, to do this you have to balance the mmf follow the rules of sort of a
ideal transformer like the mmf of the secondary through the dot current is coming out. So,

445
that is 𝑁2 𝐼𝑎 this must be equal to through the dot current is drawn in, it must be equal to
√3
𝐼𝐴𝑆 𝑁.
2 1

√3
𝐼𝐴𝑆 𝑁 = 𝑁2 𝐼𝑎
2 1

2 𝑁2
𝐼𝐴𝑆 = 𝐼𝑎
√3 𝑁1

So, therefore, 𝐼𝐴𝑆 how to draw this your 𝐼𝐴𝑆 will be in same phase with 𝐼𝑎 , because this is
only a scaling factor. So, your 𝐼𝐴𝑆 will be suppose in same phase with this with 𝐼𝐴𝑆 . See
we are using whatever you have learnt from single phase transformers beat the transformer
is operating as single phase, 3 phase, 2 phase individually secondary and primary coil the
relationships they must be maintained that is there will be reflected current and so on.

So, will be your 𝐼𝐴𝑆 , so 𝐼𝐴𝑆 is known. Now, the question is how to calculate 𝐼𝐵𝑆 and 𝐼𝐶𝑆 ,
this part we have to go carefully, so these are the dot terminals. So, through the dot current
𝐼𝑏 I have shown coming out, therefore, the mmf of the; I will use different colour for these
calculations. So, it will be this one 𝑁2 𝐼𝑏 , I am not drawing bar over this things.

This must be equal to the mmf produced by the primary coil and I should always take
currents going into it through the dot the same logic. But here the problem is current in
this portion 50% turns and in these portions there different, but no problem. So, what I will
𝑁1 𝑁1
do for this terms that is 𝐵1 𝑂 turns it should be 𝐼𝐵𝑆 . And for this part current flowing
2 2

in this direction that is 𝐼𝐶𝑆 or I can say −𝐼𝐶𝑆 is flowing like this from right to left I can say,
and this is dot means this is also dot.

𝑁1
So, through the dot what is the current flowing −𝐼𝐶𝑆 that is the thing, which means that
2

therefore,

𝑁1 𝑁1
𝐼𝐵𝑆 − 𝐼𝐶𝑆 = 𝑁2 𝐼𝑏
2 2

𝑁2
𝐼𝐵𝑆 − 𝐼𝐶𝑆 = 2 𝐼𝑏
𝑁1

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So, this is another important equation, because 𝐼𝐴𝑆 already I know and I have draw it in
terms of 𝐼𝑎 . I want to know in the similar way what will be 𝐼𝐵𝑆 and 𝐼𝐶𝑆 in terms of 𝐼𝑎 or 𝐼𝑏
whatever it is secondary currents because 𝐼𝑎 and 𝐼𝑏 as known this blue coloured phasors
from that we are trying to get.

So, I required then another equation what is the another equation; another equation is in
this side if you look at it we know

𝐼𝐴𝑆 + 𝐼𝐵𝑆 + 𝐼𝐶𝑆 = 0

That is the third equation. Therefore, I get that

𝐼𝐵𝑆 + 𝐼𝐶𝑆 = −𝐼𝐴𝑆

That is what I get. So, this is the third equation, these two equation is to be solved to get
𝐼𝐵𝑆 and 𝐼𝐶𝑆 .

So, add them and divide by 2 you will get 𝐼𝐵𝑆 supply current on the 3 phase side in the B
phase 𝐼𝐵𝑆 will be equal to

𝐼𝐴𝑆 𝑁2
𝐼𝐵𝑆 = − + 𝐼
2 𝑁1 𝑏

Similarly, if you subtract this and this you will get 𝐼𝐶𝑆 :

𝐼𝐴𝑆 𝑁2
𝐼𝐶𝑆 = − − 𝐼
2 𝑁1 𝑏

So, finally, what I get; I will repeat that all the 3 currents; what is this colour.

447
(Refer Slide Time: 17:57)

2 𝑁2
We got 𝐼𝐴𝑆 , 𝐼𝐵𝑆 and 𝐼𝐶𝑆 as 𝐼𝐴𝑆 = 𝐼 that is this one why not I am copying and putting
√3 𝑁1 𝑎

it. So, I will get 𝐼𝐴𝑆 here ok and so this is the 𝐼𝐴𝑆 and what is 𝐼𝐵𝑆 we have got I am just I
𝐼𝐴𝑆 𝑁 𝐼𝐴𝑆
will take straight away from this; it is let me write 𝐼𝐵𝑆 = − + 𝑁2 𝐼𝑏 and 𝐼𝐶𝑆 = − −
2 1 2
𝑁2
𝐼 .
𝑁1 𝑏

So, I take this copy it and paste it that is all. So, this is the thing I have got I will put it in
the corner, so that you can do something. So, this is the thing 𝐼𝐴𝑆 , 𝐼𝐵𝑆 , and 𝐼𝐶𝑆 , and let me
draw the phasor diagram of the secondary side voltage and primary. So, that phasor
diagram is also needed to indicate that.

448
(Refer Slide Time: 19:51)

So, it was like this, 𝑎1 𝑏1 and this is 𝑎2 𝑏2 and primary phasor diagram was like that 𝐴𝑆 ,
𝐵𝑠 and 𝐶𝑠 and this was the point 𝑂 it was like this. Now, these currents where you recall
𝐼𝑎 and this current was 𝐼𝑏 their lengths are same, because balance load I have assumed and
this is the power factor angle 𝜃2 .

Now, from this you can see that 𝐼𝐴𝑆 will be in phase with 𝐼𝑎 and if I just want to sketch
here taking some arbitrary point it need not be neutral I just superimposing this current.
Then 𝐼𝑎 should be like this with vertical 𝜃2 it will be 𝐼𝐴𝑆 in phase with 𝐼𝑎 and here I draw
𝑁
that, this is the thing. Then if you see 𝐼𝐵𝑆 it is equal to 𝐼𝑏 is like this, so 𝑁2 𝐼𝑏 . So, this part
1

suppose 𝐼𝐵𝑆 I am plotting it is this term, so erase these two; it is not there now.

𝑁2 𝑁2 𝑁2
So, 𝐼𝑏 , 𝐼𝑏 is here multiplied by . So, it will be here this is equal to this part 𝐼 , to
𝑁1 𝑁1 𝑁1 𝑏
𝐼𝐴𝑆 𝐼𝐴𝑆
this I have to add − 2
this is 𝐼𝐴𝑆 . So, to this you add − 2
and then you will get 𝐼𝐵𝑆 .
𝑁 𝑁
Similarly, 𝐼𝐶𝑆 is 𝑁2 𝐼𝑏 negative of that, so 𝑁2 𝐼𝑏 has already been drawn. So, negative of that
1 1

𝑁2 𝐼𝐴𝑆
this length is − 𝑁 𝐼𝑏 and to this I have to add − 2
.
1

𝐼𝐴𝑆
So, this is − 2
and then this current will be your 𝐼𝐶𝑆 is that clear. So, the reflected current
2 𝑁2
and mind you what is 𝐼𝐴𝑆 ; 𝐼𝐴𝑆 = 𝐼 and mind you,
√3 𝑁1 𝑎

|𝐼𝑎 | = |𝐼𝑏 |

449
So this is the thing and; obviously, this angle is 90° is there.

Because I have shifted 𝐼𝑎 by 𝜃2 same angle; similarly, 𝐼𝑏 is shifted by 𝜃2 , so this angle is

90°. Therefore, if I can show that this angle is 30° then I will conclude that it will be a
balanced 3 phase currents that is the thing. That is very easy to prove you calculate tan 𝛼
from this right angle triangle

𝐼 1 2 𝑁
( 𝐴𝑆 × × (𝑁2 ) |𝐼𝑎 |
tan 𝛼 = 2) =
2 √3 1
=
1
𝑁2 𝑁2 √3
( ) 𝐼𝑏 ( ) |𝐼𝑏 |
𝑁1 𝑁1

Which indicates that 𝛼 = 30°.

Similarly from this triangle this is also 𝛼 same ratios. Therefore, we conclude that when
the secondary current is balanced 2 phase current like this when 𝑍2 are same both in
magnitude and power factor angle then secondary current will be balanced. But it will also
ensure that the current drawn from the 3 phase side will be also balanced.

So, it is a very nice connection you require 2 single phase transformers whose which are
not identical in the sense that number of turns are different. Primary side must have a total
number of turns 𝑁1 and with a 50% tapping otherwise you cannot implement that. The
second transformer primary must have it is number of turns same as this transformer, but
√3
with 𝑁1 turns secondary turns are same.
2

So, what actually people do is this they say take 2 identical transformer having same turns
this is also 𝑁1 , this is also 𝑁1 . This fellow primary one primary should have a centre tap
√3
another primary should have a taping at % that is 87% or, so. You understand that; any
2

way this is I do not want to complicate the figure by drawing that because this is the thing
and you get balanced 2 phase system.

If I say that it is just a question if you have understood it correctly, suppose you have a
supply neutral also available ns and I ask you can this 𝑁𝑠 be connected to somewhere in
this circuit. See star connected load supplied from a 3 phase 4 wire system neutrally
straight away connected to the star point; is not and 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 are in the other 3. Now, I am
asking you it is not a star connection although looks like star this is one this is one this is

450
𝑂. Suppose I ask you where this 𝑁𝑠 can be connected to not at 𝑂 you should not connect
𝑁𝑠 here, where it should be at the centroid of the supply triangle and it will come over here
and that I can calculate how much it will be; centroid it is.

Therefore, at this point which will be here and I can specify at what tappings we have to
take to connect that; is not. So, so this is how a scott connection will be here only one last
point is this that this diagram I have drawn for balance load but these equations are true
for balanced and unbalanced load as well, what I mean by saying that with unbalanced
load what happens we unbalanced load connected load on secondary side no problem.

Because what I will do is this; the secondary voltages are balanced 𝑎1 𝑎2 , 𝑏1 𝑏2 and this
is 𝑎2 𝑏2 neutral and suppose the load you have connected such that it is 𝐼𝑎 and in the other
phase you have connected a load 𝐼𝑏 whose magnitudes may be different and these two
angles is not 90°. So, it is a unity power factor load, primary power factor, but what I am
telling is this equation remains intact; mmf balance equation will not change. Only thing I
will not I will be deprived of this simplification that is |𝐼𝑎 | = |𝐼𝑏 | we crossed out several
times know.

So, it should be then 𝐼𝑎 it is reflected current will be 𝐼𝐴𝑆 is this 𝐼𝑎 you have to take in phase
𝑁2
with this I will just indicate it. Similarly, 𝐼 this time it will be like this getting me and
𝑁1 𝑏
𝐼𝐴𝑆
− 2
if you join I will just indicate; it is your duty to study that. So, it can be done
unbalanced load and you will see that primary side current is also not unbalanced and also
note that the primary current will be balanced and what will be the power factor of that
balanced current drawn from the supply same as 𝜃2 ; why?

Because this is the phase voltage of the primary side and 𝐼𝐴𝑆 lags it by an angle of 𝜃2 . If
secondary current is unbalanced primary current is unbalanced, but what I am trying to tell
these equations 𝐼𝐴𝑆 , 𝐼𝐵𝑆 and 𝐼𝐶𝑆 these equations are true no matter whether balanced load
you have connected or unbalanced but if it is unbalanced load I will not be able to use this
information, and that is why this angle 𝛼 etcetera will be different and not it will not come,
1
so nice as ; why it should; got the point?
√3

So, Scott connection is a very nice connection and another thing I will ask you to explore
is that this connection that is this is this side connected, this is this side connected. Suppose

451
I plan to apply a 2 phase voltage to this side shall I get a balance 3 phase output voltage
on this side this you please explore got the point, that is what I am telling is in the reverse
way it will work.

(Refer Slide Time: 33:17)

That is this is the secondary 2 coils and primary connection is like this I will just indicate
it. I have planned 3 phase to phase vectors 3 phase supply give here balanced 2 phase you
get, but suppose I supplied this with a balanced 2 phase voltage this side. Should I get a
balance 3 phase output voltage here, draw phasor diagram and you will get the answer.
Reverse way suppose secondary side because in any transformer after all whether you can
energize primary secondary side you get something. Secondary side you energize you will
get something in the primary.

Any way scott connection is popular because of the fact that 2 phase supply is not readably
available what is available is, 3 phase supply, single phase supply these things are available
in your lab or whatever it is and if you have a 2 phase load for example, a 2 phase induction
motor or things like that or a 2 phase furnace. Then scot connection you have to use and
of course, balanced loads are preferred ok.

So, thank you for this lecture we will see what we can teach in the next lecture

452
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 47
3 Phase to 6 phase Conversion
O.C/S.T Test on 3 Phase Transformer

(Refer Slide Time: 00:20)

Welcome to 47th lecture. We have been discussing in general actually it should come
under the topic phase conversion. And we have studied 3 phase to 2 phase, and we have
completed this and this is called Scott Connection, got the point. Similarly, these
connections another connection is there 3 phase to say 6 phase conversion. 3 phase supply
is there you require a 6 phase supply.

Anyway, there are as such you know motors which are 6 phases, 6 phase balanced 3 phase
balance to 6 phase balance system. 6 phase balance system will be what? There will be 6
voltage phasors which will be 60° apart. 3 phase system 3 voltage phasors of equal
magnitude 120° apart. Now, 3 phase to 6 phase conversion were used very much at certain
point of time. For example, we have a 3 phase to DC conversion by using a diode bridge.
3 phase supply you give you will get a DC supply.

But if you increase the number of phases of that AC to DC conversion using diodes 6
phase will be always better, you will get better DC there, is not. The ripples available is

453
not 120° apart, every 60° something you will get. Anyway, I will just tell you how to
suppose 3 phase to 6 phase I want to do. What I will do? I will take two 3 phase
transformer, not two 3 phase transformer, one 3 phase transformer with two secondary
coils, ok, identical secondary coils. For example, these are the primaries we now know,
so, I will draw.

This is quite simple, I mean to understand. This is suppose dot dot etcetera. So, every time
I am drawing dot, so that you also see it is importance, it is necessary to put the dots 𝐴1 ,
𝐴2 and then this 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 . But and these two coils are identical, ok. These are all 𝑁1
turns, these are 𝑁2 , 𝑁2 turns 𝐵1, 𝐵2, 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 . Then this is 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , 𝑏4 and this 𝑐1, 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 ,
𝑐4 here. And what you do is this you connect this in star. So, I know the phasor diagram.
So, phasor diagram will be primary side it will be supply is 𝐴𝑠 , 𝐵𝑠 , 𝐶𝑠 . So, 𝐴𝑠 here supply,
𝐵𝑠 , 𝐶𝑠 .

And 𝐴𝑠 is nothing but 𝐴1 , 𝐵1, 𝐶1 and this is 𝐴2 , 𝐵2, 𝐶2 . Now, what you do is this you
connect these secondaries, these two groups in stars, but one connection you make Y y 0
and the other as Y y 6 and you are done. Why? Because if you join these 3 then you get Y
y 0, is not and your this voltage will be this say 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 and 𝑐1. And the other group what
you do? That also you connect in star, but this time join this dot terminals 𝑎3 , 𝑏3 , 𝑐3 then
its phasor diagram will come out to be this one Y y 6. So, this is primary was Y y 6 this
primary is y blue I will write this is Y y 0.

Then what? The naming of the terminals will be this is 𝑎4 , 𝑏4 , 𝑐4 . And then you join these
two neutrals these two you short. Then this point becomes a global neutral on the
secondary side where 𝑎3 , 𝑏3 , 𝑐3 and 𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐2 are shorted. So, if you see this voltage
waveform of this terminal this terminal they will be 60° apart of same magnitude. So, you
have been able to generate 6 voltages on the secondary side which are of equal magnitude
and 60° phase difference. So, balance 6 phase voltage.

We will not discuss much more, but what I am telling is what happens is this in the see
diode bridge and this may be the names of this may be changed the bit. So, that what I will
tell; what I am telling is you name this output terminals 𝑎1 to be 𝑎 suppose, ok, this 𝑐4 you
say 𝑏 phase of the secondary side, this is 𝑐 phase, this is 𝑑 phase, this is 𝑒 and this is 𝑓
phase. I could rename them then I have got these 6 voltages 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓 whose

454
magnitudes are same and so on. So, what I will do is this I will connect it and it has also
got a neutral.

So, I have a supply system now whose terminals are 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓 and also neutral, got
the point. What you do now? You connects diodes one of the applications I am telling you
connect diodes and then connect the resistance, load, where you want to get dc and this
point connect it to neutral things will work, ok. So, anyway, so phase conversion 3 phase
to 6 phase can be done this way. Another way you can do, I hope you have now got the
idea. Can I do it by using some delta connection?

Yes, connect one group as Dd 0 another as Dd 6. I will not do that, but I will tell you the
end results. One group this you connect in delta Dd 0 and Dd 6 this group. So, the output
phasors will be like this then. Suppose, this is Dd 6, you work out that on your own and
this is black color. This black one is Dd 0. Then also these terminals of course, there is no
scope for connecting neutral now, this is delta, this is delta, where is its neutral nothing to
be joined here as I have joined here.

So, if you connect a voltmeter for example, here even when no load is connected voltmeter
will read this much, this voltmeter will read. But here if you connect the voltmeter here
circuit is not completed because two apparently other thing. So, what is to be done, you
will get balanced voltages there provided load is connected, so connect a balanced 6 phase
load clear. So, return path will be obtained. 6 rheostat you can show it in, I should not call
it delta like a polygon it will look like 1 2 I mean equivalent resistance 3 4 5 6, suppose
this is my impedance load impedance these 6 terminals you join there then the circuit will
be completed balanced 6 phase voltage you have been able to applied.

Anyway see this 3 phase transformer connection is a very nice subjects and lot of further
more connections are there using many small-small windings, doing these adding that
phasors. For example, one of such examples where traditional zigzag connection as I told
you. But it is in nutshell whatever knowledge you have acquired, I hope you if you read
those things some advanced topics on transformer winding connections, in-corporating
more coils into it you can do several other things that is there, but these are the main things,
ok. And you will be able to I think solve simple numerical problems on this.

455
(Refer Slide Time: 12:39)

So, this is the phase conversion thing. 3 phase to 2 phase, then 3 phase to 6 phase and so
on. One can go on doing like this.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:08)

Now, our next topic will be the parallel operation of transformers, that is another important
topic, ok. Our next new topics is parallel operation of transformer. Before I do the parallel
operation of transformer, I am sorry let me tell you one thing. What is that thing? That is
look here if it is a single phase transformer, I must know the equivalent circuit parameters
and this can be measured by doing some simple experiments like open circuit and short

456
circuit test. Now, what do I do for a 3 phase transformer? And how to find out the
equivalent circuit parameters of a 3 phase transformers? Suppose, I say the transformer
rating is known, what I, let me write some rating.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:18)

Suppose, say 30 kVA, just writing some numbers say 400V/200V, 3 phase, 50 Hz. Now,
and I say that the transformer is star star connected, it is given, star star connected. And it
is a 3 phase transformer, not a bank of 3 single phase transformers put together. So, what
do I know about these things? About these things I know that this is the total kVA, this is
line to line voltage mind you of the HV side, this is line to line voltage.

So, in the same way you carry out the, carried out the open circuit and short circuit test
here also you should do the same thing. So, what do you do? The transformer you connect
generally as I told you from the LV side you carry out the no load test. So, suppose this
side is LV, this side is HV, therefore to carry out the no load test what I will be doing is
this I will apply rated voltage, apply rated voltage. What is the rated voltage? 100V. Where
it should be applied? Between line to line; see that is what I am telling this is line to line
voltage, so it does not tell you the 200V. You applied rated voltage, and 200V is the line
to line voltage.

200
This 200V never tells you that this LV side voltage rating is 200V. is the rated voltage
√3

of the LV side, but anyway 200V you apply. You connect 3 phase 200V and you connect

457
ammeter, and also wattmeter and better connect two wattmeters because it is a 3 phase
system. So, note down 𝐼0 and 𝑊0 wattmeter reading and this one.

Secondary side open circuit, open circuit, and applied voltage of course, must be read, so
you have a voltmeter as well connected here. So, you know applied voltage. Now, then
what you do? You calculate the parameters in this way on the per phase basis. How it is
calculated? First thing is

𝑊0 = √3𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝐼0 cos 𝜃0 = √3 × 200 × 𝐼0 cos 𝜃0

And during open circuit test it is only core loss matters, is not, copper loss we neglect
because no load current is very small may be 2% to 5% the rated current. How much is the
rated current? As I told you always do this HV, so rated current of HV side this I will
come. So, no load current will be small and you calculate this and from this you will be
able to calculate cos 𝜃0 , from that you will be able to calculate sin 𝜃0 then you will be able
to, so per phase voltage if you have applied per phase equivalent circuit, so 𝑉𝑝ℎ and this
will be your no load current. Then this is 𝜃0 , just like single phase.

Then break it up into two component and that is magnetizing (𝐼𝑚 ) and 𝐼𝑐𝑙 and then calculate
𝐼𝑐𝑙 . This is 𝜃0 , this is 𝜃0 ,

𝐼𝑐𝑙 = 𝐼0 cos 𝜃0

𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜃0

And once you do that you will be able to calculate 𝑅𝑐𝑙1 , suppose you say LV side is 1. So,

𝑉
𝑅𝑐𝑙1 =
𝐼𝑐𝑙

𝑉
𝑋𝑚1 =
𝐼𝑚

Similarly, while doing short circuit test what should I do? Generally, from the HV side the
short circuit test is done HV side and LV side is kept shorted. Of course, for this rating it
does not really matter from because it is only 200V and 400V in the laboratory all the
voltages are available and hopefully the meters required will be also available there.

458
So, so there what you do? This LV side you can short them. The moment you short the LV
side can I apply rated voltage 400V here? Never, because it will then draw very large
current. Current will be only limited by its leakage impedance. So, here you must have a
3 phase auto transformer to apply rather small voltage. I should call it variac, 3 phase
variac. Because you must be knowing the difference between a variac and then
autotransformer. Autotransformer means these winding you are using different section of
wires you get advantage. Anyway. So, so you measure the voltmeter reading here 𝑉𝑠𝑐 . You
record the current. You connect 2 wattmeters. See this

𝑊0 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2

Algebraic sum. So, this is 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 .

And while using the wattmeters, it is better because during open circuit test power factor
is rather small use a low power factor wattmeter. Anyway those are details of the
experiment, but you somehow note down this total reading 𝑊0 . Here also connect better 3
phase transformer, 2 wattmeters, current coil and pressure coil. Note down ammeter
reading and call this current 𝐼𝑠𝑐 . How much voltage should I apply so that rated current
flows? What is the rated current on the HV side? 𝐼⏟
𝐻𝑉 . It will be how much
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

30000
𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 𝐼⏟
𝐻𝑉 = ≈ 43𝐴𝑚𝑝
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 √3 × 400

So, you have to choose an ammeter which can read 50Amp say and similarly wattmeter
current coil. But line to line voltage voltmeter rating should be very small, may be 5% to
10% of 400V. 5% of 400V is only 20V. Voltage required will be pretty small, so that
current rated current will be circulated.

Secondary, will be also carry rated current as the primary, so that copper loss will be there.
So, wattmeter once again will read this 𝑊1 , 𝑊2 , sum of these two, 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 . We will give
you the copper loss at rated current. We neglect the core loss. Why? Because rated voltage
applied is very small. Flux is only a few percentage of the rated flux, so when you apply
rated voltage rated frequency. Therefore, copper loss we assume this and then this

2
𝑊1 + 𝑊2 = 𝑊𝑠𝑐 = 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 3𝐼𝑠𝑐 𝑟𝑒2

459
From which 𝑟𝑒2 is known.

Similarly, once you get 𝑟𝑒2, you have to calculate 𝑧𝑒2, 𝑧𝑒2 will be this impedance. So, what
is the impedance?

𝑉𝑠𝑐
𝑧𝑒2 =
√3𝐼𝑠𝑐

And once you get. So, from this 𝑟𝑒2 is known, from this 𝑊𝑠𝑐 . So, 𝑟𝑒2 known, then 𝑥𝑒2 can
be separated which is equal to

𝑥𝑒2 = √(𝑧𝑒2 )2 − (𝑟𝑒2 )2

But only thing you should careful that per phase equivalent circuit the moment you carry
out test, one test from LV side, another test from HV side, and it is your duty now to choose
from which side you will draw the equivalent circuit. This I told you in this earlier class.
Therefore, if I want draw the equivalent circuit refer to the LV side then you have to
transform these parameters in that sense. What is the turns ratio here? Turns ratio of the
winding if the connections are the same star to star or delta to delta, then the turns ratio
will be the line to line voltage ratios, is not. So, that is the thing.

Now, the question is what happens? So, per phase equivalent circuit you have to draw, per
phase. See worked out problems from books as well as in my notes I have included some
problems you go through that. Per phase equivalent circuit we refer to.

460
(Refer Slide Time: 27:12)

Now, suppose I say that the transformer is star delta, ok. Same rating what I told 30 kVA.
Suppose, I say that 30 kVA, 400V/200V, and the connection is star delta then what do I
do? How to draw the equivalent circuit like that? Ok. You have to carry out the open circuit
and short circuit test. Because the readings we are taking are only the line readings, is not.
We are while carrying out the test I am measuring the line quantities.

In fact, you do not need that information whether inside this is star or delta connected, is
not. We have connected everything in line, ammeter, line to line voltage I measured. I
never ask where the neutral is I will measure this phase voltage, got the point. So, one type,
one way of looking at the thing is carry out the test in the same way as you have done and
imagine as if it is star star connected and tell that per phase equivalent circuit. Listen to
me carefully what I am telling, is not.

See the transformer is now star and this side is delta. I can always imagine that no it is so
far as measurement is concerned, it does not matter, oh. It you can equivalent to this side,
you can consider it to be some equivalent star and then calculate the parameters in the
same way because what you are doing, you are measuring total power drawn by that 3
phase connection which is star shown here during the no load test. Suppose, I carry out the
no load test what do I do? This is your actual transformer I will connect 2 wattmeters here.
Let me slightly clean this thing. Try to get the idea, I will not tell. It is in fact not needed
so much of pointing out, but it should be understood what we are doing.

461
(Refer Slide Time: 30:00)

Ammeter you connect, rated voltage you apply, 200V while doing open circuit test this
side is open, who bothers. That is fine. But what I am telling you can always imagine this
to be star connected while calculating the parameters and leave with them. Another way
of doing it that is looks like more appropriate, it is like this. That is I will carry out the test
no doubt, I will say that look this is the no load current you are carrying. I will start
calculating per phase what I will do? Per phase voltage applied to this winding is how
much? 200V.

𝐼0 𝐼0
I will say this is , if it is delta connection I know that. So, through the winding is
√3 √3

going, ok. This total wattmeter reading during open circuit test will be this sum of the cold
losses of all the 3 phases, is not. Therefore, this voltage and this

(𝑊1 + 𝑊2 ) 𝐼0
= 200 × ( ) cos 𝜃0
3 √3

I will do and leave here, ok. It is a single phase transformer, this is its primary, this one is
secondary, whatever it is one of the coils and power absorbed by this is this one and
whatever is the power factor angle, I will calculate. So, in that case I will do it like this.

𝐼0 𝐼
I will take whatever it is that number, And, then I will calculate ( 0 ) sin 𝜃0 to get
√3 √3

magnetizing current and this one. And, I will while drawing the equivalent circuit referred

462
 200
to this side 200V. Only thing is in that case turns ratio will be 100 , that you must
( )
√3

understand.

Anyway, solve some problems on open circuit, short circuit test because it is per phase
basis the analysis is done, regulation problem, this, that, will be all similar because single
phase transformer it can be considered to be a single phase transformer 3 such units, ok.
Think about it and we will continue in my next lecture the parallel operation as I told you.

Thank you.

463
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 48
Parallel Operation of Transformers - I

Welcome to lecture 48th and here we will start a new topic on transformer only, that is
parallel operation of transformer which is an important topics, Parallel Operation of
Transformers, ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:27)

First of all why parallel operation of transformers are necessary that is a the topic from the
title of the topic it looks like there will be two or more transformers which will be
connected in parallel. What does that mean? Suppose, just if you have one transformer
here with its primary and secondary like this and another transformer there; what is done;
these are the primaries of two transformers say transformer A, transformer A and this is
transformer B. Now, this not A B C phase, single phase parallel operation first I will
discuss. So, operation of transformers.

So, what does that mean is this; the primaries will be connected in parallel and excited
from voltage. Secondary winding too will be connected in parallel and load will be
connected; got the point. So, two transformers, similarly if it is more than two another
primary will be coming parallel another secondary transformer, C secondary will, A B has

464
nothing to do A phase B phase just naming the transformers. So, so we let us first discuss
this single phase operation.

So, this is what is meant by parallel connection. You connect the primaries in parallel, also
secondaries in parallel to supply load and primaries to be supplied with a source. Naturally,
this, there are some conditions you can just connect any two transformers in parallel. One
of the conditions you can easily make out is that the voltage rating must be same. For
example, if it is a single phase transformer, suppose 400V/200V transformers. Rating some
kVA ratings 400V/200V, single phase transformer and all are of course, 50 Hz. So,
suppose 400 V side I will connect them in parallel and it is absolutely logical. Rating of
each one of them should be rated voltage. So, they are connected in parallel and supplied
from the same source.

Similarly, the LV side rating is 200 V and we are going to connect them in parallel voltage
cannot be different. So, the voltage rating of the primaries and secondaries must be same.
For example, you will never think of connecting a transformer of rating 400V/200V in
parallel with 100V/50V, this two cannot be parallel for obvious results, ok. So, that is the
thing. So, voltage rating there are certain condition, first of all to be full filled to connect
the two transformers in parallel.

Before coming to the conditions which need to be full filled in order the two or more
transformers connected to be connected in parallel, we must ask ourselves what is the need
of connecting two or more transformers in parallel. For example, in power system
particularly in distribution system suppose you, because in distribution system you know
at the last level there is a transformer whose rating is typically 6.6 kV/440V; 3 phase, that
we discussed earlier.

Now, suppose in a locality which is to be supplied with 440V supply. 440V means one
supply line and neutral will go to every consumer 220V or 230V like that. But the problem
is suppose a locality is growing initially the demand of power is not that high. Suppose,
you select a 100 kVA transformers to give you an idea 6.6 kV/440V, 3 phase transformer
it is; it is also true for 3 phase transformer, 3 phase 50 Hz.

KVA I am not writing. Now, what I am telling; suppose, you see that presently the kVA
rating is say 100 kVA, the will be sufficient to cater the consumers because it is a growing
area, load demand is growing. So, suppose you decide, I will now buy a 150 kVA

465
transformer, 50 kVA will be another margin and start giving power to the consumers. But
as you know the as the area is growing every 5 or 7 years the load becomes doubled, ok,
approximately I mean. May be after 10 years the power demand will become 300 kVA.

Now, naturally this transformer now be in sufficient because from this transformer which
is rated at 150 kVA if you want to derivate 300 kVA that means, it will be over loaded.
See, kVA means current, mind you, the voltages as are approximately same even under
with the concept of regulation there will be slide voltage difference these that that is there.
But, nonetheless the transformers will be come over loaded. You cannot pass current kVA
is synonymous with currents, voltages are almost same.

Therefore, if the load demand increases then this transformer which you installed initially
after 7 years the load demands suppose becomes 300 kVA. What is the option left; then
you have to purchase another transformer of same voltage rating, but 300 kVA is not and
do away with this transformer remove this transformer,. But that is not too economic
proposition, because these transformer is otherwise healthy and cost of a 300 KVA
transformer with same voltage ratings is going to be definitely higher.

Therefore, perhaps what other alternative is you purchase another transformer of similar
ratings and connect them in parallel. So, that the combined kVA is 300 kVA and it will
last for another 5 or 7 years, after that perhaps another transformer you. So, your cost of
investment is reduced at a time you do not have to purchase a very big transformer and
this is the very practical solutions in some areas. For example, it is now a village, gradually
growing industries may come up and things like that a big residential complex. So, demand
will go on increasing and it is therefore, needed to connect the transformers in parallel.

The advantage of connecting the transformers in parallel is another important thing. That
is, see, if you if the load depend is one 300 kVA suppose it has gone to and suppose you
are using a single transformer which is catering that 300 kVA load, but if some fault occurs
in that transformer the transformer is to be taken out for repair works or whatever it is.
And then there will be no power to the consumers. You cannot then provide any power
because the transformer is out of order. But had there been two transformer operating in
parallel, it is very unlikely that both of them has simultaneously has become faulty or needs
servicing; is not?

466
Therefore, in such a situation if two or more transformers are connected in parallel catering
a certain amount of load if it so happens that one it is likely that one transformer will
become faulty, why all of them suddenly becomes faulty. So, one of them becomes faulty;
you remove that that is to be that you take out. Then the kVA you can supply will be less
no doubt one transformer less whatever its kVA rating, but nonetheless some of the
consumers maybe supply power that is a no main thing, I mean in one case if it is a single
transformer everything is blackout, if one transformer develops fault.

But if more transformers in parallel, one transformer goes out of order take it out and then
you can you can restore service back, but not to all consumers and that you can rotate
somehow to satisfy all the consumers by switching, disconnecting, some consumers at
some point of time reconnecting some other consumers. So, these are the nice points of
having at least at the distribution level some transformers operating in parallel.

The cost of each unit is small. In fact, you can, if two or more transformers are operating
in parallel, you can keep one transformer ready, I mean not in use what it is, as a backup.
So, if one transformer is faulty temporally power will be interrupted to some consumers,
but connect that new one and take this for servicing that is the whole idea very simple logic
nothing great things. But that is why the operating transformers in parallel assumes
importance, ok.

Now, we will come to the to the important thing that is if I want to operate two transformers
in parallel what are the conditions to be satisfied. One conditions I have already seen
because you will be operating in parallel. So, voltage ratings must be same, ok; is that kVA
rating should be same? Not at all; kVA rating is current ratings. So, KVA ratings may be
different. One; you may have 100 kVA this transformer, it will be operating in parallel
with another 200V, something 50 kVA transformer no problem. kVA rating may be
different. But only thing is when they will be operating in parallel; what is kVA rating;
kVA rating mean essentially current rating of a either HV or LV.

So, you must see that this transformer both of them are operating in parallel is low voltage
side should not exceed it is rated current, that is the only condition individually. For this
transformer, its low voltage current rating will be certainly to time this that should not
exceed that is the only thing.

467
Then the third important point is which is rather practical problem after you have got this
two transformers which you want to operate them in parallel, you must ensure that is very
important, polarity, polarity test, polarity must be same while connecting transformers in
parallel, while connecting that must be same, otherwise you cannot do. So, voltage rating
and it should be connected in parallel with the due regard to their polarity, otherwise there
will be problems.

So, what do I mean by this? This is suppose the polarity of transformer A marking, this is
the polarity of transformer B and this is the correct way of connecting. If somebody
connects this secondaries for example, by mistake like this then what is going to happen;
dot becomes plus 200V, here dot becomes plus 200V load you have connected, but it will
find a 400V acting in the circuit creating a huge it is equivalent to short circuit. So, this
should be avoided. It is not allowed at all. So, polarity is a must condition before you
connect transformers in parallel.

After telling this there are other conditions which will be clear as we go along, ok. Now,
where from to start? It is like this see if you see the connections the connections I have
already told. Now, I will always neglect the no load current in these analysis. No point in
taking that. Instead because no load current is only 5% of the full load current of the given
transformers compared to be load current it is nothing. Therefore, to get quick and good
estimate of the current distributions in the transformer when they are operating in parallel
you better do not take no load current into account, ok.

So, transformers which will be in parallel, I will always draw the equivalent circuit,
equivalent circuit refer to load side. For example, in this case it was 400V this is suppose
the load side. So, correct I finally, put these two correct polarity, then only you can connect.
So, this is dot, this is dot. Polarity test I will do accordingly I will connect them in parallel.
Therefore, if you draw the equivalent circuit refer to the load side then what happens is
this. The primary side will have I will only show the induced voltage 𝐸1 and this is 𝐸2 the
induced voltage on the secondary side, ok; and here I will show the all the parameters in
this way 𝑟𝑒2, 𝑥𝑒2 and here I need not show 𝑟1, 𝑥1 that is what the equivalent circuit means.
So, refer to the other side I will draw the equivalent circuit of each of the transformers,
clear.

468
Therefore, if you draw the equivalent circuit referred to the secondary side or load side, it
will simply becomes now like this, because of this parallel connection this is the induced
voltage of transformer A and this is the equivalent impedance of the transformer that is 𝑟𝑒𝑎
and 𝑗𝑥𝑒𝑎 . I have paralleled it with respect to the terminals available. Similarly, the second
transformer I will only consider two transformer, 𝐸𝑏 . Mind you, this is the secondary
voltage if you want to write 2 you can write, but this I will avoid, otherwise I have to carry
on that 2. So, this is this thing and this is the second transformer.

And it will have its resistance and leakage reactance, all referred to the secondary side,
suppose this is the thing and where are parallel them here getting. So, this is thing and here
is your load. So, this thing is equivalent to this thing when translated into equivalent circuit,
got the point. So, 𝑟𝑒𝑎 , 𝑥𝑒𝑎 is what? It is secondary resistance and reflected primary
resistance, that is why I have not shown any resistance here. Similarly, 𝑟𝑒𝑏 , 𝑥𝑒𝑏 will be like
that and this is the connection.

Now, in general if the voltage rating are same, so here if you apply 400V here. So, this
induced voltage will be 200V, so here also it will be 200V, here also it will be 200V and
you get the current. Now, at this point I will tell you that, see after all these two
transformers are different transformers.

So, sometimes what happens, this secondary voltages when you have applied same
primary voltages to the primary of these two transformers; there may be a slight difference
for example, this is 200V, this may be 208V because of some they are not after all identical
there may be always slide difference. In that case what happens is that if the switch is open
then there will be a circulating current, which is limited by the sum of the leakage
impedance of these two transformers.

Anyway, people say that, little bit of difference of voltages may be allowed provided it
does not cause a large circulating current. So, this although 𝐸𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 is the most desirable
thing, but there maybe a little bit of allowance that can be allowed and maybe it is 200V,
this maybe 210V or so 5%-10% this way, that way you can do but any way; so, generally
that is way I have wrote 𝐸𝑎 and 𝐸𝑏 . I am not sure there will be most probably equal and
fine.

Now, to understand the other important conditions to be fulfilled this circuit is drawn and
then I say that what I should ask is that let us try to calculate. Suppose, and this voltage is

469
what; this voltage is the terminal voltage 𝑉2, common secondary terminal voltage here,
this is 𝑉2, is not.; and this is the secondary current 𝐼2 . Now, you see the moment you
connect these two transformers in parallel, this load current is going to be shared by
secondaries of these two and accordingly there will be reflected current in their primaries.
So, any way we are looking. So, if the secondaries of the transformers are carrying rated
current as I told you primaries are also taking rated currents no problem. Therefore, only
one side I will focus on, ok. So, it is like this 𝐼2 .

Now, the question is what will be your 𝐼𝑎 and the 𝐼𝑏 . Who decides how much of this 𝐼2
will be flowing through 𝐼𝑎 and how much of the 𝐼2 will be flowing through 𝐼𝑏 ? I am not
writing two everything is with respect to load side mind you, clear. So, that that is one
important thing I must see.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:37)

For example, so this is the circuit once again I am drawing. So, this is your 𝐸𝑎 , ac this is
your 𝑟𝑒𝑎 + 𝑗𝑥𝑒𝑎 leakage reactance. Second transformer this is the thing 𝐸𝑏 , because it is
connected in parallel. This is 𝑟𝑒𝑏 + 𝑗𝑥𝑒𝑏 and then I have connected them in parallel with
due regard to the polarity means this plus plus and then I have connected a load here. So,
what is this statement of the problem, please note down.

What I am telling is suppose load current is known, 𝐼2 is known you have connected some
load and you find it is drawing this much current it is known. I want to know what is 𝐼𝑎
and 𝐼𝑏 that is the thing and if I find out 𝐼𝑎 and 𝐼𝑏 then I will perhaps get some more

470
conditions which is which will be necessary for better sharing of the load because as I told
you the KVA ratings of these two transformer may be different. For example, you just help
me if necessary in calculation simple thing.

Suppose, I have this transformer, one transformer is 400V, another is 200V, ok. I first I
will do it like this. This part at least can be done whatever time is left. Now, so how do I
find out this? It is circuit problem, what else; I know 𝐸𝑎 , 𝐸𝑏 and I can find out. But I will
do it and I will assume 𝐸𝑎 , 𝐸𝑏 are not same. They will be same that is the most desired
thing, but the as I told you there maybe a little difference. So, 𝐸𝑎 , 𝐸𝑏 are there and what
will be the current shared by this.

The best way and there are several ways you can calculate it and this voltage is 𝑉. You
can apply nodal method this that to calculate the current. But the nice way of calculating
it is this since 𝐼2 is known, what you can think of in the circuit is that this impedance can
be removed and you can tell there is a current source, you must be knowing that, that in a
circuit if current in a branch is known then replace that component by this current source.
Currents in other branches is remains same, how does it matter, is not that is. So, it can be
replaced by current source in this direction.

Since, it is known in terms of 𝐼2 I want to know what is 𝐼𝑎 and 𝐼𝑏 . Now, in this circuit there
are 3 sources 𝐸𝑎 , 𝐸𝑏 and there is a current source. I will apply super position and in one
stroke I will get 𝐼𝑎 and 𝐼𝑏 , see how. This 𝐼𝑎 should be equal to, I will apply superposition,
ok. For example, I will assume 𝐸𝑎 , 𝐸𝑏 are present and this current source is not there that
means, it is open circuited, remove it, then because of 𝐸𝑎 , 𝐸𝑏 current 𝐼𝑎 in this direction
will be simply

𝐸𝑎 − 𝐸𝑏
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑧𝑒𝑎 + 𝑧𝑒𝑏

𝑧𝑒𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒𝑎 + 𝑗𝑥𝑒𝑎

𝑧𝑒𝑏 = 𝑟𝑒𝑏 + 𝑗𝑥𝑒𝑏

So, for these two sources current will be this current source is open circuited then plus I
must remove this source because these are voltage sources.

So, I will put them short circuit and I will assume only current source is present.

471
So, if you put this short circuit means what these two are in parallel and this is the total
current. So, when this term is let me draw because for me it is simple, but so only these
two sources are present means this and this and current source is open circuit then calculate
𝐸𝑎 −𝐸𝑏
this current, that is what I did, . Then only current source is present then it will
𝑧𝑒𝑎 +𝑧𝑒𝑏

circuit will be like this 𝑧𝑒𝑎 , 𝐸𝑎 shorted, 𝑧𝑒𝑏 , 𝐸𝑏 shorted and you have only this current
source, that is the load current 𝐼2 and how the this will be shared; this rule is already known.

So, for example, this current will be because of 𝐼2 , the total current 𝐼2 into impedance of
the other branch divided by sum of the impedances is not that is all in one line we will get
this current instead of solving so many questions. So, and this equation is important
necessary. Now, if you get this, if you get this will be I a, clear?

𝐸𝑎 − 𝐸𝑏 𝑧𝑒𝑏
𝐼𝑎 = + 𝐼2
𝑧𝑒𝑎 + 𝑧𝑒𝑏 𝑧𝑒𝑎 + 𝑧𝑒𝑏

(Refer Slide Time: 32:37)

Now, similarly what will be 𝐼𝑏 ;

𝐸𝑏 − 𝐸𝑎 𝑧𝑒𝑎
𝐼𝑏 = + 𝐼2
𝑧𝑒𝑎 + 𝑧𝑒𝑏 𝑧𝑒𝑎 + 𝑧𝑒𝑏

This is the thing.

472
Therefore, for a known load current how the currents in the winding of the transformers
on the secondary sides will look like is this and in case, in case 𝐸𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 it will be further
simplified, so this is the circulating current part. As I am telling if there is a slight mismatch
that circulating current part can be calculated. So, in case 𝐸𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 it will be simply

𝑧𝑒𝑏
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼2
𝑧𝑒𝑎 + 𝑧𝑒𝑏

𝑧𝑒𝑎
𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼2
𝑧𝑒𝑎 + 𝑧𝑒𝑏

See, what we what we really want. Suppose, the rated current of this transformer is known,
if you see that I just tell you one rating. Suppose, a one transformer is 4 kVA transformer
A and transformer B is 2 kVA; kVA ratings may be different and the voltage rating of this
transformer is suppose 400V/200V and voltage rating of this transformer is also same
400V/200V and I am looking things from the 200V side, is not. That is what I told, load
side. What is the rated current of this, LV side rated current?

20Amp and 10Amp. Therefore, I will see that this transformer since I have connected one
4 kVA and 2 kVA, this transformer I should expect should supply 6 kVA, 4𝐾𝑉𝐴 +
2𝐾𝑉𝐴 = 6𝐾𝑉𝐴 and maximum load current I can allow is then 30Amp, is not?

May be load; so, 30Amp current I would like to supply to the load. But here I should also
add, this 30Amp when it will be supplied I will demand that transformer A supplies 20Amp
and transformer B supplies 10Amp, then only I will be most happiest man in the world,
ok. Your load is taking 30Amp, your transformer A is capable of delivering 20Amp,
transformer B is capable of delivering 10Amp and this is the most desirable thing, is not,
it should happen,.

But the distribution of this total current is fixed by this relations; it looks like, who decides
that out of this 30Amp, 20Amp will be carried by these and 10Amp will be carried by this
𝐼
is decided by this because if you take the ratio 𝐼𝑎 . Who decides that? If you take this ratio
𝑏

from this; it will be what?

𝐼𝑎 𝑧𝑒𝑏
=
𝐼𝑏 𝑧𝑒𝑎

473
It is not that simply I have connected, I have done my job, ok, this fellow automatically
takes, no. It depends on relative values of 𝑧𝑒𝑏 and 𝑧𝑒𝑎 . So, read this portion very carefully
and think about the answer that is I should then put condition what should be the nature
related values of 𝑧𝑒𝑏 and 𝑧𝑒𝑎 such that this 30Amp should be divided according to their
KVAs.

Thank you.

474
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 49
Parallel Operation of Transformers - II

Welcome to lecture number 49th on Electrical machines 1. And we have been discussing
about Parallel Operation of Transformer which is an important topic.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:35)

And recall that we in our last class I took an example and told that suppose you have got
two transformer, one transformer is transformer A, another is transformer B, then if you
want to connect them in parallel what does it really mean is that connect the primaries of
transformer A and B parallel and energize with its rated voltage. Of course, before
paralleling, we must ensure that the voltage ratings are same, primary voltage and
secondary voltages are same, then only you can parallel otherwise not.

Similarly, the secondary coil voltages of transformer A and transformer B, they are
connected in parallel and that will be used to supply the load. Now, the necessity of a
connecting two transformers in parallel, we also discuss that. And told that in case you
have a single transformer supplying a load and if the load demand has increased, then you
must have purchased another transformer of higher KVA, instead of doing that purchase
another transformer of lower KVA, but having same voltage ratings and connect them in

475
parallel. So, that the old one even not just moving from the circuit. So, in this way as
demand increases perhaps you can connect two or more transformers in parallel and supply
the new load demand each one will contribute to the load.

As an example I told that suppose we have two transformers of voltage rating 400V/V.
And one transformer rating is in the next page perhaps I wrote ok. These two transformers
you are connected in parallel. Now, also voltage rating should be same and while
connecting them in parallel, we must ensure polarities same polarities must be connected
both on the primary and secondary side. So, this was actually that polarity, this will ensure
plus plus here ok.

In general 𝐸𝑎 and 𝐸𝑏 maybe slightly different, because after all these two transformers are
two different transformer exact matching of the secondary voltages when primary is
energized with rated voltage which are connected in parallel is very much unlikely. But
nonetheless let us assume that the secondary voltage as a general case suppose the induced
voltage is 𝐸𝑎 and 𝐸𝑏 , and four for this transformer it will be close to 200V, this will be
also close to 200V. And these two voltages will be there and there is load connected, this
is your load impedance. And all the equivalent circuit parameters are referred to the
secondary side to load side.

And so transformer A equivalent circuit is simply 𝐸𝑎 , 𝑟𝑒𝑎 , 𝑥𝑒𝑎 and so on; here also 𝐸𝑏 this
one. Then we would like to know that this is a simple circuit otherwise that the circuit is
to be solved, but we will be interested to load for a given load current 𝐼2 , suppose this is
known, this is known, then what will be 𝐼𝑎 and 𝐼𝑏 that is how this currents will be shared.
And in case of transformer, you know current rating means KVA ratings only, voltages
are maintained same almost. Therefore, whenever I say current ratings it means their KVA
ratings.

476
(Refer Slide Time: 04:59)

So, then we just found out these expressions that for a given 𝐼2 , if this is known your 𝐼𝑎
will be this much and 𝐼𝑏 will be this much. In general if 𝐸𝑎 and 𝐸𝑏 are not equal, it will be
a general expression like this. But since 𝐸𝑎 and 𝐸𝑏 will be very close, so and if they are
absolutely equal, then of course, 𝐼𝑎 will be equal to simply this and this one that is this
part, this second terms will be much higher compared to this terms. So, approximately 𝐼𝑎
will be this and 𝐼𝑏 will be this, why approximately if 𝐸𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 , this will be the case.

Even if 𝐸𝑎 is slightly different to 𝐸𝑏 , I can calculate the exact values, but also this will give
you an idea how 𝐼𝑎 and 𝐼𝑏 will be. Mind you these are all phasors here, 𝐼𝑎 , 𝐼𝑏 , 𝐼2 is known.
𝐼 𝑧
Now, the ratio of 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑧𝑒𝑏 ok. So, up to this point, we have done.
𝑏 𝑒𝑎

477
(Refer Slide Time: 06:12)

Therefore, we have seen that in the transformer it has come like this I a by I b is equal to
z eb by z ea is it not, which also means that this is phasor relationship. This also means
that

|𝐼𝑎 | |𝑧𝑒𝑏 |
=
|𝐼𝑏 | |𝑧𝑒𝑎 |

That is how it will be shared ok. This equation is very important. From this equation we
will also put another conditions for those two transformers A and B for better load sharing,
and what is that condition that we can get from this equation that is why this equation is
important.

Now what is that? So, suppose you have two transformer, suppose transformer A is of
rating 400V/200V, 50 Hz. And transformer B has got a same voltage rating it must have
400V/200V, 50 Hz that is fine. And the KVA rating of transformer A is suppose 4 KVA
and this transformer rating is suppose 2 KVA ok. Therefore, rated currents of the
transformers A on the low voltage side, how much it will be?

This is 20Amp, this side current. And this rated current is 10Amp. So, this information I
have. Similarly rated current of this side will be 10Amp and this side high voltage side
current will be 5Amp is it not. But anyway we have referred everything to the LV side we
have connected the secondary side 200V side in parallel.

478
So, this is the thing, and this is the circuit this is one voltage source this is 𝑧𝑒𝑎 . This is
another voltage source on the secondary side, this is 𝑧𝑒𝑏 and these two are in parallel 𝑧2 .
And this is what I told your 𝐼2 load, and this is 𝐼𝑎 , and this is 𝐼𝑏 , and this is 𝐸𝑎 , this is 𝐸𝑏 .
And assume 𝐸𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 that is both are equal to 200V ok, so that is fine.

Now, I have this relationship ok. We will see that for a given current, load current the
current shared by transformer A and that of transformer B are in the inverse ratios of their
respective KVAs that is current shared by transformer is proportional inversely to its
1 1
leakage impedance, 𝐼𝑎 ∝ and 𝐼𝑏 ∝ , is it not. So, it is inversely proportional to
𝑧𝑒𝑎 𝑧𝑒𝑏

leakage impedance.

Now, what is the important thing? See here, I would like to have our intention will be I
told you in the last class as well that when I see transformers whenever it is in operation it
is always nice to operate the transformer as full load. It will because that is why your
investment will then become meaningful, why then purchase so much KVA, so much
voltage transformer. Therefore, when this two transformers are operating in parallel, I
would like to have 30Amp is supplied to the load, and 20Amp is carried out by transformer
A; and at that time and 10Amp is carried out by transformer B that is the most I mean best
thing one can think of is it not.

So, if 𝐼2 = 30𝐴𝑚𝑝, and 𝐼𝑎 = 20𝐴𝑚𝑝 and 𝐼𝑏 = 10𝐴𝑚𝑝. If these happens that is the best
thing, all transformers will be under full load condition, KVA handled by transformer A
will be then whatever its 4 KVA, transformer B, 2 KVA and the KVAs supplied to the
load will be approximately 6 KVA, nothing is better than that ok.

|𝐼𝑎 | |𝑧 | 𝐼𝑎
Therefore, but we then find that |𝐼𝑏 |
= |𝑧𝑒𝑏 |. Therefore, you see the ratio of here; this
𝑒𝑎 𝐼𝑏

demands that

𝐼𝑎 2
=
𝐼𝑏 1

𝐼 2
If this best thing to happen, then 𝐼𝑎 = 1, which implies that the impedance of transformer
𝑏

B should be twice the impedance of transformer A.

|𝐼𝑎 | |𝑧𝑒𝑏 | 2
= =
|𝐼𝑏 | |𝑧𝑒𝑎 | 1

479
From this now therefore; if therefore,

|𝑧𝑒𝑏 | = 2|𝑧𝑒𝑎 |

Then only such a thing is possible.

If for example, it is the other way round that is suppose you find you have purchase two
|𝑧𝑒𝑏 | 1
transformers and you find that |𝑧𝑒𝑎 |
= 2, just opposite leakage impedances are like this.

Then what is the implication? Implication is see the ratio of the currents

𝐼2 : 𝐼𝑎 : 𝐼𝑏 = 3: 2: 1

That is what I want.

But if it is other way around, then the ratio of currents will be just opposite the transformer
having a higher KVA is having higher impedance is it not. Higher KVA transformer must
have lower impedance. Otherwise, what will happen, the moment you start loading the
transformer which is capable of supplying more current for a given load current, it will
always take less current and the other transformer which is lower KVA will share more
current.

So, a situation will soon occurred, the transformer be having lower KVA will carry rated
current and the transformer having higher KVA has not yet reached rated current, I think
a I got the idea. This is very important. Therefore, I should then now add another important
point that is if you want to have a meaningful parallel operations of transformers, then I
will say voltage ratings must be same, KVA ratings maybe different. Oviously, why KVA
rating should be same, KVA rating is different, but I will demand the transformer leakage
impedance should be inversely proportional to their KVAs.

So, I must have transformer leakage impedance should be inversely proportional to their
KVAs, then only you get this nice division of load currents. Now, mind you the ratio of
|𝑧𝑒𝑏 |
the currents magnitude of the currents is |𝑧𝑒𝑎 |
. Now, I say that magnitude of the

impedances, leakage impedance should be inversely proportional to the KVA ratings fine.

480
(Refer Slide Time: 18:03)

But

𝑧𝑒𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒𝑎 + 𝑗𝑥𝑒𝑎

𝑧𝑒𝑏 = 𝑟𝑒𝑏 + 𝑗𝑥𝑒𝑏

And I saw that

|𝑧𝑒𝑎 | = √(𝑟𝑒𝑎 )2 + (𝑥𝑒𝑎 )2

|𝑧𝑒𝑏 | = √(𝑟𝑒𝑏 )2 + (𝑥𝑒𝑏 )2

So, if this magnitudes are inversely proportional to the KVA that is fine, but then another
condition maybe put that about the quality of the impedances, quality of the impedances
of the leakage impedance, this angle of this impedances are also suppose same, got this
ratio.

𝑥𝑒𝑎 𝑥𝑒𝑏
=
𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑏

So, leakage impedance angles they are same.

And magnitudes I will put them in the inverse ratio that is

481
 1
𝑧∝
𝑠

1
𝑧𝑒𝑎 = 𝑘
𝑠𝑎

1
𝑧𝑒𝑏 = 𝑘
𝑠𝑏

That you have seen. Then I am saying that ok, if you just meet this condition’s, then you
may think yourself what happens this square root of this square plus this square and square
root of this square plus this square can be chosen in such a way that ratios are, the ratios
of the currents the way I told. But what about the quality, we is it going to make any
difference? The answer is yes; about the quality also you have to think a bit.

Now, what it is? Look back, I will write here. So, here the thing is very simple idea, this
is 𝐸𝑎 and this is your 𝑟𝑒𝑎 , 𝑥𝑒𝑎 . And this is your 𝐸𝑏 equivalent circuit refers to secondary
side of both the transformer, and this is your 𝐼2 . And here is our secondary load, this is 𝑧2
ok. And these are all phasors, I am not putting bar magnitude I will put that modulus sign.
And let us assume that 𝐸𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 that is a case we are studying, these two phases are same.

Now, voltage across each of the impedances, I will calculate. These voltage is suppose 𝑉2,
then

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑎 = 𝐸𝑎 − 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑏 = 𝐸𝑏 − 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏

Because same 𝑉2 and 𝐸𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 . So, same voltage has come here. So, suppose the voltage
across 𝑧𝑒𝑎 and 𝑧𝑒𝑏 are same let that voltage be denoted by some voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 suppose I say.
So, I draw that first here I will just give you the idea suppose this is the voltage across this
and across this, that I have drawn.

If the qualities of impedances are same, then 𝐼𝑎 will be lagging by some angle 𝜃 not power
factor angle ok. What is 𝜃?

𝑥𝑒𝑎 𝑥𝑒𝑏
tan−1 = tan−1 = 𝜃𝑒
𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑏

Or say 𝜃𝑒 sum equivalent impedance, it is power factor angle. It will be 𝐼𝑎 .

482
And similarly your where you will be 𝐼𝑏 ? 𝐼𝑏 will be also lagging 𝑉𝑎𝑏 by the same angle 𝜃𝑒
under this condition, therefore, you are 𝐼𝑏 will be which transformer I took more this is 2
KVA 𝐼𝑏 . So, its current will be less. So, this is your suppose 𝐼𝑏 . I will clean it. This I will
write it as 𝐼𝑏 . And this one will be your 𝐼𝑎 , it will be like this.

What is the current supplied to the load 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑏 , phasors sum of these two, but they
are co-phasor 𝐼𝑎 and 𝐼𝑏 . So, current supplied to the load will be this one, this plus this, 𝐼2 ,
is it not, this will be the thing. What is the KVA supplied by this transformer?

𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑉2 𝐼2

𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐴 = 𝑉2 𝐼𝑎

𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐵 = 𝑉2 𝐼𝑏

And if the quality of the leakage impedances are same, it will be the algebraic sum of these
two is this one, that is then

𝑉2 𝐼𝑎 + 𝑉2 𝐼𝑏 = 𝑉2 𝐼2

Therefore, you see I will not only demand that the leakage impedances should be inversely
proportional to their KVA ratings, but also I will say it will be very nice if the qualities of
𝑥𝑒𝑎 𝑥
the leakage impedances are also same, then tan−1 = tan−1 𝑟𝑒𝑏 = 𝜃𝑒 . And we will get
𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑒𝑏

the most desirable thing.

For the example, we have taken 6 KVA, 4 KVA and 2 KVA transformer we have
paralleled them. If the leakage impedances of these two are in the ratio 1:2 or 2:1 that we
have seen. And also the angles of each of this leakage impedances are same, qualities are
same, then your output KVA you will be also 6 KVA and that is the best thing. Apart from
of course, this polarity should be same, voltage ratio should be same that is the first thing.
Second if we go much deep into it, then we have come to this conclusion. We will carry
on with this in the next class.

Thank you.

483
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 50
Parallel Operation of Transformers - III

(Refer Slide Time: 00:26)

Welcome to 50th lecture on Electrical Machines – I, and we have been discussing about
Parallel Operations of Transformer. So, we have seen that in our last class the impedances
of leakage impedances of the transformer should be inversely proportional to the KVAs
and in Ω and also of the it is always better if the qualities are also same. Then, whatever
KVA is supplied by this, whatever KVA is supplied by transformer be just algebraic sum
of this two will come.

484
(Refer Slide Time: 01:07)

Now, what is going to happen if this condition is not fulfilled? Suppose,

𝑥𝑒𝑎 𝑥𝑒𝑏
tan−1 ≠ tan−1
𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑏

𝑥𝑒𝑎
tan−1 = 𝜃𝑒𝑎
𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑥𝑒𝑏
tan−1 = 𝜃𝑒𝑏
𝑟𝑒𝑏

Suppose, they are not equal, but impedances are inversely proportional to the KVAs

1
𝑧𝑒 ∝
𝑠

1
𝑧𝑒𝑎 = 𝑘
𝑠𝑎

1
𝑧𝑒𝑏 = 𝑘
𝑠𝑏

So, one thing is ensured that is the ratio of the currents will be

|𝐼𝑎 | |𝑧𝑒𝑏 |
=
|𝐼𝑏 | |𝑧𝑒𝑎 |

485
Because KVA s are inversely proportional. So, magnitude of 𝐼𝑎 and 𝐼𝑏 will be in the inverse
ratios, but what is the implication of this then.

We have seen already that the voltage across this impedances are same and that voltage
denoted it by 𝑉𝑎𝑏 . So, let us draw this once again this phasor diagram. Suppose, this is 𝑉𝑎𝑏
which I have already defined which will be small I am drawing it very large just to
understand. So, this is this one. Now, I am telling this two angles are not same ok. So, you
draw 𝐼𝑎 and 𝐼𝑏 this lengths are decided by this ratios for a given load current, 𝐼𝑎 and 𝐼𝑏 .

Therefore, this is the suppose this angle I say it is 𝜃𝑒𝑎 and this angle I say it is 𝜃𝑒𝑏 . So, that
the this angle is 𝜃𝑒𝑎 and this angle is 𝜃𝑒𝑎 , is it not? This way it will lag. Earlier this two
angles were same 𝐼𝑎 and 𝐼𝑏 were in phase. Now, where is your 𝐼2 ?

𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑏

Phasor sum. So, add them vectorially. Add this two and you will say your load current the
this is your 𝐼2 now, is not? This will be the 𝐼2 .

Now, I redraw this circuit to avoid any confusion that is over to your planning this is my
circuit, this is your 𝑧𝑒𝑎 , this is your 𝑧𝑒𝑏 . This two are parallel this is your 𝐼2 , this is your
𝐼𝑎 , this is your 𝐼𝑏 and here is your secondary load 𝑧2 this is the thing same thing. So, this
is 𝐸𝑎 , this is 𝐸𝑏 and so on. This is the thing. So, your 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑏 .

Now, in numbers for the given example I have telling if you are the this what you will see
is this you will see that this 𝐼2 = 30𝐴𝑚𝑝 suppose the output load current is 30Amp, then
the other two transformer this current will be shared as 20Amp and 10 Amp.

You imagine ammeters are connected here. It will read 30Amp, it will read 20Amp, it will
read 10Amp because of what because of the fact this thing.

So, you see that when it will carry 20Amp and when it will carry 10Amp these two sum
of this two currents cannot be 30Amp. It will be less than this. In other words what I am
telling that this two transformer will be operating at different power factors. For example,
so far as this transformer is concerned 𝑉2 it is contributing 𝐼𝑎 at this much angle it will
because to this 𝑉𝑎𝑏 which is this voltage here if you add say I want to get what is 𝐸𝑎 where
𝐸𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 .

486
So, it will be like this 𝑉𝑎𝑏 is which these two points are at same potential we have seen.
So, potential of this point will be this voltage this I have assumed it to be 𝑉𝑎𝑏 , this is also
𝑉𝑎𝑏 . Now, 𝐸𝑎 I want to get. So, you see that 𝐼𝑎 and 𝐼𝑏 they will be displaced and this angle
will be the difference between 𝜃𝑒𝑎 and 𝜃𝑒𝑏 , that is understood. Now, I want to get this
voltage is 𝑉2. Suppose from 𝑉2 I want to get 𝐸𝑎 .

So, I will now start from 𝑉2 I will draw 𝑉2 first, but if you start drawing from 𝑉2 that this
transformer the angle between this two is 𝜃𝑒𝑎 ~𝜃𝑒𝑏 , is not that will be the angle 𝐼𝑎 and 𝐼𝑏
angle will be that one. So, suppose this angle this current is 𝐼𝑎 and the other transformer
current is 𝐼𝑏 , such that this angle is this one, are you getting? 𝜃𝑒𝑎 ~𝜃𝑒𝑏 .

Therefore, you can easily see the power factor at which this transformer and this
transformer is operating is at different values. So, power factors at which the transformers
will operate will be different and your total load current will be in between here 𝐼2
therefore, to get the 𝐸𝑎 back or 𝐸𝑏 back you have to add I will just indicate here

𝐸𝑎 = 𝑉2 + 𝐼𝑎 (𝑟𝑒𝑎 + 𝑗𝑥𝑒𝑎 )

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉2 + 𝐼𝑏 (𝑟𝑒𝑏 + 𝑗𝑥𝑒𝑏 )

Therefore, we find that since the vectors sum of 𝐼𝑎 and 𝐼𝑏 will be less than the sum of this
two currents when they are co-phasal therefore KVA handled will be slightly less.
Therefore, to I mean summarize this what I will say that to operate a two transformers in
parallel successfully voltage ratio should be same, leakage impedance should be inversely
proportional to their KVAs and try to also see that the qualities of the leakage impedances
are same that is the best thing ok.

487
(Refer Slide Time: 13:08)

So, one important thing sometimes people say that leakage impedance that is what we have
seen leakage impedance of the transformers should be inversely proportional to their
1
KVAs, 𝑆 ok; leakage impedance in Ω. The same statement is told in this way that per unit

values of the leakage impedance should be same. This is one and the same thing because
you know

|𝐼𝑎 ||𝑍𝑒𝑎 |
𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐴 = = 𝑍𝑝.𝑢. (𝑎)
𝑉2

|𝐼𝑏 ||𝑍𝑒𝑏 |
𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐵 = = 𝑍𝑝.𝑢. (𝑏)
𝑉2

We are talking about the other side this is the per unit value of leakage impedance of
transformer A and transformer B this is the thing, all referred to the secondary side. How
much is dropped in that with respect to the rated voltage are not this two are same?

𝑍𝑝.𝑢. (𝑎) = 𝑍𝑝.𝑢. (𝑏)

What is |𝐼𝑎 ||𝑍𝑒𝑎 |? Voltage across 𝑍𝑒𝑎 and voltage across 𝑍𝑒𝑏 that is this no point in
redrawing.; voltage across 𝑍𝑒𝑎 and voltage across 𝑍𝑒𝑏 in volts they are same; this voltage
minus this voltage is this voltage in case 𝐸𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 therefore, and what is the per unit
leakage impedance? Per unit leakage impedance physically it means that when rated
current flows through the transformer there will be some voltage drop magnitude of that

488
voltage drop expressed as the rated value of the voltage of the transformer of that side.
And, per unit values are same with respective to secondary or primary for a given
transformer.

Now, since 𝐼𝑎 𝑍𝑒𝑎 = 𝐼𝑏 𝑍𝑒𝑏 here all the parameters are with respect to the secondary side,
they are same. Therefore, instead of telling that ohmic value is inversely proportional to
the respected KVAs you simply say per unit impedance of transformer A and per unit
impedance of transformer B, they are same that is all. So, we have gone through. Now, the
last thing I will tell about the parallel operation of transformer is what happens if it is a
three-phase transformer because after all in our power system it is all three-phase
transformer.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:25)

So, I write down this conditions once again. So, I write down for successful so, for
successful and effective parallel operation of transformers we list voltage ratios. Voltages
ratios of HV, LV side should be same HV and LV side from transformers various
transformers. Voltages of HV LV side should be same.

Second thing is leakage impedances. I write I am writing in short leakage impedance 𝑧𝑒 ∝

1
this is in Ω or same thing is 𝑧𝑝𝑢 of the transformers should be same. When this condition
𝑠

is satisfied what is guaranteed? The current divisions of the transformers will be in the
ratio of these two currents fine.

489
Then, the third condition is which is desirable condition that ok, the qualities of the
transformers qualities of the equivalent of the leakage impedances the leakage impedances
should be should be same. This will ensure transformers will operate at same power factor
transformer will operate at same power factor.

Now, number 4 and of course, this I have not listed with due regard to polarities you have
to connect otherwise what. Fourth is for three-phase transformer only thing is we will say
that line voltages other things are there these are line voltages because after all voltage of
HV side LV side same because line voltage three-phase transformer that is how it is
specified. We must write that the transformers must belong to must belong to same vector
group.

What is the vector group? Plus 30° or 11 or 1 which means that are you getting the line to
line voltage rating should be same. Here I have written simply voltages of HV LV side
should be same for three-phase line to line voltages should be same, voltage ratings should
be same, got the point? Line to line voltage ratings are same and then I am telling the
transformer must belong to same vector group that is +30° or -30° and so on.

This tells me suppose you have a transformer Dy1, the other transformer need not be Dy1,
but it must be Yd1 that is what I mean same vector group parallel operation means line to
line voltages are same and they must belong to same vector group. Of course, I have see
primary you have applied a voltage, it is getting shifted both phase and line to line voltage
get shifted by some angle of 30° or so. But, primaries will be connected in parallel,
secondaries will be connected in parallel and they must be shifted by same angle then only
the voltages magnitudes of course, will same and then parallel link can be done
successfully.

So, this is the thing we must add. Of course Dy1 can be parallel with Dy1 no question, but
I should not demand that one transformer is Dy1 another transformer should be also Dy1.
No, it could be Yz1 also, it can be parallel with clear that is they must belong to same
vector group that is this numbers should be same apart from the fact that the line to line
voltages have same and then for better load sharing this things are valid that is the
impedances should be inversely per phase impedances should be inversely proportional to
their KVA ratings and per unit impedance should be same of both the transformer ok.

490
So, this is a in short or whatever you call it not so short, but I hope I have been able to give
you some idea of how transformers can be operated in parallel, what is the need of making
transformers operating in parallel, and most importantly you must have appreciated this
conditions why they are to be fulfilled in order that successful and effective parallel
operation can be implemented ok. So, we will continue with some more topics on
transformer before starting DC machines.

Thank you.

491
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 51
Specific Magnetic and electric Loudings

Welcome to 51st lecture on Electrical Machines – I and so far we have analysed the
transformers that is we found out the equivalent circuit of the transformer, how to analyse
ideal transformers, then auto transformers, then you know three-phase transformers, core
type primarily and how to represent it in per phase equivalent circuit and various tests like
open circuit, short circuit and Sumpner’s test and then finally, we in our last lectures we
told you about the parallel operation of the transformer.

See, so far, I have not really told you about the construction of the transformer in details
and what are how it will look like externally if you look at a transformer big transformer
for example, 100 MVA transformers which are used in power stations and so on.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:52)

Perhaps we are used to see transformers in the laboratory which are very small ratings for
example, 5 KVA small transformers we are used to see small transformers which are power
transformers can be termed as few KVAs and voltage rating may be 200V/100V, 50 Hz
and so on. If you see a big transformer you will find and this transformers if you look at in

492
the laboratory you have seen, you will be able to see the coils and windings just like as it
is ok.

There will be LV windings here I will just show it like this, this is suppose LV windings
sectional view LV and this may be your HV side HV core type and this is the sectional
view windings are if you see from the top, this HV windings are like this around the core,
similarly for the LV side. And, also I told you to reduce the reactance of the transformer
leakage reactance, LV windings may be divided in this two limbs. So, also HV windings
and they may be connected in series respectively so that leakage flux is reduced and
leakage reactance is reduced.

So, here I have drawn that LV on this limb and on the other limb and terminals will come
out from the transformer on a terminal box in the laboratory you know LV terminals, all
terminals will be brought in here, HV terminals are brought in. So, 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 and small 𝑎1 ,
𝑎2 will be appropriately brought in for your external use. Although you will not be able to
make out the sense of the coils otherwise it is exposed and it is everything is exposed. This
is the core, you can easily identify here is core, here is LV windings, the windings you can
see and this terminals are brought out.

But, if you see a big transformer you will always see nothing is visible except that a big
tank, steel tank will be there steel tank; tank and on the top of the tanks there will be
bushings through which terminals will come out. This is may be HV terminals, single
phase I am drawing and another pair of bushings will be there whose insulation level will
be less just to give you the idea another bushings two terminals will come out these are
LV terminals.

This is suppose capital 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 this is small 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 just I am giving you the ideas. Where
from this has come out? The transformer essentially has a core and coils this whole thing
is within the tank and the tank is filled with oil ok. Sometimes you will find if you look at
distribution transformer in your city, there will be some tubes around the walls of the coil.
This is visually what you will see several these are called cooling tubes, that is in other
words this whole thing is inside the tank and tank is filled with oil something like that.

Now, the question is for low KVA transformer I do not require any oil to cool the
transformer, but for high rating I need a transformer which should be immersed in oil. Oil
will serve two purpose insulation from the tank which is steel tank the essential thing is

493
this thing is there inside for big transformers that is what I am telling may be hundreds of
KVA transformers.

So, and these are cooling tubes. I will give you a better picture later, but a just roughly you
know that these are the things you see in real life. Now, the question is what for this oil is
there and so on. For example, these voltage may be why I mean ceramic insulators will be
there, these are called bushings things like that. To understand that cooling is a must in big
transformers will be can be understood provided we go slightly deeper into the KVA
equation of transformer and we will start with that then we will end up with this thing.

I will be trying to be very lucid to explain that, so that you can appreciate this is what it
should be otherwise how. For example, I have told you that the voltage equation forget
about that leakage impedance this that

𝑉1 ≈ 𝐸1 = 4.44𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁1

That is the thing.

And, also I will tell you from this equation how can you relate it to the size of the
transformer and two other things – one is called specific magnetic loading and specific
electric loading. We will try to understand these two first, then I will show that the KVA
which essentially tells you about the size of the transformer, can be shown to be
proportional to specific magnetic loading, specific electric loading and the physical
dimension of the transformer that is the first thing. You know when a transformer will be
operating and hopefully it is operating at full load condition.

Both copper loss and core loss will take place and it will raise the temperature of the whole
thing. And, suppose a transformer is now at room temperature, you have switched on and
the transformer is operating at full load then you will see temperature will grow and after
certain time the temperature will attain a constant value. What is the constant value at to
which the transformer will attain to? Anything, if you go on pumping heat into a system
temperature will rise and it will attain a constant temperature; that means, at whatever rate
you are generating heat in the system at the same rate it is also dissipating heat to the
outside world.

494
When such a thing will happen, then only that fellow will attain a constant temperature
because after all copper loss and iron loss will be constantly taking place, always you are
pumping energy into the system heat energy and your from the surfaces of the transformers
heat is being dissipated out. The rate at which heat is generated inside the transformer,
when it is saying as the rate at which that energy is given out by this surfaces of this so
called transformer if it is a transformer, then only it will attain constant temperature. It is
not only true for transformer, but for rotating machine also. There will be losses switch on
the machine from cold condition that is at ambient temperature and operate it at full load
after switching on, then temperature will exponentially grow and finally, attain a steady
value.

It is this temperature rise that limits that puts the condition that is this is the current rating
because if the temperature is allowed to rise more for example, if you overload the
transformer then your windings may be spoiled, your insulations may be spoiled and things
like that will happen. Anyway, so, we will try to see all these things. These are the
interesting topics. So, first thing is first. So, this is let me try to relate the output of a
transformer KVA rating of a transformer in terms of physical dimensions and specific
magnetic and specific electric loading.

First of all specific magnetic loading is very simple; it is 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 that is all in Tesla ok. Now,
specific electric loading is the current density this one, this is denoted by 𝛿 is the current
density. If you are using copper of copper or aluminium whatever you are using. Copper
is the better because aluminium is brittle large transformers are build with copper nothing
like aluminium. So, current density and its value is if I remember correctly about 2.5-
3Amp/mm2 where copper is used to make the coils, is not?

And, I told you LV side the section of the coil is 𝑎1 . So, LV side 𝑎1 equal to cross section
of the wire which makes the coils. Similarly, 𝑎2 suppose is the cross section of wire on the
HV side whatever it is this could be also LV HV reversed, but 𝑎1 this one then obviously,
the delta if you are using copper why they should be different? No matter whether that
where is used for LV side or HV side 𝛿 will be same. So, 𝛿 is equal to same, both for LV
and the HV side is not? Copper is used.

Let 𝐼1 be the current rating of side 1 current rating rated current of side 1 that is in this case
LV side, then

495
 𝐼1 = 𝛿𝑎1

Similarly rated current of the secondary coil HV side rated current will be

𝐼2 = 𝛿𝑎2

Current rating. So, this is a rated current, this will be the thing.

Then we come to this interesting thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:35)

Now, KVA rating of a single phase transformer suppose single phase transformer, I will
say it is equal to

𝑆 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 ≈ 4.44𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁1 𝐼1

𝐼1 is the rated current forget about that leakage impedance drop etcetera. So, this is the
approximately this is the KVA very close to. Now, what my plan is, to express this KVA
rating of this transformer in terms of specific magnetic loading, specific current loading
and the physical dimension of the transformer that is my goal.

So, this I can write it as

𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐴⏟𝑖

(𝑛𝑒𝑡)

496
But net iron cross sectional area. We have seen that iron area cross sectional area to realize
this iron we use stampings. So, 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐴⏟𝑖 . Overall area will be slightly higher, is
(𝑛𝑒𝑡)

not? If you because of the plates are kept side by side there may be little bit of air in
between. So, this is

𝑆 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 ≈ 4.44𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁1 𝐼1 = 4.44𝑓𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐴⏟𝑖 𝑁1 𝛿𝑎1

(𝑛𝑒𝑡)

What is 𝑎1 ? 𝑎1 is the LV side copper wire you are using side one, the cross sectional area
of the wire which makes your turn are you getting this area 𝑎1 . I could write it in terms of
secondary also

𝑆 = 4.44𝑓𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁2 𝐼2

But one side we will do because I know

𝑁1 𝐼1 = 𝑁2 𝐼2

So, this is the thing. So, let us understand each term. 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 that happens to be the specific
magnetic loading in Weber/m2 in typical transformer the values of 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 where will be
very close to 1Tesla, may be 0.9Tesla or 1.01Tesla etc and 𝛿 if you are using copper I
wrote it may be 2.5-3Amp/mm2 ok, CRGO material – 1Tesla, copper this one and you get
this.

Therefore, at least one physical dimension I have been able to brought in here that is the
with this cross sectional area has something to do with physical area. Now, this length into
this breadth this is the cross section of the core. So, this length into this breadth if you do
what you get is 𝐴𝑖 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 and through which flux is passing not through air. So, it is slightly

more. So, 𝐴𝑖 𝑛𝑒𝑡 will be slightly less than this.

𝐴𝑖 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 means you take a scale measure this outside dimension of the core get the area.

So, it must be multiplied by a factor 𝑠𝑓 . This factor 𝑠𝑓 is called Stack Factor. The value of
which will be 0.95% very close to 100%, but may be 0.9% like that, got the idea?

𝐴𝑖 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑠𝑓 × 𝐴𝑖 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠

497
So, I will because overall dimension I want to know. So, this can be written as this is
already specific magnetic loading, then this I will write

𝑆 = 4.44𝑓𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑓 𝐴𝑖 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑁1 𝑎1 𝛿 × 10−3

If these are in volts etc. I hope you are getting this, this will be the KVA rating.

Now, you look at this sectional view of the transformer core and this one. I am sorry these
two are same width make it corrected ok. Now, how these windings are there? LV
windings or side one winding coils. How many sections you will see here? 𝑁1 . What is the
sectional area of each conductor? 𝑎1 . Similarly, on the other side the coils are wound like
this sectional view will appear like that. How many things you will see here? 𝑁2 and what
is the cross sectional area? 𝑎2 .

This area is called the window area in which copper will be receding. So this area internal
rectangular area is the window area; 𝐴𝑤 is the window area, this length into this height.
There is a factor like stack factor we called it window space factor window space factor.
It is usually denoted by 𝐾𝑤 . This tells you how much of this window area is utilized by
copper. So,

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑁1 𝑎1 + 𝑁2 𝑎2

𝐾𝑤 = = ≈ 0.35
𝐴𝑤 𝐴𝑤

Generally, the window factor is about 35% or so I mean some may be 0.35, not 100% is
utilized to fill it with copper. We will see because there will be some oil will be filled up
circulation of heat is necessary and so on. So, practical value of this is only 35% of this
window area will be utilized for that. So, this is called window space factor. But, 𝐴𝑤 will
certainly going to decide 𝐴𝑤 along with 𝐴𝑖 , physical dimension of this core is going to
decide the physical dimension of the transformer.

Now, you see when the rated current will be flowing we know 𝑁1 𝐼1 = 𝑁2 𝐼2 , but current
density of copper remain same in the primary and secondary. Therefore, I will write

𝑁1 𝑎1 𝛿 = 𝑁2 𝑎2 𝛿

𝑁1 𝑎1 = 𝑁2 𝑎2

So, come back here windows space factor then will look like. It will look like

498
 2𝑁1 𝑎1
𝐾𝑤 =
𝐴𝑤

So, this is the thing.

Now, we will come back to this equation and we note that from this

𝐾𝑤 𝐴𝑤
𝑁1 𝑎1 =
2

So, for this 𝑁1 𝑎1 I will put this there. So, I do that in the next page.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:24)

So, it will be equal to we have seen that output equation is what

𝐾𝑤 𝐴𝑤
𝑆 = 4.44𝑓𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑓 𝐴𝑖 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝛿 × 10−3
2

𝑆 = 2.22𝑓𝑠𝑓 𝐾𝑤 𝐴𝑖 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝑤 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝛿 × 10−3

So, these are the two factors s𝑠𝑓 about 0.95, 𝐾𝑤 is about 0.35, 0.33 like that. 𝐴𝑖 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 area

is window area is this area and this is the window area, are you getting? 𝐴𝑤 .

So, this will determine the physical dimension of the transformer. Height of the
transformer into this because the moment you know 𝐴𝑖 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 you know these things. So, it

is related, but what I am telling. So, these are the you decide the physical dimension of the

499
transformer. It is going to decide that is all ok. So, this is the output equation of the
transformer. Similarly, for the three-phase transformer it can be also derived, that we will
do later, but for the time being look at the single phase equation and listen carefully what
I am telling.

A transformer when it will be operating at full load condition your 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 will be at rated
value I told you rated voltage, similarly your current density also will be highest than
corresponding to rated current. At that time the full load losses will take place and finally,
that is going to decide what will be the temperature rise.

Now, I am telling you that suppose I increase let all the linear dimensions of the
transformer is increased by a factor of 𝑥; all the linear dimensions are increased, keeping
specific magnetic loading 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝛿 constant, got the point? All the linear dimensions
are increased and 𝛿 I will not touch because that is the capacity of that iron CRGO material,
1 Tesla and 𝛿 for copper say 3 Amp/mm2 and so on.

So, if you increase all the linear dimensions by a factor of 𝑥, what do you think the size of
the transformer will be? So, size KVA of the transformer will increase by a factor of what?
Look at this equation linear dimensions have been increased by factor of 𝑥, so, areas will
be increased by a factor of 𝑥 2 . So, there are two areas, this area will increase by a factor
of 𝑥 2 , this also will increase by factor of 𝑥 2 . So, your initial KVA was 𝑆. So, it will become
𝑥 4 𝑆, is it not? So, will be increased by a factor of 𝑥 4 .

At least from this I can say that your lab transformer same CRGO you are using 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥
same copper you are using 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝛿 is same. So, you imagine a large transformer is
nothing, but you have increased the physical dimensions by several factors because no
more copper can be accommodated now, keeping of course, stack factor same, windows
space factor same more copper you are using definitely and your size of the transformer
will increase by a factor of 𝑥 4 .

As I told you earlier, that when heat will be generated, that heat will be also dissipated
through its exposed areas and when the rate at which it is generated within the transformer
matches with the rate at which it is dissipated out to the outside world, then constant
temperature will be attained.

500
Now, the question is I have increased all the I am imagining all the dimensions are
increased by factor of 𝑥, 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝛿 constant, stack factor, windows space factor
remaining same, then I conclude oh transformer rating will be increased by factor of 𝑥 4 .
Now, what will be the areas increased by what factor? Areas which ever dissipating energy
area will be because linear dimensions I have increased by a factor of 𝑥.

Areas will be increased by a factor of 𝑥 2 that is area through the areas only exposed areas
only it was dissipating therefore, that area increases by a factor of 𝑥 2 . Now, we have to
examine by what factor losses will increase you know and I think I will continue next time,
but please go through this one. This topic is very interesting.

It will give you now an fair idea how a practical power transformers is going to look like
and what are the implication of 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝛿 and why elaborate cooling arrangements are a
must for a large sized transformer. Otherwise what happens I may feel a small transformer
without any extra cooling arrangement, air natural cooling is sufficient and it is working
then what happens if the size of the transformer is very large that is what we are examining.
Ok you increase the physical dimensions of the transformer then you see size KVA ratings
will increase by a factor of 𝑥 4 , giving you same large KVA rating. Then at least I know
this much area will be increased by a factor of 𝑥 2 .

In our next class, I will show you that the losses in the transformer that is copper loss and
iron loss, losses will increase by factor of 𝑥 3 that will show to show and you can also think
yourself to show that losses will increase by a factor of 𝑥 3 . So, these informations are
essential to draw conclusions about whether extra cooling arrangement is to be done or
not. So, we will continue next class.

Thank you.

501
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 52
Cooling of Transformer & Fillings of Transformer

(Refer Slide Time: 00:24)

Welcome to Electrical Machine – I course and we will have been discussing about some
general topics of transformer like what is it is output equation and what are the implications
of increasing the physical dimensions of the machines.

502
(Refer Slide Time: 00:52)

So, what we did is this we started very quick review is necessary. So, that you understand
that in a transformer have starting from the KVA equation we define two things one is the
specific magnetic loading and current loading. So, same volt ampere product that is the
KVA can be expressed in terms of what is called 𝛿 and 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 and do we define two factors
one is called stacking factor (𝑠𝑓 ) which is 𝐴𝑖 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 if you multiply with this stacking factor

which will be over 90% and above because of laminations that is the 𝐴𝑖 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 and 𝛿 is the

current density of the conducting material used say for copper.

So, 𝛿 remains fixed in primary and secondary because in both the windings we are using
copper, then what our aim was to show that the KVA rating of the transformer is
proportional to the physical dimension of the transformer. Physical dimension who
decides? The core area and the window area; over all dimension gets a determined by
𝐴𝑖 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 and 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 .

And this two factors stacking factor and window space factors window space factors is
about 30-35% like that because all these space in the window cannot be covered with
copper because there must be space for circulation of conducting oil I mean which will
take away heat from the windings ok. There will be also space required by the insulation
which will be covering the conductors and so on. So, about 35% of the space window
physical area will be occupied by copper. So, in terms of that for a core type transformer
we got this KVA rating. Note down this factor 2.22 ok.

503
Now, see if you have a transformer in your lab may be 1 KVA, 3 KVA transformer you
will find no extra cooling arrangement is necessary because of the fact the natural cooling
by air comes in contact with the coils everything is open windings you can see only
terminals come out from the LV, HV winding and heat generated in the coil and the core
will be dissipated in the air. And I told you the rate at which heat will be dissipated and
the rate at which heat will be generated, when this two will be equal transformer will attain
a constant operating temperature ok.

So, it is the temperature rise which is important ok. If temperature rise should not exceed
the desired level of temperature rise. For example, I say that materials used is such that
temperature rise above ambient should not be more than say 75° Celsius ok. So, maximum
temperature rise is fixed decided. Therefore and no extra cooling arrangement will be
necessary for very low KVA transformer.

However, what I was trying to tell here this equation is called output equation, mind you.
This is output equation of a transformer this one. Now, you imagine that this is the physical
dimensions 𝐴𝑖 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 , 𝐴𝑤 etcetera that along with this specific magnetic loading and electric

loading decides the KVA. Now, imagine I will increase all the linear dimensions by factor
of 𝑥; where 𝑥 > 1 then what will happen is this the areas KVA of the transformer will
increase by a factor of 𝑥 4 .

I will keep same 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝛿 because core material same I will be using, same copper I
will be using therefore, 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝛿 are same stack factor and window space factor will be
same and therefore, if you increase all the linear dimensions by factor of 𝑥 area terms will
increase by a factor of 𝑥 2 . So, (𝑥 2 × 𝑥 2 ) = 𝑥 4 therefore, KVA rating of the transformer
will increase by a factor of 𝑥 4 if all linear dimensions are increased.

So, this I must have written somewhere KVA of the transformer increased by a factor of.
Now and area surface area overall surface area through which heat is dissipated into the
atmosphere that will also increase by a factor of 𝑥 2 . Then, I stopped here we went up to
this point we can easily show that losses in the transformer for this bigger transformer
whose KVA rating is now 𝑥 4 𝑆 if 𝑆 was the original KVA rating the losses will increase
by a factor of 𝑥 3 . Why?

504
(Refer Slide Time: 07:17)

It is simply because of this see the total copper loss just to show

𝜌𝑁1 𝑙𝑚1 𝜌𝑁2 𝑙𝑚2

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼12 𝑟1 + 𝐼22 𝑟2 = 𝛿 2 𝑎12 + 𝛿 2 𝑎22
𝑎1 𝑎2
= 𝛿 2 𝑎1 𝜌𝑁1 𝑙𝑚1 + 𝛿 2 𝑎2 𝜌𝑁2 𝑙𝑚2

𝜌 is the resistivity of copper. Length of the copper will be proportional to the number of
turns and average length or mean length of the turns because you know this is the core
suppose turns will be like this, several turns like this.

So, mean length of one turn you take that is 𝑙𝑚 and multiply with it is number of turns that
will give you the estimate of the length of the copper conductor in the primary or secondary
𝜌𝑙𝑚
side. So, you remember cross sectional area of the conductor therefore, this is the thing.
𝑎

So, on the top what you have physical dimension wise length into area, is not? Here also
length into area. So, copper loss is proportional to the volume of copper; volume of copper.

So, copper loss will increase by a factor of 𝑥 3 , is not? Volume means three lengths
multiplied and we are increasing each linear dimension by a factor of 𝑥. So, copper loss
increases by a factor of by a factor of 𝑥 3 . Similarly, core loss for core loss it is much more
simpler because we have already seen the core loss comprises of eddy current loss and
2
hysteresis loss and eddy current loss is proportional to 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑥 2 𝜏 2 where 𝜏 is the thickness
of the each lamination and that is per unit volume or kg of copper.

505
Similarly, hysteresis loss the area this area it gives you hysteresis loss a measure of
hysteresis loss it is also per unit volume per unit cycle. Therefore, core loss will also
increase by a factor of 𝑥 3 . Therefore, total so, to summarize if this was your original KVA
rating this is the total loss and this is the surface area through which heat is dissipated say
we write this. So, 𝑆, 𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 and this thing let me write 𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 some effective surface
through which heat is dissipated.

Now, if you increase the dimension by linear dimensions by 𝑥 times KVA rating will
become 𝑥 4 𝑆 total loss will become 𝑥 3 𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 , where 𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 when the KVA rating
was this 𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 and your surface area this will increase by a factor of 𝑥 2 ; 𝑥 2 𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 ,
got the idea? So, if you imagine linear dimensions I have increase same magnetic loading
same electric loading this is the thing. Then you can easily see the loss increases by a factor
𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑥 3 𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠
of 𝑥 3 . So, here in this case this ratio and here the same ratios that is 𝑥 2 𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
=
𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑥 , got the point? And this becomes 𝑥.
𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

Therefore, what we note it here is that losses increases by factor of 𝑥 3 , but the surface
through which it heat will be dissipated is only increased by factor of 𝑥 3 . Therefore,
temperature rise will become more now, because available area through which heat will
be dissipated out to the atmosphere is become less loss increases by a factor of 𝑥 3 . If your
surface area would have been increased by the same factor 𝑥 3 then the available surface
to dissipate a certain amount of loss will be same if it was 𝑥 3 , but it is now more because
𝑥 > 1 you have to dissipate more power loss through a lesser surface that is what I want
to say.

If I say that in the original transformer with this specification temperature rise was within
the limited that is say 70° celsius temperature rise. In this case you will find temperature
rise will become more, same materials you are using. Therefore, you know extra cooling
arrangement is now necessary to keep the temperature rise within the same limit compared
to this transformer.

So, this is why a transformer needs extra cooling arrangement for large transformers. For
small transformer suppose you say for 5 KVA transformer temperature rise is 70° celsius
1
or what if I reduce the dimensions linear dimensions by factor of say 𝑥 = 2 say smaller

506
size or you do not require any transformer because more surface area will be available and
your total loss will be reduced if 𝑥 < 1. We are discussing about 𝑥 > 1 for large sized
transformer what happens.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:19)

Therefore, extra cooling arrangement is a must extra area available to dissipate area
available to dissipate the losses in a large transformer will be less. Hence temperature rise
will be more; will be more got the point always it will be. So, if temperature rise allowable
temperature rise is a known to you then will say that if the transformer is higher ratings I
must adapt some other means there.

That is why what is done is this transformer core transformer core for single phase I am
telling, where your windings will be here LV winding red colors are LV windings and
suppose these are HV winding. Similarly, on this side because LV windings are also
distributed in the two limbs in a practical transformer not that LV is wound on the same
limb and this is your HV coils these are all circular around these this way. So, this is LV,
half of the LV turns there and then this is HV green one is HV, got the point?

Now, this is the transformer and this whole thing can be air natural cooling earlier it was
just air natural cooling, but here you will say that maybe I will immerse these this
transformer in a tank filled with oil mineral oil refined mineral oil. Everything will be
immersed in that and so, this is steel tank and it will be immersed in oil and then the
terminals will be brought out from the top surface of this transformer.

507
So, here is no space you understand in my last lecture I showed you some diagram very
roughly sketched not. So, well a diagram, but none the less this is the it is tank inside this
transformer and terminals will be brought out through bushings through the conductors
LV side, HV side. You can easily make out which one is HV if the insulation level is more
that is HV and this is the LV side LV side thicker conductors anyway. So, it is immersed
in oil and it will go.

So, this is called the oil natural cooled here. So, filled with oil. So, oil when it comes in
contact with the core and the windings they will be heated up it will go up and it will
circulate and they will carry the heat to the surfaces through which heat will be dissipated.
I told you mind you that the final temperature rise can be easily expressed in some very
easy way.

For example, the loss in the transformer is 𝑃 rate at which heat is generated is 𝑃 ok. And
this should be equal to

𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝜆𝜃𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝

What is 𝜆? Emissivity that is how much power it is dissipating. So, this is called emissivity
and this is surface, mind you not KVA. When this two are constant then only final
temperature will be attend. If loss is taking place at a much faster rate than the rate at which
it is being dissipated out to the atmosphere, temperature will go on rising like an R-L
circuit it can be shown, but we will not go to that extent.

What I am telling

𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝜃𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝 =
𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝜆

That is why I was telling if your surface area available is less temperature rise will be more
can be easily seen from this also ok. In any case oil will take the heat, it will come to the
tank, it will dissipate like that sometimes you may require to do something extra. For
example, you can to make the surface area more what you do you connect some tubes like
this tubes here a series of tubes cooling tubes they are called and so on the surfaces.

So, oil will go up and it will have also natural convective currents it will improve the
cooling. So, heat will be coming to the cooling tubes mind you, it is not only one it is just

508
one I am seeing behind this along all the surfaces you can connect. On the top surface and
bottom surface of course, no heat is assumed to be dissipated because so many fittings will
be there on the top. So, these are cooling tubes cooling tubes.

So, effectively you have to increase the surface area because you go to higher and higher
rating of transformers, your 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 increases, but surface area through which heat will be
dissipated should be increased then only temperature rise you can keep to a desired limit.
Now, this is one thing for example, say any distribution transformer if you look at when
you are walking along the street pole mounted transformers you will find they will be good
enough cooling tubes are there and it is there.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:44)

Now, another thing I will tell these are tit bits, but it is better you know that this is therefore,
the tank here, is not? What are the fittings you will expect for distribution transformer say.
So, there will be cooling tubes here all along effectively increasing the surface area through
which heat will be I am not drawing dot dot dot series of cooling tubes. On the tops there
will be bushings as I told you for HV and LV to bring out the terminals, that is also fine.

So, LV and HV terminals are brought out and these are the conductors leads from the
windings. Apart from that you will find there is another fittings here which is called
conservator tank a cylindrical tank and it is connected to the through a piping here. And
this tank is filled with oil and through this piping it is also connected. When we when you
fill up fill it up with oil will also raise here it will fill the tank then it will go up here because

509
there is a connection through piping and then this is called conservator tank very
interesting conservator tank.

And so, up to a certain level this oil will be filled up and above this oil there will be air.
This is the oil-air interface. Now, what happens is this oil it is a very good dielectric
property also may be 27-28kV per cm or mm I have forgotten you just see the books the
dielectric strength. So, it will insulate the it will provide very good insulation between the
coils and the tank; tank is you know steel tank. So, it provides insulation also among the
turns as you go from one turn to the on another there is voltage differences, there exist
voltage per turn.

Therefore, a good insulating material you have provided. Air is also good insulator, but
this oil will be much better. So, oil does two things; it helps cooling, it carries the heat
from the core and winding of the transformer to the surface area heat is dissipated through
cooling tubes other things, but the quality of the oil when it comes with moisture it
deteriorates that is why it is filled with oil and interface with air takes place here.

Now, let us try to understand what will happen suppose the temperature is operating under
I transformer is operating under no load condition, loss is very less. Temperature rise will
be very less, is not? Now, you imagine and every all oil levels are here like this now you
imagine that you have connected load on the transformer only core loss was taking place
when the transformer was under no load condition.

Now, through the secondaries you have connected it is delivering full load, full KVA in
that case copper loss comes in. So, more heat will be generated and temperature will rise
if temperature rises oil is a liquid it will expand and this level of oil will go up pushing the
air whatever it was above it will be pushed up, is not? And if you do not bother go on
overloading level of oil will go up and down. So, there must be some interface between
air it should not be sealed at the top. So, what is done another interesting fitting is
connected.

Here from the say top you take out another piping here ok. These are very interesting thing
and this pipe is also filled with air. Level of oil will change as degree of loading will change
and here is a sort of small vertical vessel like a bottle; here there will be perforations and
this thing will be filled up with a material called silica gel, a chemical material silica gel.
I do not know spelling you check silica gel and there will be perforations. So, this

510
transformer oil is in touch with the atmosphere via this tank air, this air this is filled with
air and this air through silica gel through this air.

Now, why this silica gel is poured? Suppose, you have not put silica gel, it is just like this
then what will happen? As degree of loading changes the air will be pushed out. Suppose,
you are increasing load, level of oil will increase air will come out and when the
transformer is operating a very light load condition oil will drops air, air will be sucked in,
is not? That is the transformer is also breathing as human being breathes depending upon
the degree of loading.

And this atmospheric air if it contains moisture that moisture will be sucked in and it will
get in touch with the oil and therefore, oil property will drastically deteriorate. It will form
sludge, thicker it will become and its dielectric property will also decrease. So, the this
particular thing is called breather.

Breather it is called that is as human being breathes similarly transformer breathes. It takes
air; it also pushes out air through this device. Now, what is this silica gel? Silica gel is a
protection. It make sure that water vapor present in the atmosphere does not come here in
the conservator tank. Why? Silica gel, the normal color of silica gel color is blue; it is in
granules you know some granules, blue. Whenever air will be sucked in the color, the
moisture will be absorbed by silica gel and its color will change to pink. When it absorbs
moisture color changes to changes to pink and of course, so no moisture is allowed here it
will go up ok.

So, this is how silica gel will prevent entry of moisture into the transformer tank and come
in contact with oil try to deteriorate it, but during rainy season and all this will soon
become, see it will be a very important job for supervisors whoever is watching this
transformer to inspect the this breather all the time whether color has become totally pink;
that means, it has become saturated with moisture. Moisture will be then going here;
therefore, he will replace this silica gel with new silica gel and once again that pink colored
silica gel you dry a bit it will become blue. It can be reused, but these are the things I
wanted to tell ok.

So, transformer has got a breather and this is the air-oil interface and another fittings will
be there on the tank of the transformer that is called explosion vent. I must tell this because.

511
I am showing it here it will be properly positioned, but you will see another structure like
this and this is also a sort of vertical pipe bent like that.

And it is not open to air there will be some diaphragm connected here and on the tank
surface it is fitted. But, this tank as I told you it is made of steel, here also a not strong steel
material is used a rather little sheet of iron or steel is used while fixing it, got the idea? The
steel thickness of the tank is high I mean thick quite, but it is only little thickness ok.
Therefore, no oil neither air is allowed to be coming in because here also it is fixed. This
end is also fixed by a plate.

Therefore, no question of oil communicating with air through this then what purpose it is
given? It is called explosion vent it is like a safety valve in your pressure cooker. What
happens is this if suppose the transformer becomes overloaded some fault has occurred,
high short circuit current is flowing, heavy losses are taking place, oil is going up here, but
this place is a rather weak in it is mechanical strength. So, oil will oil pressure inside the
transformer builds and it will break this and this oil will gush out from this place.

And the direction of this explosion vent is made in a particular angle where you will keep
sand etcetera, so that fire does not breakout because the that will be very hot oil and it
causes fire got the point. Therefore, explosion so, this plate diaphragm is also weak, this
is also weak if no protection mechanism works oil will break this thing because of its own
pressure heat generated and oil will gush out and you provide a directed path on the floor
you keep some sand etcetera so that oil will be coming here. You must have read in
newspaper sometimes in some locality transformer has exploded because of overloading
or some protection mechanism did not work and it caused fire.

So, anyway this is explosion vent which acts like a safety valve and only last point I must
tell you that what happens is this between this conservator tank and this tube here a relay
is connected relay which is called Buchholz relay ok. When oil will be heated oil will push
out, density will fall, there will be some floats inside, they will move through that
mechanism you can initiate some operation or it can give you some alarm. So, that things
are not good for the transformer, oil is almost vaporized here. You know float like your
toilet float in the this one.

So, it will go up because density has fallen and that movement is used. So, we are not
discussing that, but I will just mention only there is a place in this connecting tubes there

512
will be a Buchholz relay connected and it will be operating and give you alarm or if
necessary it will disconnect the transformer you will read those things in power system
protection. So, this in nutshell will be the general fittings one is the conservator tank
bushings.

In case of three-phase transformer three-bushings will come out and on the name plate
there will be a plate KVA ratings this that will be written and there is a breather here silica
gel which is through which air will be coming in when transformer inhales because during
no load condition oil will become cooler, its level will fall air will come in and here is a
gate which will not allow moisture to enter. And the color of silica gel will change from
blue to pink and it will arrests the moisture air, but regular inspection is necessary to see
that silica gel color has become all pink, then you take out this sack in which silica gel
which are granules dry it up. So, we will continue with this next time.

Thank you.

513
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 53
Output Equation of 3 Phase Transformer

Welcome to 53rd lecture and we have been discussing some general topics on transformer,
not so much mathematical. So, we started with telling that for large and large transformers,
by large transformers I mean very large KVA transformers. Air natural cooling is not
sufficient, and you must have at least in distribution transformer hundreds of KVAs may
be 250 KVA or 500 KVA these are the fittings you will expect

(Refer Slide Time: 00:39)

Of course, this is for single phase transformer I have drawn; it could be for 3 phase
transformer as well and these are the usual fittings, cooling tubes will be there. And mind
you the maximum temperature rise is decided by 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 divided by surface through which
𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠
roughly this is the thing into emissivity (𝑆 ), 𝜆 is called emissivity which is constant
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝜆

of the material sum.

514
(Refer Slide Time: 01:30)

So, the cooling’s are classified on the name plate of transformer, it may be written like
A.N. it means air natural cooling; air natural or very small transformer, no extra elaborate
arrangement is necessary. There may be A N O L cooling, air natural and oil natural. There
are lot of things combinations of this. Now there may be very big transformers ok, then
cooling tubes is also not sufficient; for example, transformers of ratings of 100 MVA
which are used in power stations, very large transformers 3 phase.

In that case what you will find, it will be there are several like oil forced, air natural this
kind of thing, but you go through books you can easily make out what do they mean. But
what I am telling, suppose this is your transformer this is the main transformer tank
bushings, etc all things are there and to increase the surface area the cooling tubes are also
not sufficient, what they then connect is called radiators.

Radiators are nothing but iron plates with tubes like this. Just I am drawing one, it is iron
plates and several things and these are rectangular type looking; iron, steel and this oil here
is connected to the radiator tubes. So, these are radiators instead of cooling tubes radiator,
large surface area and at this is connected here like this; there will be inlet air, oil it is
connected. So, oil this is filled with oil inside, this oil is connected here, oil; and oil will
fill up this plates also, these are the open space.

So, and then oil will be pumped in and it will once again come out to this connected here
to the tank. So, oil will go through this radiating tubes all along and will come here. Now

515
oil on it is own will may not go, for large transformer what they will connect a pump, oil
pump; oil will be forced to go there, go up and then return to the main tank. So, these are.
So, artificially you increase the surface area and this radiators may be at a, for a place I
mean quite at some distance the radiator plates are there.

Then it is called oil forced cooling, oil forced. So, idea is very clear, if you want to use
very large transformers you must do extra to cool the transformer, so the temperature rise
of the transformer is within the limit. Because whether it is very small or large transformers
the value of 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 magnetic loading is approximately same may be 1.2 Wb/m2; if you are
using copper almost 𝛿 is same may be 3Amp/mm2, those are fixed generally.

Therefore you since you have gone for higher KVA rating, the size of the transformer has
increased and you must have elaborate arrangement. Artificially increase the surface area
of cooling and heat will be radiated not only from the usual tanks here, may be tubes also
connected natural circulation of the oil here; but also force the oil to move through the
radiators to make a closed path and the oil will be circulating. Sometimes air is also forced
for big transformer, you keep fans here; fans which will also cool the surface area of the
radiators; forced air then say.

So, these are terminologies which you will easily understand, but the basic understanding
of the whole process is that for large transformer, you have to have some elaborate cooling
arrangement for the transformer; for distribution transformer simple oil, for large
transformer it will be like this, may be hundreds of MVA transformer which is housed in
power stations ok. So, this in nutshell about the cooling; only one thing I will leave it as
an exercise to you, the what about the output equation of a transformer?

516
(Refer Slide Time: 08:20)

Output equation of a 3 phase transformer; 3 phase core type transformer in the same way
it can be found out; I leave it to you to find it out. That is you remember I leave it as an
exercise to you this is the thing. In 3 phase transformer there will be two windows like
that, there will be say LV winding on each limb and for each phase A phase B phase LV
winding and C phase LV winding; and HV winding will be here got the point. So, LV
windings LV windings, there are two windows and this two windows are equal dimensions
because old design.

So, here only thing, so you start with this thing that is KVA rating of the transformer is

𝑆 = 3𝑉𝑝ℎ 𝐼𝑝ℎ × 10−3 = 3 × 4.44𝑓𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑠𝑓 𝐴𝑖 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 ) 𝑁1 𝛿𝑎1

You know this is how it will look like. So, 𝛿 is the electric loading, 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the magnetic
loading. Now in this case, this once again 𝑁1 𝐼1 = 𝑁2 𝐼2 per phase mmf balance will take
place, then

𝐼1 = 𝛿𝑎1

𝐼2 = 𝛿𝑎2

So,

𝑁1 𝑎1 = 𝑁2 𝑎2

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I am telling verbally what you have to do, only thing is window space factor.

Window space factor is go to any window area covered by copper. So, suppose I say that,
it has got 𝑁1 turns and this has got 𝑁2 turns secondary so; obviously, you can see there are
two sections unlike. So, it will be what; area covered by copper

2𝑁1 𝑎1 + 2𝑁2 𝑎2
𝑘𝑤 =
𝐴𝑤

And then 𝑁1 𝑎1 = 𝑁2 𝑎2 you substitute and for 𝑁1 𝑎1 you put it there. What you will get it
is this, the total KVA will be

𝑆 = 3.33𝑓𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝛿𝑠𝑓 𝑘𝑤 𝐴𝑖 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝑤

Note that for single phase transformer it came as 2.22, but in 3 phase it is 3.33.

So, other reasoning remaining same, same if dimensions are increased by factor of 𝑥 losses
will increase, by factor of 𝑥 3 and so on, area will increase by factor of 𝑥 2 , KVA rating will
increase by factor of 𝑥 4 and so on, so this is the thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:29)

Another tit bits of this transformers in terms of single phase I will just tell you, is that if
you see a leaned crossed section like this, this is the iron cross section your LV winding
will be around it; this is the LV winding and then your HV winding.

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Oh I am; so sorry, badly drawn and this is your, this blue is your HV winding, HV and this
is say LV; because nearer to the core LV winding is present mind you, is not. And this is
the top sectional view of the transformer, you now understand this is 𝐴𝑖 , this is 𝐴𝑖 hide on
area; first LV winding you wound then HV winding and so on.

Now you note one thing when the transformer will be operating at any given point of time,
we have seen that if LV winding is carrying current in this direction what will be the
direction of current in the HV winding; it will be just opposite are you getting. That is how
mmf will be balanced any, forget about that no load current, no load current is small 5%,
when secondary load is not there this current is absent only this current will circulate that
is 5%. But the moment you load it 𝐼2 then 𝐼2′ too will appear, that is if HV side is your
secondary 𝐼2 opposite current; then only this 2 mmf will balance each other and your
original flux will be restored and decided by the magnetizing current, that is what we are
telling. This will be read like this.

If this is the situation do you expect that there will be some mechanical forces acting
between these two coils? Yes, we know that if two conductors you keep side by side, they
will experience mechanical forces. What will be the nature of the forces? It is just opposite
to magnetism; in opposite current meant attractive not like that. It will be repulsive; that
means, this LV coil, now this LV coil just cannot stay alone there will be some bobbing
sort of thing over which this LV winding is put. So, when normal load current flows, but
none the less there will be force of repulsion, acting that is what will be this direction of
the force this way.

That is LV winding will be squeezed towards the core and this will try to go away. So, you
have to take proper fixing up of the coil. So, that they can withstand that mechanical forces
at rated currents at least. But what happens is this you do not know there might be short
circuit taking place and very large current is flowing, then this force will become enormous
and HV windings will become loosened, come out and this one.

That is why protection of transformer is so important, you cannot allow a very large short
circuiting current to flow apart from the fact the winding may be spoiled. But you know
to make a winding burn that large current must be there for sufficiently long time; it is not
𝑖 2 𝑟; it is 𝑖 2 𝑟𝑡 that decides how long that large current is flowing. But the mechanical forces
too will be very large, the short circuiting current may be high and transformer will not

519
only be ruined by if the fault is not clear; ruined by windings will be spoiled, mechanically
also it will be a disaster. LV winding will tries to push upon on all directions and it will
try to go out HV winding. This is just I am mentioning, you keep now after learning these
things those things can be very nicely explained. And current in the windings will be
always in opposition and this is instantaneous current deduction I am showing, when it
will be these ways, that will that way; but the deduction of force will be always like that.

Another last point I will comment I will make, sometimes what happens in transformers,
what if you load the transformer you know because of regulation voltage decreases. See
you load the transformer; connect the load we have seen that this is suppose LV side, this
is suppose HV side; you load the transformer or I will draw other way to introduce the
problem. So, this is suppose HV, this is LV side it does not matter in any way this is load,
you load the transformer; then what happens under no load condition whatever was the
voltage when you load it voltage will fall. If the load is inductive RL type and that is
usually the case is only for capacitive load may be it will increase a bit; but for RL type of
load is which is generally the case, the terminal voltage magnitude will fall.

So, compare to open circuit voltage, the moment you start drawing current because of the
internal drop inside the transformer in the equivalent resistance and leakage reactance, this
voltage will fall magnitude. And suppose you want to restore back the voltage, you cannot
do anything here; two ways you can do, one thing is you increase the supply voltage a bit;
the supply voltage whatever is coming that voltage you increase. So, that it will may
compensate that, but that is not a option left to you supply voltage whatever is coming,
coming you cannot do anything. So, what can be done is some transformers are provided
with tap changers.

Suppose primary number of turns 𝑁1 secondary turns is 𝑁2 ; idea is very nice and simple.
So, what I am telling, you suppose say that I will there will be some tapings provided here
1, 2, 3, 4 turns tapings are you getting, LV I am drawing elaborately; there are this is the
normal secondary terminal, then you are provided with extra tapings with a switch, this is
the secondary terminals.

Now a transformer with some extra turns here on the LV side and a switch connected, you
can increase the number of turns. So, what is the point here 𝑉1 number of turns is 𝑁1 and
𝑁2 number of turns is not fixed, a little change I will be able to do. In a transformer what

520
 𝑉1
I told, voltage per turn remains constant. So, what is voltage per turn , you are simply
𝑁1

and this is 𝑁2 and this is (𝑁2 + 𝛿𝑁2 ) some few turns you increase, then your voltage will
increase on the load side, getting.

But the turns ratio that thing will not be affected too much, is not if you increase these by
𝑁 𝑁1
few turns what 𝑁1 practically remain (𝑁 , got the idea. So, transformers are provided
2 2 +𝛿𝑁2 )

with tap changers, have I written. And tap changers I have shown here in this example
listen to me carefully, on the LV side I have made an arrangement to increase the turn,
what should I do? Applied voltage is fixed; when there was no load this switch was open,
this voltage was fine this is my actual secondary. But when you connect a load here this
voltage falls a bit, you want to compensate you cannot do anything with this supply voltage
𝑉1
here. Therefore, you simply increase few turns voltage per turn is decided by and
𝑁1

increase 1 or 2 turns you get more voltage. So, regulation problem can be addressed a bit
by this method.

But now the question is listen to me, should I put the tap changer on the LV side or HV
side. See the condition is this tap changer I will be operating under load condition that is I
will put, it was supplying the load. So, you find all across the load people are complaining,
voltage is small, there is a switch and those will be also oil immersed I hope and you put
it there, ok. So, that is another interesting thing how tap changers work.

But the idea I am telling, you will move it here and these are called on load tap changers.
There may be off load tap changers, what you can do, you switch off the supply first; then
bring this switch from this point to this point and once again energized, but that is not a
very good idea. So, only load tap changers are much common, I mean useful; you put it
here increase the turns a bit, increase the turns a bit in order to restore the voltage desired
voltage.

But the question I am putting, should were the tap changers should be tap changers on load
tap changers should be on which side; should I connect HV side or LV side. For example,
here while explaining the things I have shown it is on the LV side I have connected, is it a
good idea? No; because LV side current is more. So, whenever you will be moving this
switch from this point to this point, you are trying to break the current and quickly there it
will be short circuited this turn a bit. So, tap changers will be much more stressed;

521
therefore, tap changers should be always on the HV side. Tap changers better connect,
because you have to make and break current which is large, load is already connected you
cannot do anything. Particularly with on load tap changer, hundreds of current is flowing
you suddenly want to move this one from this two, increase the voltage a bit.

Can I then do the same thing, if I connect the tap changers on the HV side; answer is on
HV side. I will not connect tap changers on the LV side, whether it is load or not that is
different issue, you must understand. But since I have drawn the load on this side, connect
switch; here, what will happen is this, this is the normal 𝑁1 turns I connected this whole
𝑉1
thing is 𝑁1 turns, 𝑉1 is the supply voltage, voltage per turn is and this is the switch,
𝑁1

under no load I was getting a voltage here. But when I connect load I find because of the
regulation voltage drops which is not desirable; then I plan I will play with number of turns
on the HV side, not with LV side because current is more.

So, what should I do, because this supply voltage is fixed I cannot do anything what should
I do? What should I do with 𝑁1 , should 𝑁1 be increased or decreased; voltage per turn
should be increased, then only secondary voltage. Secondary voltage I am not touching it
is 𝑁2 therefore, tapping should be here; this is 𝑁1 then lesser number of turns. So, your
switch should be connected from here to there, you reduce the number of turns of the HV
side same applied voltage; therefore, voltage per turn increases and it is the voltage turn
which remains constant in primary and secondary side. So, secondary voltage will
increase, N 2 I will not touch, got the idea.

Therefore it is interesting, you I will leave it to you to analyze this. So, 𝑁1 must be
decreased and you see it is nicely matching with the construction of the transformer. This
is the core LV winding, then comes your HV winding and HV windings tapings you want
to take and it is on the outer side; you easily take the taping, it is difficult nah to take
tapings from LV side from in between. So, these are very small, but very interesting thing,
you we have done mathematics we know how to calculate regulation efficiency.

But I think whatever I have told you it will give you a practical flavour of the way you
look at transformers ok; mathematics is there, but these are small, but important things.
So, there should be transformers are provided with on load tap changers also. And mind
you the number of turns you will change a little bit not more. I have not told great things
about design, but that is the first starting point you must have a broader idea and when you

522
look at a transformer you may find a big transformer may be provided may not be provided
with a tap changing arrangement.

On load tap changing arrangement means that; tap changers must be on the HV side as
current is less and also it is easily accessible, taping is to be taken from the this HV. And
then it is not that you always increase the number of turns to increase the voltage, if this
side is your supply side you have to reduce the numbers of turns to increase the voltage on
the LV side. Suppose I say that this is LV side and on HV side is your load, this is 𝑁1
𝑉1
where you are applying a voltage 𝑉1; voltage per turn is , LV side I am not going to
𝑁1

connect any tap changers. So, nothing is changing here voltage per turn is fixed; I have
connected load and find that voltage has fallen compared to the open circuit case. Then I
want to increase voltage and I am certain I have to connect the tap changer on the HV side.

In that case what should I do with 𝑁2 , I must increase it, is not. So, taping will be this way.
So, depending upon the situation you have to reduce the number of turns or increase the
number of turns. On the load side if the HV side is there, so provision for increasing and
decreasing both should be present; you do not know which side will be primary, secondary
like that. So, these is a nutshell what I want to tell about transformers; we will have a
discussion session, there will lot of problems given and I have I am going to upload several
notes whatever I have told in these lectures and we will see that so.

Thank you.

523
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 54
Introduction to D. C Machine

Welcome to our next topic in the Electrical Machines I lectures and we will start discussing
about DC Machines.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:27)

And DC machines and these are rotating machines you know rotating machines; rotating
machines, machines I will often write like this. Now, before I start discussing with DC
machines rotating, we try to understand how DC voltage can be generated? For example,
after the discovery of Faradays in 1830s or so somewhere, which says that voltage induced
𝑑𝜑
in a coil is 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 and if the coil is moved in a magnetic field which sinusoidally varies, then

there will be induced voltage which will be also alternative in nature.

This was quite obvious but, nonetheless people started developing DC machines first and
we will see that it is not so easy because, inherent voltage induced in a coil, when it is
rotated in a magnetic field will be essentially alternating in nature. So, we have to do
something extra to convert that AC voltage to DC, if this problem has been brought today

524
that ok, you want to generate DC one solution perhaps many people will give that generate
AC because, AC generation is so simple and connected rectifier get DC over.

But, in those days rectifiers were also not there at that time. So, it was DC machine people
started thinking that large power I have to somehow before that of course, people knew
about batteries DC voltages only we were used to at very small level of power batteries
were there, 1.5V connect them in series get some voltage like that but, large voltages
delivering large current hundreds of voltages that was not there, then you know DC
machines in any case was developed. So, to understand the basics of DC machine, we start
with this discussion.

You imagine that I have a coil a conductor, this is a conductor and suppose these two red
lines are rails ok, this is a conductor and these two are rails, it has wheels and it is putting.
So, that this conductor can move this way that way, these are rails and let us imagine on
the top of this arrangement, I have put a north magnet all along this line length of the rails
and below this I have put a south pole magnet all along the track, that is from in the roof
top, if it is on the plane of the of my table, on the roof top there is a North Pole and on the
floor there is a South Pole in between it is there, on the table top and there this table runs
infinitely. Now, if that be the case then the direction of 𝐵, I must show cross from top to
bottom. So, it will be say cross 𝐵 ok.

So, 𝐵 direction and it is all along this whole length and also along the breadth everywhere
it is 𝐵, flux density you know. So, this is the flux density 𝐵 from top to bottom and this is
the conductor. Now, let us imagine that this conductor is moving with a velocity say 𝑣 m/s,
this conductor is moving with a velocity 𝑣 m/s from left to right and let us assume that no
friction on the track, and also no air resistance.

Therefore, to move this conductor at a constant velocity 𝑣 m/s, on a friction less track no
air friction also, you require no force therefore, external force acting on the conductor will
be 0 that is what Newton’s told us, to move a thing in a friction less environment at a
constant velocity, you do not require any force.

If no force is acting on any body, then either it is at rest or it is moving at a constant velocity
that is what we know. So, anyway to move the conductor at a constant velocity 𝑣 m/s, I do
not require any external force to be acting, it will go on moving, under these assumptions

525
ok, that is fine and suppose this side of the conductor I name it as a and this side I name it
as b, the 2 ends of the conductor. As the conductor moves, there is 𝑣 there is a velocity,
these are at right angle.

So, I can apply right hand rule like this here, they will be showing this. So, you see there
is a 𝐵 here into the paper. So, forefinger is 𝐵, there is a velocity thumb gives you velocity
and this one middle finger, the end of the middle finger will give you the polarity of the
induced voltage, that is a will be plus, b will be minus and magnitude of the induced
voltage will be 𝐵𝑙𝑣, that is equal to potential of a with respect to b, that is how we write,
a will be positive 𝐵𝑙𝑣.

So, and what is 𝑙, 𝑙 is equal to length ab, conductor length. So, this much induced voltage
will be there and it will as it moves with a constant velocity therefore, this conductor
becomes a seat of emf. So, I can say this conductor is like a battery here, a b and this
magnitude of this battery voltage is like this, it will be DC because, always the magnetic
field is into the paper I have never changed it.

And nothing will happen, although across the rail if you connect a voltmeter it will read
𝐵𝑙𝑣 because, it makes contact with the these are also conducting rails, conducting material
although no current can flow. Now, what I will do, I will connect between the rails a switch
and a load got the point. So, if you wish if you close the switch, this voltage which is a
battery across it a resistance will be connected, is it not?

And we expect a current will flow like this, if the switch is closed, current path will be this
is the source, it will go and come back. Let, the initial velocity be 𝑣0 , it was moving with
a velocity 𝑣0 say meter per second and my target is to find out when I close the switch,
how much will be the current and how long will the current flow things like that.

Now, look here the moment this conductor delivers current here, current will also flow
through this conductor, same current series. Now, we know that that a current carrying
conductor placed in a magnetic field, we will experience a force and what is the magnitude
of the force 𝐵𝑖𝑙, where is 𝐵? And you have to apply left hand rule 𝐵 is here, 𝑖 is this finger
and thumb will you give you the direction of the force.

So, 𝐵𝑖𝑙 this much force will act in this direction, opposite to the direction of motion the
moment you close the hence forth. So, shown so, long when the switch was opened as I

526
told you, conductor was not experiencing any force whatsoever, it was just moving with
constant velocity as per Newton’s law but, the moment you close the switch although
friction etcetera is not there, I immediately find that it will now experience a force in the
opposite direction, is it not?

Therefore, this conductor ab is acted on by a force, if it is acted on by a force from right to

left and it had a initial velocity of 𝑣0 , what do I expect? Conductor to decelerate because,
no other force is there, velocity will go on decreasing but, if velocity goes on decreasing
this voltage will go on decreasing, this current 𝑖 will also go on decreasing.

Physically I am first telling and so in this way although there will be this resistance will
be heated up, current is flowing 𝑖 2 𝑟𝑡 but, can this how long it will sustain, it looks like that
as time passes, after we have closed the switch at 𝑡 = 0 suppose, as time passes the
magnitude of the current will decrease, magnitude of the induced voltage decrease,
velocity decreases and the time will come when, velocity will become 0 and all this game
will be over, everything will be dead I mean, there will be no velocity of the conductor
and things like that.

Now, what I am trying to tell that, when a conductor had a initial velocity 𝑣0 and without
anybody assisting its motion and it is also not needed when the switch is open, see there
1
was kinetic energy stored in the conductor, 2 𝑚𝑣02 , is not? When the switch was opened,

that kinetic energy was somehow important but, when you close the switch the energy is
getting extracted from it is kinetic energy is dissipating here and that kinetic energy was
finite therefore, finally, it will become 0, all the energy will be dissipated here.

So, these example if I mathematically analyze, we will enhance our this physical
understanding in a much better way. For example, for physical reasons I know, velocity
will become a function of time, the induced voltage 𝑒𝑎𝑏 will become a function of time
and so on. So, I must write down these two equation, equation of motion for the conductor
ab.

𝑑𝑣
What will be the equation of motion? Suppose, 𝑚 is the mass so, 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 , it is velocity is

always from left to right, must be equal to the force acting from left to right, from left to
right what is the force acting? When the switch has been closed is −𝐵𝑖𝑙; 𝐵𝑖𝑙 is acting in
the opposite direction, this is the equation. So, it is a first order differential equation.

527
 𝑑𝑣
𝑚 = −𝐵𝑖𝑙
𝑑𝑡

Now, the question is what is 𝑖? In a very simple circuit,

𝐵𝑙𝑣
𝑖=
𝑅

where 𝑅 is the resistance so, I put that.

𝑑𝑣 𝐵𝑙𝑣 𝐵2𝑙2
𝑚 = −𝐵𝑖𝑙 = −𝐵𝑙 =− 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑅

𝑑𝑣 𝐵 2 𝑙 2
𝑚 + 𝑣=0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅

𝑑𝑣 𝐵 2 𝑙 2
+ 𝑣=0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝑚

This is the equation which is a first order, constant coefficient, differential equation and I
want to know what is velocity.

So, velocity the solution of this equation is well known characteristic root of this equation
𝐵2 𝑙2
is − . So, it will be
𝑚𝑅

𝐵2 𝑙2
−
𝑣 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑚𝑅

And there is no forcing function on the right hand side. So, this is the solution and I have
to determine the 𝐴 from boundary condition, see velocity of a mass cannot change
instantaneously, when the switch was opened it is velocity was 𝑣0 , at 𝑡 = 0 + after we
have closed the switch, velocity will be still be 𝑣0 because, of it is inertia therefore, at 𝑡 =
0 +, 𝑣 = 𝑣0 only. So, this gives you 𝐴 = 𝑣0 , what is 𝑣0 ? The velocity of the conductor
when this was opened.

528
(Refer Slide Time: 18:45)

Therefore finally, what I get is this, that velocity of the conductor at any time 𝑡 is

𝐵2 𝑙2
− 𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣0 𝑒 𝑚𝑅

This is the thing and velocity will exponentially decay down to 0, as we were reasoning it
physically so, that is the expression. Then what is the expression and how current will
change, 𝑖(𝑡) is also very simple because,

𝐵𝑙𝑣 𝐵𝑙 𝐵2 𝑙2
𝑖(𝑡) = = 𝑣0 𝑒 𝑚𝑅 𝑡
−
𝑅 𝑅

This will be the thing, is it not? Correct. So, this is the, it is coming correctly dimensionally
𝐵𝑙𝑣 is voltage by 𝑅. So, this is the explanation of the current.

So, both voltage and current if you sketch, they will decay down to 0, this was velocity of
the conductor, this is time and this is the current. So, current in the circuit at 𝑡 = 0, when
𝐵𝑙
you close the switch, this is coming correctly, that is 𝐵, this current value is 𝑣0 , then it
𝑅

also exponentially decay down to 0, this is time axis. So, this generator will not last long
but, we have understood several things, one is a conductor moving in a magnetic field, it
produces a unidirectional voltage, provided everything is not on the top, everything is
below is South Pole, then when it moves that voltage magnitude of course, becomes a
function of time.

529
Now, naturally the question is, if I want to make a sustainable generator not that after
sometime everything will vanish, what should I do? That means, I want to get a constant
voltage here, with some load being supplied that switch is closed and at that time I must
maintain the velocity, see if I say that my velocity will remain 𝑣0 with the switch closed,
then I must demand that there will be an opposing force coming in you must apply another
force from left to right, to compensate for that opposing force. So, that once stay again net
force will be given it will run at a constant velocity, got the idea? That is you must have a
prime mover, which will push this conductor hard, the moment you want to extract power
out of because of it is kinetic energy only, it was delivering power.

But, now the moment you demand that I want to get power in this resistance continuously,
then rather make the velocity constant by compensating this opposing force from left to
right, then nothing will be coming out from the kinetic energy to here, whoever is pushing
that conductor at that force which is equal to 𝐵𝑖𝑙, it will do that one idea. So, in general
there must be a this thing, external agency which will pushing it from left to right that is
called prime mover ok.

So, this is a simple generator without any prime mover. In general therefore, to make the
generator work, there must be a prime mover as I told and the equation of motion I will
write next class but, before that let me in the same arrangement.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:13)

530
Let me just study another thing this was my rail suppose, this was the rail and you know
this was my conductor and suppose this time what I decide is that, this conductor in the
rails was resting of length 𝑙. Now, what I will do, it was at rest ab initially at rest. Now,
what I do I connect a battery here, through the rails with a switch. So, when the switch is
open nothing happens it remains stationary and there is of course, 𝐵 as usual, I am just
drawing 2 lines but, it otherwise invading all the areas between the rails 𝐵, flux density.

If you now close the switch and the conductor was stationary, it is velocity cannot change
instantaneously, at least at 𝑡 = 0 you close and I am pretty sure that

𝐸
𝑖(0 +) =
𝑅

It has to be because, at 𝑡 = 0 + 𝑣 is still 0, conductor was not moving at 𝑡 = 0 + because

it has got mass, it is velocity cannot change. So, at 𝑡 = 0 + current will be like this and
what will be the direction of the current, it will be like this 𝑖, 𝑖 and 𝑖. So, 𝑖(0 +) is there,
the moment this is current and it is placed in a magnetic field, it will experience a force,
which I can get from left hand rule that is 𝐵 and this is 𝑖.

So, you see this is 𝐵, this is 𝑖 it is correct. So, this is 𝐵, this is direction of 𝑖. So, thumb
will give you direction of velocity force, this is called electromagnetic force experienced
by the conductor and the conductor in absence of any frictional force we will try to
accelerate, it is velocity will now start increasing, earlier it was 0 at 𝑡 = 0 you have closed
the switch, then from 𝑡 = 0 onwards, the conductor will start moving and the reduction of
the force is from left to right.

So, for 𝑡 = 0, conductor experiences conductor ab, experiences a force from left to right
left to sorry from left to right and what is the value of the force 𝐵𝑖𝑙 what else, they have
got thing starts moving I can write down the dynamic equation. What will be the dynamic
𝑑𝑣
equation? 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 is equal to the force from left to right I will velocities this way increasing.

So, this must be equal to

𝑑𝑣
𝑚 = 𝐵𝑖𝑙
𝑑𝑡

531
No negative sign this time because, this is accelerating it ok, 𝐵𝑖𝑙. So, this is one equation,
what is our target? What is the velocity as a function of time is what? And 𝑖 as a function
of time is what?

Now, the this is one equation. So, I must have two equations to get 𝑣 and 𝑖, what will be
the next equation. Next equation is, what will be the expression of 𝑖? Expression of 𝑖 at
any time 𝑡, see the moment this happens it is starts moving, we have just discussed a
conductor moving in a magnetic field, will have a induced voltage 𝐵𝑙𝑣. So, for this
conductor moving from left to right with velocity 𝑣m/s must have a induced velocity and
the what will be the polarity of this induced velocity, this is what we are saying 𝐵𝑙𝑣.

Therefore, this whole circuit will now be equal to a induced voltage here between a and b,
that is 𝐵𝑙𝑣 and this thing your switch here and please I will connect also a resistance here,
otherwise there will be short circuit suppose with a resistance this source is. Or suppose
this resistance is the resistance of the conductor either way. So, there is a resistance here
and there is your battery voltage here and current direction is this therefore, I must say that
current is

𝐸 − 𝐵𝑙𝑣
𝑖=
𝑅

So, I have got two equations, if you want to find out 𝑣, eliminate I from this put it here,
you will get a one first order differential equations solve for 𝑣, then use the other equation
to get the current and this we will continue in the next class.

Thank you.

532
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 55
Single Conductor D. C Generator/Motor Operation

(Refer Slide Time: 00:21)

Now, welcome to lecture 55 and before we start lecture 55, we have quick glance what we
did in lecture 54. You remember we started DC machines, and eventually we will
discussed rotating DC machines, but before that to gate the basic ideas clear what we
considered a simple linear DC machines, where a single conductor is only present that is
green line and it is suppose moving over rate frictional rails from left to right at a velocity
𝑣0 m/s and suppose this switch is opened initially and since it is frictionless.

So you do not require any force to be applied to the conductor to make it run at a constant
velocity 𝑣0 m/s.

But nonetheless it is moving from left to right and also there is a magnetic field
perpendicular to the paper here from top to bottom that is why I have shown it crossed 𝐵.
So, we applied right hand rule and we know that there is a 𝐵, there is a 𝑣0 there at
quadrature, therefore, there will be some induced voltage across the conductor a b and the
upper side of this will become plus, and lower side will become minus.

533
So, it will become a source of emf like a battery that I have shown here, the value of this
voltage will 𝐵𝑙𝑣0 . If 𝑣0 is the velocity voltage available, there will be 𝐵𝑙𝑣0 ok. So, initial
velocity is 𝑣0 ok, and suppose the switch is open open.

Now, if this because we have generated voltage, you must utilize that voltage to deliver
power to some resistance say a lamp may be. You close the switch suppose at 𝑡 = 0, then
𝐵𝑙𝑣
what is going to happen because the circuit is closed, and there will be a current 𝑖 = .I
𝑅

have written 𝑣, because I am not sure whether the velocity will be maintained after it has
started delivering power to the resistance.

So, after you have closed the switch at 𝑡 = 0, at any time 𝑡, this is the expression of the
𝐵𝑙𝑣
current in the circuit, and 𝑖 = 𝑅
. Now, I have let us imagine that no external agency is

pushing this conductor from left to right, because it was not necessary when a even S was
opened, because it was moving over a frictionless path.

So, without absence of any external agency pushing it from left to right, we expect that it
is delivering power to the resistance where from this power will come, it must come from
1
the kinetic energy of this conductor a b, initial energy stored was 2 𝑚𝑣02 from that it is

coming and physically we then expect that velocity will gradually decrease and so also
this emf will decrease, current will decrease, and finally everything will be quiet, no
voltage, no current, initial whatever energy stored that will be dissipated in 𝑅.

And, but in between what happens, if you want to write down, this is the dynamic equation
𝑑𝑣
applied force 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 is the applied force from left to right. But we know that when a

conductor carries current 𝑖 in this direction and if there is a magnetic field here, you have
to then this conductor is going to experience also a force and by applying left hand rule,
we find that it will experience force in the opposite direction 𝐵𝑖𝑙 left hand rule you apply,
you will get it.

Therefore, equation of motion will be

𝑑𝑣
𝑚 = −𝐵𝑖𝑙
𝑑𝑡

534
Then 𝑖 is this much. So, you eliminate all these differential equation, you get this as
expected velocity will decrease progressively, and 𝐴 = 𝑣0 .

And if you like what I will add here if I add it will remain. So, if I you can verify that the
total energy loss total energy loss in 𝑅 will be equal to 𝑖 2 𝑅𝑑𝑡, and integrate it from 0 to ∞
and I know the expression of both current and current expression is known, next page I
must have done it.

∞
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑅 = ∫ 𝑖 2 𝑅𝑑𝑡
0

(Refer Slide Time: 06:09)

∞
So, expression of the current is known. So, total energy loss will be equal to ∫0 𝑖 2 𝑅𝑑𝑡 in
𝑅 in the resistance from 0 to ∞ time and if you substitute the value of 𝑖 here, and calculate
it you will end up with this quantity and that is what is expected initial kinetic energy,
anyway this was the generate generated operation of a single conductor.

∞
1
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑅 = ∫ 𝑖 2 𝑅𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣02
0 2

535
(Refer Slide Time: 06:55)

Then we took up the next problem can it act as a motor, that is same structure a b there is
a magnetic field perpendicular to the board, and there is a battery with this side plus, this
side minus, and switch is initially opened no current in the circuit, no voltage here either
𝐵𝑙𝑣 is also not there but if you close the switch at 𝑡 = 0.

Since velocity cannot change instantaneously at 𝑡 = 0 + after you have closed the switch,
velocity of the conductor, previously it was 0 it will maintain 0 at 𝑡 = 0 +. Therefore,
𝐸
current in the circuit will be 𝑖(0 +) = 𝑅.

What is the resistance of the circuit? Suppose all the resistance in the series circuit I have
𝐸
shown it by 𝑅. So, the current will be 𝑖(0 +) = 𝑅 this resistance may be the resistance of
𝐸
the conductor also. So, will be the current at 𝑖(0 +), at 𝑡 = 0 + velocity is 0.
𝑅

And then we find that the current direction through the conductor is this, therefore, I have
to apply left hand rule, and I will get 𝐵𝑖𝑙 that will be the force experienced by the conductor
a b from left to right that is a electromagnetic force I will call it, generated because of the
interaction of this 𝐵 and 𝑖 and 𝑙 is the length of the conductor a b. It will start then moving
as time passes.

536
Therefore, suppose at any time 𝑡, therefore, the conductor is expected to be accelerating
ok, because there is a force which will be acting from left to right, and conductor will
accelerate, you will get motoring action.

𝑑𝑣
Now, the question is what will be the equation of motion of the conductor now; 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 if 𝑣

is the velocity at any time 𝑡 at this must be equal to the force. This time you see force is
along the same direction of velocity so plus sign and this will be the dynamic equation on
the mechanical side ok. Now, let us come to the electrical circuit equivalent electrical
circuit here.

Now, one very interesting thing happens, the moment conductor starts moving we have
just learnt that if a conductor moves in a magnetic field with some velocity 𝑣, there has to
be an emf generated across a b across this conductor, therefore, at time 𝑡 > 0, it is not only
this external voltage, but there will appear another source of emf across ab which I have
shown it by this battery and this voltage is often called back emf.

Therefore, at any time 𝑡 therefore, the current in the circuit will be

𝐸 − 𝐵𝑙𝑣
𝑖=
𝑅

And

𝑑𝑣
𝑚 = 𝐵𝑖𝑙
𝑑𝑡

So, we got these two equation. So, we start now our lecture 55, we will start from this
point. So, these are the two equations we have come across.

537
(Refer Slide Time: 11:09)

𝑑𝑣
Therefore, it will be what we have got 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐵𝑖𝑙 and the second equation is the current
𝐸−𝐵𝑙𝑣
expression of the current which was equal to 𝑖 = , is it not, these are the two equations
𝑅

we have got.

So, our unknown is what is 𝑖 and what is 𝑣 as a function of time we want to find out. Before
that physically let us see what is now going to happen, it will go on accelerating from left
to right and suppose this is of infinite length not that everything finishes here, the this is
rail continues infinitely long track.

Now, as it accelerates the back emf, so this 𝐵𝑙𝑣 is going to rise is it not physically I am
trying to examine what is what will be the final set of this thing, we will need to go on
accelerating forever.

The answer is no, because of the fact this voltage will go on increasing and this voltage is
fixed, supply voltage which is fixed. Therefore, a time will come when this voltage will
become equal to this voltage.

And as you can see their polarities are such that they oppose each other, therefore, at that
𝐸−𝐵𝑙𝑣
time I expect current will be 0 then is it not, current is 𝑖 = .
𝑅

But as it is accelerating, when this back emf were reaches 𝐵𝑙𝑣, this current will vanish ok
and then what happens, then no torque on this conductor, no force on this conductor 𝐵𝑖𝑙,

538
current vanishes, therefore conductor will attain certain velocity final velocity which will
make this voltage same as this voltage and after that no further acceleration and current
will be 0; but will the conductor go on moving? Yes, it will, because we have assumed the
frictionless track.

Therefore after you have closed the switch, it was stationary, it will accelerate, accelerate,
accelerate, and it will attain such a velocity finally, which will make 𝐵𝑙𝑣 = 𝐸, or

𝐸
𝑣=
𝐵𝑙

When that velocity will be attained current will be 0, and the conductor will be moving
with that velocity indefinitely from left to right that is that from left to right. Will it violate
any of the physical rule? No, because we know in a frictionless environment to move a
thing, you do not require any force to be applied, is that clear?

Therefore, so before I mean proceeding further, I can by physically examining the system
𝐸
can conclude the final velocity final velocity has to be some 𝑣0 = 𝐵𝑙, it has to be after a

long time and final current 𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 0, this must happen and let us see indeed this thing
happens or not. For that you have to solve this circuit, two unknowns are there.

So, suppose if I solve for velocity, so replace this 𝑖 in this equation by this expression, and
you will be getting here what that is

𝑑𝑣 𝐸 − 𝐵𝑙𝑣
𝑚 = 𝐵𝑖𝑙 = 𝐵𝑙 ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑅

So, now, in this equation only 𝑣 is present, I can solve for 𝑣 but I have to arrange the terms
or I will write

𝑑𝑣 𝐵 2 𝑙 2 𝐵𝑙
𝑚 + 𝑣= 𝐸
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑅

Then what you do you divide by 𝑚 both the sides, so that it will look now like this

𝑑𝑣 𝐵 2 𝑙 2 𝐵𝑙
+ 𝑣= 𝐸
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑅 𝑚𝑅

539
So, it is a first order differential equation. And characteristic root, in the same way
characteristic root is equal to

𝐵2𝑙2
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 = −
𝑚𝑅

Therefore, velocity at any time t will be equal to A into e to the power minus B square l
square by m R.

𝐵2 𝑙2 𝐵𝑙 𝑚𝑅 𝐵2 𝑙2 𝐸
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 − 𝑚𝑅 + 2 2
𝐸 = 𝐴𝑒 −
𝑚𝑅 +
𝑚𝑅 𝐵 𝑙 𝐵𝑙

It will be expected to be the velocity.

Hopefully, it is correct. If I am not correct wrong answer I will get, let us proceed ok. What
is 𝐸? 𝐸 is the supply voltage.

Now, what is the boundary condition? Boundary condition is velocity at 𝑡 = 0 is 0,

because it was stationary, 𝑣(0 −) = 0, then 𝑣(0 +) = 0, velocity of a mass cannot change
in no time, so that was the argument. So, if you put that, then, then apply this boundary
condition, and you will get

𝐸
𝐴=−
𝐵𝑙

put this condition here.

So, I will say

𝐸 𝐵2 𝑙2
𝑣(𝑡) = (1 − 𝑒 − 𝑚𝑅 𝑡 )
𝐵𝑙

It is something like RL circuit sort of thing. So, the this is the final solution for velocity.

Let us verify this. After a long time, that is velocity as 𝑡 → ∞ how much its value will be,
𝐵2 𝑙2
𝐸
this term will vanish 𝑒 − 𝑚𝑅 𝑡 and you will be left with that is what we concluded
𝐵𝑙

physically, is it not, I should ignore that.

𝐸
𝑣𝑡→∞ =
𝐵𝑙

540
 𝐸
So, this is the thing, and it looks like I mean apparently. So, this is your velocity and
𝐵𝑙

how to get current, now put this value of v in this expression to get the expression for the
current.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:11)

So, so current expression will be, so current 𝑖(𝑡) will be equal to we got it here it is equal
to

𝐸 − 𝐵𝑙𝑣 𝐸 𝐵𝑙 𝐸 𝐵𝑙 𝐸 𝐵2 𝑙2 𝐸 𝐵2 𝑙2
𝑖(𝑡) = = − 𝑣(𝑡) = − [ (1 − 𝑒 − 𝑚𝑅 𝑡 )] = 𝑒 − 𝑚𝑅 𝑡
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝐵𝑙 𝑅

So, this is the expression of 𝑖(𝑡), is it not, that is all. So, you know this is the expression
of 𝑖(𝑡). Therefore, if you sketch the as a time how it looks like I will sketch first velocity.
If I sketch velocity was 0 till 𝑡 = 0, then it was rising exponentially like this, and finally,
𝐸
reaching this velocity. What was that velocity 𝐵𝑙.

𝐸
So, this is the final velocity 𝐵𝑙 ok. This blue curve is velocity and if you sketch, oh below

this I will sketch the current. So, current wave form will be in this same this is time, this
𝐸
is time. So, before 𝑡 = 0, current was 0. So, it was there 0. Then at 𝑡 = 0 current is , it
𝑅
𝐸
shoots up to 𝑅 and then it exponentially decreases, is not it, this is how this is the expression

of the current.

541
Therefore you see in the motoring operation when you make this generator I will just draw
a replica of that this was the thing, this was the conductor here and just in short to explain
it here, this is was my conductor a b, oh my god, this was my conductor a b which was
moving and here in the rail you have connected some resistance was there and some
battery, then current was like this.

So, you start from rest, but eventually you attain a final velocity that is this conductor will
𝐸
store some energy. If I call that final velocity to be 𝑣𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝐵𝑙, it will be like this. But

anyway the motor does not do any mechanical work, is it not.

Let us ask ourselves in this motoring operation that suppose you run a motor to supply is
a mechanical load to overcome friction and so on, you imagine that no track is frictionless.
Suppose, this conductor has to carry a load, of course, it is not possible to some mechanical
load mass put on this, is it not, and suppose the track has got friction.

Therefore, you imagine it is moving train sort of thing on which I can dump load that is
heavier things on this one and this track is not going to be in real life frictionless and if
you put more weight on this mass, the friction to be overcome will be much more, is it not.

And therefore, this is the direction of the electromagnetic force we have seen. This is your
direction of 𝑖 that is fine. Now, I can easily say that if suppose to this movement of this
conductor, I impose an opposing force, suppose some opposing force I impose on the
system now after it has attained constant velocity.

Let us some opposing force comes in that will be the that is that is called the load force in
rotating machine we say load torque, but load force which will be in opposite direction.
Best way to think is that there is friction suppose now appears it has at least this one, but
there is now you add friction to the system.

You know in general on the moving conductor, there will be two forces acting for the
linear machines, one is the electromagnetic force which is providing the velocity and
another is the force in the mechanical system it is electromagnetic force, and it is
mechanical force in the opposite direction.

Whenever 𝐹𝑒 > 𝐹𝑜𝑝𝑝 , conductor will accelerate, must accelerate. If at any time 𝐹𝑒 < 𝐹𝑜𝑝𝑝 ,
conductor must decelerate and if 𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑝𝑝 , conductor will move with constant velocity.

542
Let us try to understand. So, it has reached a final velocity 𝑣𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 and then you suppose
impose after it has reached the final velocity sum the conductor faces some opposite force
to be overcome, it certain suddenly appears.

The moment it appears what was the electromagnetic force at that time when it has reached
final velocity electromagnetic force developed by the conductor was 0. Suppose that that
thing occurs at 𝑡 = 𝑇1 after long time some at some 𝑇1 I have introduced opposing force.

So, at that time electromagnetic force was 0, because current was 0. So, there was no force
from left to right, but I am telling I have imposed an opposite force to the motion of the
conductor. The moment you have imposed that at that time velocity cannot change
instantaneously mind you.

So, velocity at that time 𝑇1 + velocity will still remain 𝑣𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 but the opposite force has
appeared. Therefore, electromagnetic force which is 0 is less than 𝐹𝑜𝑝𝑝 , and conductor will
then decelerate got the point conductor will decelerate but the moment conductor
decelerates, this 𝐸 > 𝐵𝑙𝑣 the opposite force, it remember the equivalent circuit is this, this
is 𝐵𝑙𝑣, this is your 𝑅, and this is your the supply battery voltage which is constant.

Therefore, initially when it has reached final velocity, current was 0, this that fine. But if
you put a opposite force coming onto the conductor, then it must decelerate, if velocity
will start decreasing. If velocity stars decreasing, it will draw some current it will start
because this electrical circuit 𝐸 > 𝐵𝑙𝑣 and it will draw current and the moment it draws
current, there will be 𝐵𝑖𝑙, is it not?

So, what will be the final fate of the conductor? Finally, conductor will run at that speed
which will make this 𝐵𝑖𝑙 = 𝐹𝑜𝑝𝑝 . As the speed decreases, it invites current from the source.
If it which was till not absent will now appear and it will increase a time will come when
𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑝𝑝 but the conductor will run at a speed less than 𝑣𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 , finally it will settle down.

So, you have understood what I am telling. Therefore, so if somebody so as to say that in
general for a practical system, I will say that you have a motor, motor mode of operation.

543
(Refer Slide Time: 36:03)

For example, in this case, this is the conductor. I will reframe the problem and leave it to
you to solve it that ok. Here is your switch, here is the resistance 𝑅, and there if some
battery you will connect to the track ok; and S, I will close at 𝑡 = 0. But this time I am
telling that the track is not frictionless, a constant friction force is acting.

So, there is a constant friction force in this direction, 𝑇𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 is this is present on the track
you close this switch at 𝑡 = 0.

Then I will once again write let me write that that at any time velocity is 𝑣(𝑡), current is
𝑖(𝑡), I want to know the solution, because there will be current at 𝑡 = 0 + which is equal
𝐸
to 𝑅. So, motion will start. What will be the force acting on the conductor at 𝑡 = 0 + current
𝐸
is 𝑖𝑡=0+ = 𝑅.

Therefore, force electromagnetic force acting on the conductor is

𝐸
𝐹𝑒 = 𝐵𝑖𝑙 = 𝐵 𝑙
𝑅

And its direction is from left to right. But now the equation of motion should be 𝐵 and as
it starts moving there will appear this back emf, therefore,

𝐸
𝐹𝑒 𝑡=0+ = 𝐵𝑖𝑙 = 𝐵 𝑙
𝑅

544
In general

(𝐸 − 𝐵𝑙𝑣)
𝐹𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙
𝑅

So, this is the electromagnetic force, but your equation of motion now I should write it like
this m d 2 v d t 2.

Student: First derivative.

𝑑𝑣
𝑚 = 𝐹𝑒 − 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑡

There is the mechanical opposite force. I am not going to solve it, but physically I am I am
telling you what is going to happen to the final velocity and current.

𝐸
Do you think the final velocity will be 0? A final velocity will be equal to still 𝑣𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝐵𝑙,
𝐸
in this case? The answer is no, because if it is then current drawn will be 0, there will
𝐵𝑙

be no electromagnetic torque present.

So, what will be the final velocity? Final velocity we will be talking, but before that we
must understand if the system reaches steady state at that time at steady state

𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐵𝐼𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙

So, for this all this dynamic equation need not be solved. One can once again solve this
and you will find that this has to be your 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 .

𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐼𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 =
𝐵𝑙

𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
So, I will be telling look your 𝐼𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = . This will be the final steady state current,
𝐵𝑙

which of course after solving this differential equations one must arrive at this you can try
it.

And what will be the final velocity, how much will be the final velocity? Final velocity
will be such final velocity final steady velocity will be such thus will be such that this that
this 𝐼𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 current flows in the circuit; that means,

545
 𝐸 − 𝐵𝑙𝑣𝑛𝑒𝑤
= 𝐼𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑅

See to find out the steady state current and speed one need not go through all these dynamic
equation, of course, it is a suggested method of studying at least for one, so that you know
there are situations when the motor or generator will run in steady state will be mostly
interested in that some few cases of dynamic behavior of DC machines also we will
discuss.

But to find out the steady state in DC things, what you have to do it if; it is; it will be
running at constant speed, then the electromagnetic and mechanical forces which are
acting in opposition they must be same, and electromagnetic force is 𝐵𝑖𝑙; from that I will
be able to calculate I final and so on.

Anyway we will continue with this in the next class.

546
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 56
Homopolar D.C Generator

So, I was telling about very simple DC machines and a simple generator and motor
consisting of a single conductor and placed under a magnetic field. If you excite it with an
external voltage it will act as motor and if you give a movement it may act as generator.
Only thing about the motor I have completed for the generator I will not tell much except
this information I must tell, you recall that in case of Generator mode also.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:03)

In generator mode here also I assumed one thing there is no friction like that and only thing
it is in fact, a no generator at all somehow you have dumped some kinetic energy to the
conductor initially it was running with velocity 𝑣0 and the moment you try to draw power
out of this generator the power will be delivered to be load, but not for so long, voltage
will collapse gradually to 0, current will collapse. So, long kinetic energy will be present
in the conductor that will be there, but what I am telling is that, this I will tell in a nutshell
now in case of see generator just to have for completeness sec on discussion on this topic
I will say that ok.

547
(Refer Slide Time: 02:09)

Suppose you have a generator on this railway track as we have drawn earlier and very
quickly I can write down the results this is my a b conductor generator mode generator and
it is running initially with velocity. And suppose I say like this it is running with velocity
𝑣 at constant speed and then I say that the generator is supplying a resistance like this and
your b is in this direction. So, polarity of the voltage induced will be 𝐵𝑙𝑣 is it not.

Now, suppose I say that this generator is found to deliver a constant current of value I and
the conductor was found to run with a constant velocity 𝑣. You get me that is the conductor
is of length 𝑙 moving it was found at one time that moving from left to right with velocity
𝑣 and we know voltage will be 𝐵𝑙𝑣 and it is delivering a constant current which has to be
𝐵𝑙𝑣
equal to 𝐼 = .
𝑅

It was found it is sustained, now the then I will such a situation is present that it is moving
with a constant velocity and this one, is it possible? I will say yes it is possible, because
this conductor is carrying a current 𝐼 therefore, this conductor experiences and opposite
electromagnetic force 𝐹𝑒 whose value is 𝐹𝑒 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙 it has to be because if it is delivering a
current 𝐼. Then I will demand that oh it is running at a constant velocity; that means, some
external agency must have applied a force to the right mechanical force, matching this
𝐵𝑙𝑣
electromagnetic force that is why it is running at constant velocity 𝑣 and current is 𝑅

everything is in place.

548
In other words what I am telling is for a generator to continuously supply power in this
case it will not happen the velocity will come to 0. So, long there is an external fellow
providing you this mechanical force which is equal to this electromagnetic force developed
by the machine which is from right to left that is why that engine comes in to run a
generator you require some mechanical assistance whatever power you deliver to the load
will come from the mechanical system or prime mover in case of rotating machine it is
called a prime mover. So, what is that prime mover? Maybe it is a diesel engine sort of
thing which will give you this mechanical force got the point.

Therefore this is the called the prime mover which drives the generator. So, to make a
generator run you must have some external agency which will provide these much needed
mechanical force to match the electromagnetic force and make the generator run at
constant speed. If any upset between these two happens then also I know because this is
the net force acting is 𝐹𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ . So, 𝐹𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ must act along the direction of the velocity, if
𝐹𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ > 𝐹𝑒 it will accelerate. If 𝐹𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ < 𝐹𝑒 it will decelerate and if these two are same it
will run at a constant velocity.

Anyway where this is in short the basic idea of a very simple DC generator which of
course, one will not manufacture because it is so, non ideal in the sense that very
impractical long infinite long rails what for, but this problem we have tackled to bring out
several interesting points that in a generator and motor take place ok. It gives you an idea
in a moving system two forces will act on the moving conductor; one is the electromagnetic
force, another is the mechanical force. In case of motoring mode electromagnetic force
will decides the direction of motion and in case of motoring mode it is the prime mover in
which direction it is driving the generator this one that will decides the direction of motion
and so on.

And will come to these points several times when we start a real practical generator. So,
go through this exercise and the as I told you can once again start if you say mechanical
force I have set then how the final operating point will be reached and so on we will discuss
about it. Now, I will talk about another interesting generator of this kind. Now, in this type
of generator as you can see this conductor is it moves from left to right and lines of forces
are into the papers. Conductors never see a reversal of field that is it is always a we will
see north to south north through south lines of forces it will cut and give you force ok. Let

549
us see another generator another’s generator to make things clear, DC can be generated
because that was so impractical.

Now, I will tell you about a very practical simple DC generator which is rotating type let
us see how it will look like very interesting. Suppose you have an aluminum disk we will
be discussing another simple type of DC machine which is more practical, I mean there is
no doubt about it and this structure or the constructional feature of this machine is you take
a aluminum disc here like this.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:21)

Aluminum disc and a circular aluminum disc and it has got a spindle about which it can
be rotated vertical axis along this line that is there. Now, on the top you keep a north pole
suppose this is a north pole above it ok.

This blue colored thing is a North Pole and below you keep a South Pole all along the
covering the area of this aluminum disc so, this is South Pole. So, there will be lines of
forces crossing this aluminum disc like this way this will be the direction of 𝐵. The black
one is the aluminum plate; aluminum plates ok and this aluminum disc can be rotated about
a vertical axis.

Now, in a simpler diagram I will put it like this that you have this disc of certain radius
and this aluminum plate I now draw on the plane of this page. So, your axis of rotation
will be here this is the axis of rotation and above this aluminum plate there is the North

550
Pole, below this there is a South Pole lines of forces will be into the paper all over this I
am not making it clumsier by putting so many cross here.

And if this is a rotated suppose in this direction with some rpm say 𝑛 rps, so many rotations
per second I am rotating it. Then final result I am telling then if you connect a voltmeter
between this centre point and this ream of this aluminum disc that is the periphery, if you
connect a voltmeter you will find there is voltage generator and that will be DC voltage.
So, on the top there is a north pole here and below this aluminum plate there is a south
pole. So, magnetic field will be 𝐵 and things. Now, why it happens, how do I get the
voltage?

So, for that what I am telling, you consider any line radial line here it consists of infinite
radial lines like this one of them you choose and then what I am telling you and suppose
the radius of this aluminum disc is 𝑟 ok. So, it will be this one and what you do now at a
distance this let this point be O this spindle point at a distance 𝑥 here, you consider a small
element vanishingly small element 𝑑𝑥 here this we concentrate on this element. And this
I am drawing it in a here the 𝑑𝑥 element in a larger scale 𝑑𝑥 is small mind you. Now, this
since it is moving like this therefore, it will be it is tangential velocity will be along this
line it will be moving suppose that tangential velocity is 𝑣𝑥 and this length is 𝑑𝑥 and there
is a magnetic field 𝐵 into the paper that this elemental length is seeing.

Therefore why not there will be induced voltage because there is a magnetic field, there is
a small element 𝑑𝑥 having a velocity 𝑣𝑥 m/s, 𝑣𝑥 can be related to this end and radius we
will do that, but this is the thing and how much will be the voltage? Voltage will be 𝐵𝑑𝑥𝑣𝑥
and what will be the polarity of the voltage 𝐵 right hand rule you apply 𝐵, 𝑣𝑥 and this will
be the polarity of the voltage. So, this side of this element will become plus and this side
will become minus. So, we expect a voltage is induced this one with this side plus, this
side minus.

Now, the question is why I have considered an element 𝑑𝑥? Because of the fact if you
consider this whole length you do not know what is the velocity ok. 𝐵 is perpendicular
length of the conductor is perpendicular to 𝐵, but you cannot assign a constant tangential
velocity to this whole segment is not because tangential velocity is a function of radius.

551
So, that is why I have considered a small element only anyway if you divide this in small
small small things elements then all the emfs will add up and finally, give you a voltage
between this point and that point some substantial voltage if all the small elementary
lengths they become seat of emf with this polarity only they will become and if you add
them up you will get a substantial voltage. So, magnitude of the voltage is this one. Now,
the question is they you have considered a single line there are I mean infinite number of
lines like that is not if you draw close by this line many lines are there many lines ok.

And they are touching each other this line you will find another line close by touching
each other, then each one of them this segments has become plus minus not doubt then
will they not will not there be a problem this conductors are in contact with the next
conductors no insulation between no there will be no problem. Because if you considered
a radius here if you consider a radius all the points in this circle considered they will be at
equipotential. Therefore, there is no current in this 𝜃 direction or there is no voltage
induced in this direction why because tangential velocity suppose somebody says no I will
consider the element like this here.

I will consider the elements like that at a given are this element then tangential velocity
and the length of the element are in the same direction they must be mutually perpendicular
𝐵𝑙𝑣 business so anyway so, they that will be equipotential. So, no matter you consider just
one element. So, all these elements are in parallel that is what I am telling. So, finally, a
finite voltage will be available between this point and this point and we would like to and
that voltage will be DC only because 𝐵 is constant, velocity you are running it at a constant
velocity, 𝑛 rps and so on.

So, and we found that the elemental voltage for a single element is if I say this is 𝑑𝑒𝑥 in
this element what is the voltage

𝑑𝑒𝑥 = 𝐵𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Now, what is the known input? Known input is this one 𝐵 is known and 𝑛 rps is known
ok. Now, rotation per second is same at this point, at this point rotation is same, but the
distance traverse meter per second velocity will change as you move from origin to this
way. How they are related? 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟, see for example, here what will be the velocity,
velocity will be tangential velocity at any point here is equal to

552
 𝑣 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑛

It is not in one second this point moves how much meters. So, therefore so much of m/s
will be the velocity.

Therefore tangential velocity 𝑣𝑥 of this element should be

𝑣𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑥𝑛

Because rotation per second are same for all these. So, this is 𝑣𝑥 mind you this is rotation
per second yes. So, this is meter per second it will become therefore, the elemental voltage
has become

𝑑𝑒𝑥 = 𝐵𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋𝐵𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥

So, this will be 𝑑𝑒𝑥 , then what will be the total voltage between point O and say point A
potential and what is the polarity this side plus minus?

So, potential voltage generated voltage between points A and O will be then

𝑟
𝑟2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂 = 2𝜋𝑛𝐵 ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑛𝐵
0 2

This is the final thing is equal to the generated voltage, we will continue with this in the
next lecture ok. So, you will get a DC between the center and the perimeter and this A
point there these are all equipotential point. So, whether this point or that point you I will
tell you about how to collect this voltage and use it for practical purposes.

Thank you.

553
 Electrical Machines -I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 57
Homopolar D.C Motor

Welcome to lecture number 57 and we were actually discussing some elementary DC

machines in the last couple of lectures.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:30)

And, recall that in my last lecture I told you about a simple type of DC generator, where
an aluminum disk is rotated at some given rps of certain radius 𝑟. And, there will be
magnetic field from top to bottom penetrating the disk, all over the surface of the disk.
Then, what happens is if you consider a radial line, there will be induced voltage between
the center and the perimeter of this disk. And, the value of that voltage is given by this
expression ok, this expression.

This we got last time. So, it is directly proportional to 𝐵 and radius square and rps of the
machine rotation per second. Now, and also the polarity of the voltage will be this side
plus this side minus. And mind you that this induced voltage, that is along the radial lines
the voltage exist, but along the direction of the 𝜃 along the direction of the 𝑟 at any radius,
there is no voltage difference between this point and this point that does not exist. Because,

554
there will be at equipotential points if you draw a circle that circle will become
equipotential. Of course, the value of the potential increases as you travel from center
towards the perimeter of the disk.

So, this type of generator of course, it is feasible, unlike your single conductor infinite
length DC machine, this machine can be easily constructed. And, this type of machine is
given a name called DC homopolar machines. Now, how to collect this voltage? What you
have to do is this you have to take two brushes, fixed brushes, 1 is here. And another at
the center somehow on the spindle suppose you connect the brush ok, this is the disk you
recall this is the disk, this is the spindle.

So, you connect I just to give you idea this is one brush, this is another brush. These two
brushes are fixed and the disk will rotate therefore, it will always touch the perimeter the
brush fixed brush. So, one brush is here, another brush is there. These will be the negative
brush, this will be the positive brush and through this fixed brushes it will supply the load.

Therefore and the magnitude of the emf generated is given by this. So, this is how you can
generate DC voltage. In fact, this type of configurations or this type of DC generators are
used, when the magnetic field can be made very large as in a superconducting coil will
create this magnets whose strength will be very large ok. But, anyway this is for
instruction, but for very large power at room temperature this machine is not of
mechanically very strong and things like that. Nonetheless this also gives us some idea
that, how easily DC voltage can be generated? And, we should not forget also that this
type of machines can also be operated as a motor.

555
(Refer Slide Time: 04:40)

So, as a generator that homopolar machine, homopolar DC machine. It can be also operated
both as generator and also as motor, when it is operated as generator, we have seen it can
be modeled as the generated voltage between the brushes. And, maybe it is some resistance
effective resistance internal and then your load resistance, this is the internal resistance
and this is the generated voltage. And, generated voltage we have seen it is proportional
to this thing that is

𝑟2
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝐶 𝐻𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑛𝐵 = 𝜋𝑛𝐵𝑟 2
2

Let us use different notation here this is 𝑟1 ; this 𝑟 is the radius of the disk.

And, this 𝑟1 is the internal resistance of the source 𝜋𝑛𝐵𝑟 2 . If, you want to operate the same
machine has a motor, then what you should do as this is generator operation, for motoring
operation, what you should do is this. This is disk, these are the two brushes ok. One is
connected to the spindle these are the two brushes. Here you connect a external supply,
supply is supplied voltage. If you connect a supply voltage like this with this polarity that
current will flow like this, it will come here at the center it is connected to the disk current
will all flow radially.

That is if you look at the disk during a motor operation, it will be the way I have drawn, it
will be this and this, currents will all flow radially. It will come here then come here; many
parallel paths are there for current to flow high. So, polarity of the applied voltage is such

556
it comes suppose it was stationary initially. And, let us assume that 𝐵 is in this direction
into the paper, then you can apply the left hand rule 𝐵𝑖𝑙 and this machine will start running
in the anti clockwise direction left hand rule you have to apply.

And, it will in the anti clockwise direction it will start running. And, once again it will
finally, reach a steady speed, when the applied torque that is the electromagnetic torque
developed is balanced by the opposite or present on the system. That is friction whatever
it is, but nonetheless in this case the moment it starts rotating we must not forget, each this
radial lines become source of emf, of this magnitude 𝜋𝑛𝐵𝑟 2 . At 𝑡 = 0, when it was
beginning to start you have switched on the supply with a switch at 𝑡 = 0, before that it
was stationery, you have closed the switch at 𝑡 = 0, it was stationery now it will start
accelerating electromagnetic torque will be produced. And if it can overcome the frictional
torque present on the shaft it will start moving.

And finally, it will attain a certain speed when the opposing torque and the electromagnetic
torque will be equal ok. Now, what is the direction of this force, if you calculate it? It is
we have seen 𝐵𝑖𝑙. Now, this segment what will be the polarity of the voltage. In this case
polarity of the voltage will be if you take an element here, it is moving with this 𝑣 and this
is 𝐵.

So, 𝐵 and 𝑣 this will be the polarity, that is the tip of this finger is towards the centre and
that will become plus. So, the polarity of the induced voltage will make this is plus this is
minus, it is correct this is back emf. So, it will try to oppose the inflow of current into the
motor. The model, in this case will be there will be an back emf with this polarity 𝐸𝑏 . And,
this resistance 𝑟1 in any case present and then you have your 𝐸 supply like this, 𝐸 supply
and this is the current and polarity of the voltage once again like linear motors.

So, it will try to oppose the supply voltage. And, when these things are running steadily, I
can easily say that steadily drawing some current from the supply, I will say it is operating
as a motor and they and delivering some mechanical power. How much is the mechanical
power, two ways it can be calculated. You calculate force then multiply with velocity
whatever it is integrate or simply it will be the mechanical power will be 𝑣 × 𝑖 that will be
also.

557
Power supplied here is 𝐸𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑖, a power certain power will be lost here, remaining power
will be this one. So, you can then easily write that

𝐸𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 = 𝑖𝑟1 + 𝐸𝑏

Multiply with 𝑖 both sides so, you will get

𝐸𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑖 = 𝑖 2 𝑟1 + 𝐸𝑏 𝑖

This will be the thing. So, this is power drawn from the supply, a portion is lost as copper
loss in 𝑟1 and remaining power must be the mechanical power. Anyway, so, it can operate
both as a motor and generator mode like, our single conductor linear version of DC
machine ok.

So, after this idea of DC machines and here are no complications, only you require two
fixed brushes ok. To be touched one at the perimeter fixed brush mind it, they are not
moving, fixed brush. So, this is the power balance equation of this simple DC motor, which
has no complications whatsoever. So, for it is construction is concerned.

Now, we will discuss about a formal large power DC machines ok. And, that is a DC
machine with which will have a rotor, it will have a stator and then it will be having a shaft
and it will run in a magnetic field. And, there will be two terminals available to supply the
rotor coils, there will be two terminals available to these stator coils and if rotor carries
current, rotor coils and stator coils both carry current, then they can produce some force
and you get sustained rotation, when the electromagnetic torque developed by the motor
and the opposing torque present on the shaft of the machine becomes equal.

558
(Refer Slide Time: 15:54)

So, before that you it will look like that the DC machine has got I have formal DC
machines, DC machine will have a stator and a rotor ok. The rotor will be laminated iron
circular plates with slots cut in it and I will that is what I want to tell that the.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:39)

For example, this is the laminated plates of the coil where this is the armature winding of
the machines, this is called the armature. So, there will be several such circular laminated
plates, they will put one above the other and that will give you the length of the machine.

559
And, these are slot and teeth as usual and there will be conductors placed on the slots in a
following a particular logic there they will be placed and they will be connected ok.

And, the field structure of this machine will be this is the rotor of the DC machine rotor,
where this is called armature. And, it has got slots and teeth and in which there will be
copper conductors of coil will be placed. The stator part of the machine will look like this
one to projected poles, one on this side and the other on this side ok. And, there will be on
the stator.

So, if I draw it in this in a small version, it will look like this you have two projected poles
on the stator; two projected poles on the stators. And, there is this rotor business which has
got slot and teeth all along as I have shown here and these will carry conductors. On the
stator this is the stator iron and there will be coils here, which is simple coil stator coil is
very simple it will be like this. And, if you pass some current through these coils cross and
dot like this and these two coils are connected in say series, these two parts of the coils
may be connected in series, and you connect it to a DC supply. So, that current flows in
the stator coils. And, then this will become a north pole this will become a south pole
produced by stator structure.

So, I f is the field current. So, what I am telling these two coils connected in series, will
ultimately give you two terminals available to you from the stator and they can be marked
as F1 and F2 called the field coil terminals; field coil terminals, got the point. And armature
is slightly involved that we will see, but the stator structure is made of iron and preferably
solid iron, unlike induction machine stator, which must be also laminated.

It is suppose a solid piece of iron and it has got a length mind you. Similarly, the rotor will
have a length like that ok. This conductor will run all along this all the conductors in these
slots. So, this is the stator structure and stator is therefore, can be represented by a simple
coil. And I will connect pass some DC current 𝐼𝑓 like this. And, these two coils are
connected in series F1 and F2 is the ultimately two terminals coming out and this is
armature ok.

560
(Refer Slide Time: 21:40)

But, armature will be a bit complicated we will come to that and before that I will show
you an actual DC machine armature a small DC machine armature.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:48)

This is what these slots and teeth are slots and teeth, then there are several plates stacked
together to give you the length of the machine. And, in these slots you can see multi turn
coils passing. And, they will be connected in a particular fashion. And, this part which I
will discuss extensively, why this is necessary this is called the commutator segments ok.

561
And, it is this part which will help us to change it the AC voltage generated in the coil to
convert it to DC voltage that will take up later, but the idea is clear.

So, this is rotor which will rotate on this shaft like this and it will rotate in two stator
magnetic field, one on this side north, another on this side south like this and it will have
a stator. So, stator part I have not brought. And, there will be an air gap between these this
is the idea I mean you should have a physical idea how the machine looks like, that is fine.
Now, before we start this DC machine. So, stator is will give you projected poles like this,
stator is has projected poles has projected poles. And, to be excited with DC current with
constant value of current value of current called field current ok.

Rotor will have rotor is also called armature also called armature for a DC machine,
armature has several laminated, circular plates, circular plates, insulated from each other;
insulated from each other. Like transformer from each other, by a varnish coating or
whatever it is has several laminated circular plates insulated from each other, to with
number of teeth and slot and slots ok.

Now, before so, field winding field coils, they are very simple, you simply have projected
poles around it you just suppose this is a projected pole like this. And, you make the coil
like that and there is another pole suppose here. And, you have coils like this, here also
and this is the structure of the stator poles I have shown their joint like this and it will be a
circular thing. So, it comes like this red one are the coils and this is the thickness outer
thickness of the iron of the stator, it will be like this joint, this is the stator, stator iron,
which is not laminated the reason we will see.

And these two coils what you will do is this these two coils you will connect in series as I
was telling. And you connect some and these two terminals may be marked as F1 and F2
and your stator coils are ready. Now to this stator coils, if you pass some connect some
resistance in say series, you connect some in other I show connect some resistance and
connect a DC source, it will send current like this and the direction of the current will be
like that.

So, that this will become a North Pole, this will be coming South Pole, this is how stator
poles will be created and this is. So, these two coils will be connected in general series to
create a two pole structure like that. And then in the armature, armature part is more
crucial, the armature will be here like this with slot and teeth, this is armature. And, here

562
there will be coils placed in the slots following a certain grammar, certain logic. So, that
you can ultimately get DC voltage in it so, we will continue with that. So, constructional
features we are discussing of formal DC machines.

Thank you.

563
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 58
Introduction to Rotating D.C Machines

(Refer Slide Time: 00:19)

Welcome to lecture number 58 and we have been discussing about rotating DC machines
formal type of DC machines as we understand and used in practice.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:33)

564
And, in my last lecture, I just told you what are the basic structure in a very rough sketch,
but it brings about all the important structural features of a DC machine. For example, this
stator will have two projected poles, if it is a two pole machines 𝑝 = 2. There may be
multiple number of projected poles, if the number of poles of the machine is higher and,
this part is almost a solid piece of iron, over which there will be coils with red colors this
is these are called field coils.

One of the simplest stator coils are no complications, yes take wires and make this coil
over the projected poles. And, these two can be suitably connected; so, that when you pass
DC current in it. This produces North Pole, South Pole, because this is the direction of the
current so, lines of force will come out from this, like this. And, it will enter here creating
the South Pole.

And, these lines of force will complete their path through the stator iron like this a sample
lines of force will be. And, the armature is a number of circular thin plates made or soft
iron and they are staged together. So, that you get the length of the machine, which in this
case will be perpendicular to the paper.

Similarly, this projected pole is also having a length perpendicular to the paper. Anyway
so, this is the basic structure, but the armature is slightly complicated. And, why it will be
complicated that we will discuss in detail do not worry about that, but essentially armature
has got slot and teeth, where there will be conductors placed, ok.

And, so; and this field will be excited by some DC source and this field current is often
denoted by 𝐼𝑓 , constant value DC current, and depending upon the strength of this field
current these are essentially electromagnetic. So, the strength of the value of flux density
in the air gap will be decided. So, lines of force will be completing their paths through the
stator iron, cross the air gap, armature iron, cross the air gap and back to square one. So,
this is how the field is created.

Now, our concentration would be about the armature coil. Now, armature coil is you know
in my electrical machines II lecture, I have discussed in the winding portion of the course
the basic terminologies used in making a winding, ok. And, I will go rather quickly here
to tell you about that ok, but you can if you like please see those videos, whose links will
be given in your website for this course.

565
Now, we must understand that the rotor being a structure rotor will be like this, there will
be slot and teeth, slot and teeth, all along the rotor this is the rotor, only a portion I am
drawing. And, I will place a conductor here, which will be take a piece of wire put in one
slot at the end you turn around and through another suitable slot you bring out this end.

So, at the end you will have two terminals for this coil, ok. And, you can of course, have
a multi turn coil, that is you take this wire single wire come here, then once again repeat
these. So, a multi turn coil we will look like this one take a piece of wire, this is one slot it
goes it at the end it will be like this. And, then make several turns like this, another turn it
is a two turn coil, and two terminals would be there. And, this is a coil ok; and, this coil
has got two sides, this is coil side 1 and this is coil side 2. And, this coil physically will be
placed in the two slots I am sorry I have put it in the teeth, it will be actually in slots.

So, it goes comes back like that and comes back. So, in these two slots suppose this coil is
placed it can be placed around that. And, this can be understood in this way, that suppose
these are the slots here.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:17)

Suppose this is the slots and these are the suppose slot and teeth, I just a this simple thing
and then you have a coil.

566
(Refer Slide Time: 07:41)

Anyway, this you see just this is the teeth, this is the teeth, these are the slots and, therefore,
you this is one coil; this is one coil side it goes along the length then it comes back and it
has got two terminals. Similarly, another coil, it has got this coil side it goes around and
returns and two terminals for the second coil and so on, is that clear.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:21)

Physically a coil will look like this a practical coil, it is just made two turns coil, you take
a piece of wire on a format you make this two times you go around and these are the two
terminals of the coil, these two clear. And this, what I will do, I will place it in one slot,

567
this coil side and the other coil side at some appropriate slot, arbitrarily it cannot be placed
ok. This is how the coils will be placed;

One good information is all coils are identical ok, this is one coil, another coil will be also
placed in these slots, only displaced from the first coil by some space angle that is all. But
the idea is very clear so, each coil will look like this and it will be in this fashion.

Now, the question is so, each coil has got two coil side, coil side 1, coil side 2, that is what
I have written here, coil side 1 and coil side 2. This is how I have tried to and it is almost
like a diamond shaped. The effective length of the machine is this one, which will be the
under the influence of the North and South Pole and, these portions that is this portion and
this portions are called overhang of the coil, overhang. There no voltages will be used,
because it will be under the purview of the magnetic field produced by the stator when it
will be running.

Now, the big question is where this, what should be the difference in number of slots
between these coil sides. So, two coil sides make a coil remember, this two coil sides make
a coil with two very distinct terminals that is all and all coils are identical.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:59)

Now, if I ask you this question that, consider a simple two fold DC machine that is here,
this can be easily understood. Suppose field coils I am not drawing it has created North
Pole and South Pole and here you have the armature. And, there are one slot here and you

568
have a coil side here, which is perpendicular and by coil side I know where it is part of a
coil one coil side. Suppose this is coil side one, what will be the induced voltage in it.

Suppose this armature is moving in this direction it is like this. So, induced voltage will be
you apply you have to apply right hand rule 𝐵, 𝑣 and 𝑙; so, this will be cross will be the
induced voltage or if you change the direction of rotation. Suppose, it is moving in this
direction, then the induced voltage will be like this 𝐵 and 𝑣 is this way this is the direction
of 𝐵, North to South lines of forces are. And, your ah this coil side I will show a dot to
indicate the induced voltage polarity, is it not 𝐵𝑙𝑣.

Now, this is a single conductor, but to make it a coil side I must; it must have a another
coil side like this here. Therefore, what you do is this you suppose there are two slots,
which are diametrically opposite. And, this is one coil side and this is the another coil side
ok, that is coil side I was telling nha where the coil side should be placed, suppose it is a
two turn coil.

So, one coil side is there and the other coil side in which slot should I place there will be
number of slots, I will place it so, that induced voltage in the coil becomes maximum
across between these two terminals. Suppose, it is in generator mode, if it is running there
will be induced voltage in this conductor cross and in this conductor it would be cross,
because velocity is this way B is this way you can once again apply right hand rule.

So, what happens is this the polarity of the induced voltage, this will be plus, this will be
minus for this coil side coil side 1, and it will be minus, it will be plus if it is coil side 2
like this, because it is on the South Pole having same velocity. Therefore, across this coil
this is the induced voltage in coil side 1 with this polarity this is the induced voltage in coil
side 2 with this polarity. So, you will get 2𝐵𝑙𝑣 as the induced voltage between these two
wires, clear.

Therefore, you must place the coil sides of a coil intelligently. So, that across the coil, if
you allow that coil to move related to a magnetic field, the induced voltage in the coil
becomes maximum, which ultimately told in a different language I will always say that if
one coil side at a given instant of time. If it is under the center of the North Pole, the other
coil side must be under the center of the South Pole at the same time.

569
It will rotate after some time if it is rotating it will come here this will go there, but it is
still under South Pole may be at reduced strength, but once again the voltage will be 2𝐵𝑙𝑣
with the magnitude will not remain same, is it not. Therefore, the essential consideration
is that, if this coil side to check you have properly placed it or not imagine that one coil
side, if at a given instant of time is under the center of the North Pole, the other coil side
of the same coil must be under the center of the South Pole, this is how we tell that. If, that
is the case then you check the maximum induced voltage here.

For example, if somebody says he has put the two coils he has made a coil and he has put
it like this. This is there was a slot available here and there was a slot also available there,
he; and the it is a two Pole configuration like this North and this is South and he places
one coil side, he make a coil, he makes a coil such that one coil side is here and it is return
coil side is here, when the center; when this coil side is under the center of the North Pole
the other coil side is in the magnetic neutral zone 𝐵 = 0 here, or tangential to the velocity
if velocity is this way. Can this conductor produce voltage? No, because 𝐵 and 𝑣 are along
the same lines 𝐵 is from left to right.

Therefore, in this case of course, at this instant there will be induced voltage under this
condition, what will be the nature of the voltage, nature of the voltage will be like this.
This will have induced voltage like this 𝐵𝑙𝑣 and this will have 0 voltage this coil side. So,
you will get voltage across the coil, but only 𝐵𝑙𝑣.

So, that is why you always insist upon that for a given coil, if one coil side is under the
center of the North Pole, then other coil side must be under the center of the South Pole
that will tell you in which slots the coil should be placed. And, as I told you that will be
number of coils number of slots, but all coils are identical ok, in different slots you go on
putting the coils in a particular fashion that is the, that is all.

So, this is like this if you have understood me, then you should tell what happens, if it is
suppose the machine is 4 pole. What do I mean by 4 pole? 4 pole means on the, I will go
to next page.

570
(Refer Slide Time: 19:37)

4 pole means, suppose on the stator there will be 4 projections, this is your stator. Not very
nicely drawn, but it will give you the idea and this is the stator iron. So, if you and suppose
this is the sectional view of those coils. So, there will be now 4 field coils, got the point.
So, I want to make this is not, so the currents are like this cross dot here, then the next
poles will be a South Pole. So, lines of force will go in therefore, it must have cross here
and dot there. So, that it will become South Pole. And, this one once again cross and dot
so, lines of force will enter; oh, no this I have to make this cross and this will be dots.

So, that once again it will become a South Pole, North Pole, that is here lines of force were
coming out, here also lines of force will here. So, alternately you have to create the poles,
north-south here it is north there I want to make it south. So, it must be cross and this
should be dot and lines of force within go in. So, lines of force will complete their path
like this, north south, north south and this is north this is also create a lines of force like
this and this will also create a lines of force like this. So, north-south, north-south this is
the thing.

So, and this field coil should be connected in series in such a fashion the current
distribution in this conductor is like this, then only this pattern will be created ok. If, that
be the case then a in this simplified diagram, now I will not show the coils, I can create a
4 pole stator as simply as this with 4 projections with conductors around it. And so,

571
suppose you have created this poles, north, south, north, south, then it is called a 4 pole
decimation, full stator I am not drawing.

Now, let us come back to the armature, which is a circle with lot of slots and teeth. For
example, here is a slot; here is also a slot, ok. And, there is also a slot like that it is available
and there are many other slots here there, many slots are there, ok.

Now, I say that I will make a coil like this as usual, if this is coil side one of a coil where
do you like to have your other coil side should it be here diametrically opposite. If, you
place, if you make a coil whose span is this much that is this coil side, this coil side, then
across the conductor there will be induced voltage, but the polarity of the induced voltage
will be subtracted. And, across the coil you will get zero voltage, that is why the rule is
that is you must ensure, if one coil side is under the center of the North Pole, the other coil
side must be under the center of the South Pole to ensure that maximum voltage is induced.

So this is how the coil span, this is called coil span ok. So, this is the thing ok, then a coil
span I will always say it should be equal to 180° electrical. Now, the question is what is
180° electrical? 180°, whenever we say angle we say in mechanical terms we understand.
For example, 90° is this, is it not and 180° is this, these are all mechanical angles. Now,
what do I mean by 180° electrical, the idea is simple, it is like this.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:37)

572
That is if you imagine, you have a two pole structure like this and you have a single
conductor. Suppose a single conductor and you allow it to move with certain velocity or 𝑛
rps equivalent to that. If, it moves the voltage across this conductor, in this position it will
be 0 is not, because 𝐵 and 𝑣 are along the same line. It will be having some maximum
value when it comes under South Pole, then once again it will be 0, then once again it will
be maximum, but polarity will reverse, because it is now under North Pole and once again
back to 0.

Now, listen to me carefully. If, this conductor makes a complete 360° rotation, your output
voltage across this conductor; across this conductor means across this coil side, other coil
side I have not drawn I could also draw that ok, or if you fill put another coil here other
coil side. So, voltage across the coil is 2𝐵𝑙𝑣 at any time and it will be 0 here, then either
positive maximum or negative maximum.

So, with respect to time if you sketch it is 0 here, then it attain some positive value is it not
when this fellow comes here it will have some positive value say, then when this fellow
comes here it will have once again 0 voltage. So, like that it will grow by some rule, but
anyway it will have a peak back to 0 here, then when this conductor makes a complete
rotation of 360° mechanical you will get one cycle of emf generated across the coil, AC
voltage will be generated 𝐵𝑙𝑣. But if you have a 4 pole structure, if you have a 4 pole
structure like this north, south, then once again north, once again south. And, I have learned
what, where this coil should be placed here one conductor slots I am not drawing it will
have two coil sides and you allow it to rotate.

So, if this arrangement rotates by 360° mechanical, one rotation mechanical rotation we
will ensue what two cycles of emf. Because, it will undergo north then south, then once
again north and then once again south back to north. So, one complete rotation of the rotor
will induce two cycles of emf, here that is one rotation one mechanical rotation will induce
two cycles of emf.

Here in two Pole configuration one rotation; one mechanical rotation will induce one cycle
of emf, got the point. So, here the conductors or the coil undergoes sees only two poles,
north-south one cycle of emf. In this case coil will see north south once again north south
till it makes a complete mechanical rotation.

573
Therefore, this angle for electrical induced voltage is the 𝜃𝑒 , that is 360° electrical, is it not
and this is 180° electrical. In case of mechanical two polar machine we will see that 𝜃𝑒 =
𝜃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ no difference angle in 𝜃𝑒 and 𝜃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ , when you plot these sketch the voltage in terms
of 𝜃, 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 it will become eventually. So, it will be like this.

So, in this case I will say

𝑃
𝜃𝑒 = 𝜃
2 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ

That is you move by 90° means you have moved by 180° electrical. So, think about this,
this is very basic concepts that I will use while discussing about the armature winding of
DC machine and understanding of this is essential, you cannot avoid. And, better look at
the detail introductory part on the winding lectures of my electrical machine two course. I
am briefly telling, but rather quickly because no point in repeating the same stuff once
again which is already available.

So, see that ideas are simple; so, I must distinguish between electrical and mechanical
angle. Number of poles of a machine will be always even, it cannot be odd, because you
cannot have a monopole. If, there is a North Pole accompanied South Pole must be there.
So, I have indicated the basic idea of this and next time we will continue from here.

Thank you.

574
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 59
Armature Winding of D.C Machines - I

Welcome to lecture number 59 and we have been discussing about the DC machines, in
our last class the diagrams were a little bit clumsy.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:28)

But nonetheless I explained to you that in a DC machine there will be a stator structure,
which will have projected poles like this and it could be a 2 pole or multipolar stators this
north south poles will be created by coils, which will be put around it these are called field
coils and on the rotor side there will be an armature.

Only thing important thing I mentioned about this equation that, each coil has got 2 coil
sides and if at any point of time this rotor will rotate, if one coil side of a coil is under the
center of the north pole the other coil side must be under the center of the south pole so,
as to maximize the induced emf. After all induced emf is 𝐵𝑙𝑣, velocity of the conductor
will remain same and therefore, the nature of the induced voltage will be same as the nature
of the 𝐵 distribution along the air gap.

575
Now, today I will try to explain that in a much more clear diagrams, the situation will be
like this diagram if you look at.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:56)

So, if you see that these are the poles stator poles where there will be coils around it to
create north south; north south and this armature it is slot and teeth slot teeth where the
conductors will be placed and this whole thing has got a length perpendicular to the plane
of the paper and this fellow will rotate and the conductors which will be placed here will
be the armature winding ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:46)

576
So,. So, this is the thing and if you look at this diagram on a paper the same diagram I am
telling, what is to be done is that this stator poles will be created by conductors placed
around it is not and suppose this carries cross current and this carried dot current then this
becomes a north pole.

Similarly there will be coils around the other poles as well and I want to create a south
pole. So, the current distribution in this coil should be this cross this dot so, that lines of
force will come out here lines of force will entail. So, this will become north south and
then once again this will become north south, north I want to create.

So, this will be cross cross dot dot and this is the another field coil identical all the coils
are and they and I want to make it south pole therefore, this should be cross and this should
be dot.

So, these coils which are wrapped around the projected poles are called the field coils. So,
north south; north south four pole machine it will become, and the rotor is this one where
there will be slots and there will be conductors placed. Conductors means coils will be
placed and each coil has got two coil sides and this I will show like this.

So, these conductors will be placed in the slots of the rotor the this structure is rotor there
will be a shaft here shaft with a key shaft perpendicular to the paper this is made of iron
and these are called armature conductors like this ok.

Now, I will tell you how this what is this coil is all about. If you see because in this diagram
I cannot show the length of the machine. So, let me try to show it this way.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:30)

577
See this is the actually this will be the rotor are you getting? This way and it is because the
rotor windings is the most crucial in DC machine stator windings are very simple there
will be four coils, if it is 4 pole machine and these coils are to be connected in series and
ultimately two terminals will come out they are called field terminals, which is to be
excited by some DC current creating north south north south poles but the armature
winding is rather interesting.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:14)

So, this is a coil which is diamond shaped like this, it is a coil like this and this coil has got
two coils sides. If at any time these coil side will be under north pole the other will be
under south pole. So, how this coil will be placed? It will be placed in its designated slot

578
like this here ok. That calculation we will do and it will have two terminals that is what I
want to tell this is how the coils will be placed and these are two coil sides to make a coil
you required two coil sides and these portions are over end portion of the coil.

Then in this portion of the winding there will be no induce voltage because north and south
will be all along the length of the machine there will be a north pole, south pole like that.
Similarly this side also there will be and it is a multi turn coil. In fact, it is a two turn coil,
it could be a 10 turn coil if you take a piece of wire make it like this on a wooden format
this is to be made then it is to be placed in the designated slot you cannot place it arbitrarily
of course.

Because I know that I have to be very careful to see that the coil span this degree in degree
it should be 90°, or 180° electrical and mechanical angle last time I told which will ensure
that if one coil side is under north pole the other coil side will be under south pole.

Only one relief is there that all coils are identical. If you know one coil the other coils will
be placed in some other slots that is all with these two terminals start finish start finish like
that I will put following certain grammar, certain logic which will fill up all the slots and
we will be proceeding towards making an armature winding.

Armature winding is somewhat difficult to understand compared to AC machine windings.

The reason I will tell you later because our goal will be here to produce DC. See what
happens is this if you have a single coil like this, and this rotor is rotated under the influence
of north south north south, then we know across the coil there will be AC voltage induced
but I want to make it a make it a DC generator. So, how to make that AC voltage converted
to constant value DC voltage to be generated?

So, what I have to do something extra after getting this AC voltage in all the coils there
will be AC voltage induced each coils are identical same AC voltage will be induced only
thing is the phase angle among the induced voltages will have some phase angle difference.

So, because of whatever is happening to this coil after some time same thing is going to
happen to other coils but nonetheless the voltage will be of alternating time that is one
thing.

579
Second thing is what we will do is this, we will have what is called double layer winding
positively in DC machine. So, I will be using double layer winding what does that mean?
It means that each coil for example, here let us calculate here how many slots are there;
you can easily see there are 12 slots there are 4 poles then how many slots will be there
12
per pole; it will be = 3.
4

Therefore if I will use a different color suppose this is one coil side; coil I have already
shown this is one coil side it goes and from where it will come out; because the angle
between south and north pole is 180° electrical therefore, number of slots per pole will be
3 therefore, its return should be 1 2 3 after that its return will be that is its return will be
here.

We will calculate this, this is one coil side this is another coil side that is it is a coil this
red mark thing each one coil side will occupy the upper deck of a slot and its return coil
side will occupy the lower deck of the slot that is in each slot there are two decks double
layered winding it is called. Therefore, each slot we will house two coil sides belonging in
general to two different coils.

We will see how this will be nicely filled up that we will see later. In other words what I
am trying to tell that in terms of this diagram, this is the coil this coil when I make it I will
these two coil sides I do not make it planar in one plane what I will do is I will press this
coil side a little higher than this.

Are you getting? So, this is the coil side and its return will be a little lower there these two
coil sides will not be in same plane. Then only if you place one coil here like this its return
will be in the lower up deck of the slot and it is the starting coils side of this coil will be in
the upper deck got the point hopefully.

Let us proceed. So, in each slot so, this red mark coil is a coil this is one coil side multi
turn coil it is there are several turns and upper deck will occupy that and lower deck will
occupy that. For example, if I say ah the slots number suppose 1, 2, 3, 4 then 5, 6 oh I am
sorry this is not this is a teeth 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12; is not? Number of slots per pole
12
which will be equal to = 3.
4

580
Anyway slots per pole we will calculate. So, you please correct that, you have understood
in these slots these conductors are to be placed.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:21)

Now, what I will tell you is this that, now we will be talking about double layer windings
double layer winding ok. That is each slots conductors will be placed on slots each coil
will have two sides and we will assume coil span is equal to 180° electrical and this I have
to do in order to maximize the voltage that is what I explained in the last class.

Suppose let number of slots number of rotor slots that is we are talking about armature
winding number of rotor slots I will denote it by capital 𝑆, suppose side by side I will go
with numbers suppose it is 16 and let the number of poles number of poles is equal to 𝑃 is
16
equal to say 4 then slots per pole is equal to = 4 and that will be equal to coil span.
4

What does that mean; that is coil span is the difference between the two coil sides of a coil
in terms of slot number in terms of slot number like this two coil sides this will be placed
in one slot and this will be placed in another slot they will be numbered take the difference
of these two number and that has to be equal to 4 in this case. So, this is coil span and this
is equivalent to 180° electrical or in this case 90° mechanical that is the thing.

Anyway this is the thing. So, I will draw the diagram in this way now, now follow me very
carefully what I am doing. Suppose each slot will have two coil sides because it is a double

581
layer winding therefore, total number of coils has to be equal to number of slots that is
equal to 𝑆 = 16; is not.

Because each coil requires two coil sides how many coil sides will be there; 32 because
each slot will carry two coil sides therefore, number of coils will be half of the coil sides
that is 16 itself. So, in general whatever is the number of slots that will be equal to the total
number of coils I can put in the on the periphery of the rotor slots that is.

Now, how do I go about placing the coils like that; so, that calculations are simple if you
follow me carefully what I want to.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:20)

Now, suppose I want to there are 16 coils 16 slots are there, in this diagram I want to tell
you like this, these slots I will show like this slot and teeth in the developed diagram. This
is the rotor periphery like that develop diagram means this diagram.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:44)

582
Circular thing, you have unwinded it and you are showing it, this is perpendicular to the
board like this, this diagram I have drawn hope you have understood.

Now, these slots I will number like 1 2 3 4 and dot dot dot it will be 16,and after that once
again slot number 1 is not? Developed because it is after all circular once again one this is
how slots will look like in the developed diagram.

Now, what I will do, I will take one coil. So, I will write here this is called winding table
very simple otherwise if you please follow me at least for windings and this column I will
write coils and each coil I will show like this.

Suppose I say that I will start; I will take one coil and I will in the upper deck this is the
starting coil side and its returned first of all where its returned will be? Slots per pole is 4
therefore, it will be (1 + 4) that is its return will be here. This will be the one coil one coil
means this fellow I have put it and as I told you while manufacturing this will be slightly
below and this will be slightly up so, that it will be nicely placed here.

So, this slot number is 5. So, out of 16 coils, I have put only one coil and slot number one
I have put it. So, this coil side I will say it is 1, I start and its return is at 5 what all we do
is this that in the lower deck whichever coil sides will come, I will tell them as 5’ upper
deck coil sides I will number with without any prime and lower deck. So, 1-5’ is 1 coil
whereas, it is two coil sides?

583
In slot number 1 and slot number 5. In slot number one it occupies the upper position of
the slot there is a vacancy here, somebody will come here do not worry. So, everything
will be filled up and in each slots there will be two coil sides. So, this is one coil it is over.

Now, what happens is this there will be 16 coils and all the 16 coils will be connected in
series and the circuit will be closed. Now the next coil I will take and I will start like this
next coil I will start from 2 and its returned will be in 6’.

So, this is coil 1 this is over and it is multi turn coil mind you although I am showing one
section and the second coil I will take which will start from 2, plus 4 and its return will be
here that is in slot number 6. Although I have not connected the coil each coil will have 2
free terminals but this is how I will continue my waiting that is what I am telling.

So, 2 and it will be 6’. So, I am writing it with red 2-6’ similarly third coil I will now not
take much space because 16 coils I do not know whether I can show it but it can be done.
So, so this is the thing or I will rather clean it what I am doing? So, coils I will do it nicely
coils.

So, we have seen first coil symbolically, I am writing and it has got two terminals 1-5’
second coil it will start from slot number 2-6’, 3-7’ number game it is all coils will have
same span identical coils, then 4-8’, 5-9’, 6-10’, 7-11’ ok. There will not be enough space.
So, let me draw it here continue, I could draw it in this way.

Then 8-12’, 9-13’, 10-14’, 11-15’, 12-16’, 13-17’ there is no 17’ what it should be; 1’ are
you getting? 17’ I am writing, but there is no 17’ it has to be equal to 1 because with the
circular 1’.

So, I clean it you have understood whenever it will be exceeding 16, you have to write
down this one 1’, then 14-2’ and 15-3’ and this is 16-4’, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,
13 all the 16 coils I have taken. So, this is how I will fill up all these slots and in each slot
each slot will house two coil sides.

For example, slot number 1 will house coil number 1 start and coil number 13 returns like
that. So, this can be done then what I am telling this diagram is not the actual coils, I mean
actually I know how they are disposed in space that is fine but so far there is electrical to
understand how they are connected I have just drawn each coil represented like this.

584
Now, what I will do is this all these coils I am telling I will connect them in series. So, all
the coils I will connect them in series; got the point? This connection now I now do because
all the coil each coil has got two terminals available to me and I will connect them in series
and not only in series all the coils and I will close it like this, that is all the coils in series
and the coils are closed on to itself.

Now, here one may raise objections that is there are 16 coils which are put like this, where
are the coils gone; this is these are the coils we can put on this and each coil is identical
they are displaced from one another this is coil 1, coil 2 will be like this, coil 3 and you
have connected with piece of wires in series this coil next coil and so, on and everything
will be rotating under north south magnetic field and each one of them will become a seat
of emf; is not.

So, and I have connected all the coils in series knowing fully well that each will become a
seat of emf these are no dead terminals there is induced emf here in this coil.

Next coil will also have induced emf and so, on if you go on adding. So, when you connect
them in series what you are doing; you are adding these voltages here, this voltage, this
voltage, this voltage and so, on. Now the big question is if that is the case and if you close
will not there be a circulating current.

The answer is no; because of the fact the polarity of the induced voltages in the coils will
be such that the addition of all the voltages AC voltages there mind you, I have not told
anything about how to convert it to DC till now but I know there will be source of AC
voltage here like that and if you add all the voltages the sum of the voltages will be 0.

The reason is very simple. If first coil voltage is this he is represented by a phasor like this,
second coil voltage will be lagging this by some angle 𝛽, third coil by this one like that if
you go and you will end up with coming here to the same coil after you have traversed all
the 16 voltages.

Therefore, resultant voltage acting in this closed coil which are closed each one of them is
seat of emf then they some of the induced voltages will become 0. So, we need not fear
there will be a circulating current although I know pretty well that each one of them has
become a seat of emf.

585
Let us also try to see that I told you there are how many slots under north pole. There will
be 4 slots under south pole; there will be 4 slots; machine will be running. At a given time
if you freeze if you take a snapshot, it is expected that 4 slots will be under the influence
of the north pole and next 4 slot will be under the influence of the south pole and so on.

So, suppose this coil size 1 2 3 4 are under the influence of the north pole and the direction
of rotation is such that they become plus; these 4 coils; these sides become plus. Obviously,
the other will be under south pole and they will become minus; is not? Instantaneous
voltage I am telling.

Then the next four slots 5 6 7 8 will be under the influence of the south pole they are
starting and the polarity of this induced voltage will be reversed minus, plus, minus, plus,
minus, plus and minus plus why not; and then the next 4 will be under the influence of the
north pole and this will be plus, minus, plus, minus, plus, minus and plus minus and the
other one other four; 13, 14, 15, 16 will be under south pole and this will be once again
minus, plus, minus, plus, minus, pluss, minus, plus.

So, if you start from this point traverse all the emfs you will be seeing as many plus. So,
many emf in the opposition acting end up with a zero voltage between if you start from
here traverse all the coils come back here zero voltage although there will be induced
voltage across this. So, how did I put this plus minus; let it be very clear. Coils are identical
they will be moving at some high speed no doubt fine.

And there are 16 slots are there, suppose it is expected then under the influence of this
north pole at a given time it is expected there will be 4 slots under north pole these 4 slots
under south pole 4 slots. If you take a snapshot instantaneous snapshot under that condition
what I am telling, coil sides are there under the either under the influence of north pole or
south pole.

Now, the question is let us assume that 1 2 3 4 is under the influence of north pole and
direction of rotation is such that I apply right hand rule and come to the conclusion that
then the coil sides 1 2 3 4 they are plus then about 5’, 6’, 7’, 8’ time certain they has to be
minus they must be under south pole because coil span is 180° electrical ok.

Then the next 4 slots will be under the influence of the south pole direction of rotation
remain same. So, polarity of the induced voltage reverses and so, on. So, I stop here today

586
to conclude that the armature windings I am discussing I am of a DC machine which is not
complete.

I told you there will be several coils are to be placed in slots and all the coils are first to
be connected in series and circuit is to be closed questions still remains that is fine; there
will be no circulating current but my goal is to how to get DC so, that we will try to further
explore in the next class.

Thank you.

587
 Electrical Machines – I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 60
Armature Winding of D.C Machines – II

Welcome to 60th lecture and we have been discussing the most interesting part of DC
Machine that is the Armature Winding. It is slightly difficult, but at the same time, so
interesting that is the point I want to make.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:37)

And you recall that, in my last class I told there will be slots, let us assume the number of
slots 16, each slot will house two coil size belonging to two different coils. All coils are
identical and the coil span is this one ok. It is a multi turned coil I have drawn, these are
the two terminals distinct terminals, this coil has got its own identity, ok. This coil I was
marking it has got a starting; start and finish terminals. This start terminal this coil sides,
if you start with slot number 1, that coil you calls coil 1, it will be designated at start 1
finish 1. There will be a second coil, which is identical, ok, this is the coil, this is identical.

This coil is identical; only thing is its number is to be changed like this. This is second coil
start from slot number 2, I am showing it because it is displaced. It will be marked as that
is what I am telling you, s2 and f2 start finish. And this is in slot number 1, this is in slot
number 2. Of course, slot number 1 and slot number 2 will be close by, it is like this it will

588
come here. But for clarity I am showing you, then what I am doing I am connecting all of
them in series. In the machine actually I am doing like this; similarly s3, f3. Where in this
simplified diagram it can be shown like this, ok. This is actually start of coil 1 and finish
of coil 1; finish of coil 1 is in slot number 5’, this is start of coil 2, finish of coil 2 and so
on. Then you get this, but this type of winding is called lap winding, ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:30)

The reason is clear because of the fact, the first coil which was here I will just draw the by
this simplified diagram. This is the first coil, it is in slot number 1, second coil which I will
draw with a diagram like this will go like this, is not? And these are the 2 terminals of the
second coil. So, this is in slot number 1, this is in slot number 2. Where this fellow is there
for this problem we have considered, this is slot number 5, 5’ because it is in the lower
deck, this is 6’. So, you see and these coils I am connecting in them in series.

Second coil is on the lap of the first coil, similarly third coil will be here in slot number 3,
I think you have got the idea. Is not? Start finish of the third coil that will be on the lap of
the second coil, that is why it is called a lap winding, ok; in this way I have proceeded to
complete the winding of the coils, ok. If that be the case that is fine as I told you, but we
know that if a coil is moving this stator field is stationary, nobody is rotating because DC
current you are passing to the coils and stator poles have become magnetized alternatively
as north-south, north-south like that. And their magnitude is same and they are stationary
in space, unlike say induction motor, it produces a rotating magnetic field.

589
Therefore, to induce voltage in the rotor coils to make it run as a generator I must use a
prime mover to run the generator. Coils will move and I know that there will be AC voltage
induced across the terminals of each coil, depending upon its position in space relative to
that field the polarity of the induced voltage will be decided, that we have discussed. Now,
the question is I want to make a decision latter, that is this voltages which have alternating
in nature with time the polarity of this voltage across start and finish of a coil will change
reverse its polarity AC voltage you will get. So, how to do it, let us see that.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:50)

Now, I will draw another diagram like this. Look at this diagram. Here I have shown it the
coils I have represented it is abstract; abstract in the sense I know how the coils are
disposed in these slots specially. Suppose for example, s1, f1 this is the coil number 1. I
know it starts in slot number 1, returns from its finish some slot number. I am sure about
one thing, if this s1 fellow this coil side of this coil 1 is under North Pole, the other its
return will be under South Pole, is not, that is what I know. Therefore, these all these 16
360°
coils, I have shown like this. They are displaced from each other by that angle = 22.5°
16

and so on.

And what I have done. I have connected all the coils in series ok. So, I have done it like
this, finish of the; follow me very carefully, this I have shorted because all coils have been
connected in series; these what I have done. All the 16 coils have been connected and the
circuit is closed; is not, this is what I have done. Now in the previous diagram, I drew it

590
much more simpler way, but this is a somewhat better representation to my mind. Now
what I will do is this, remember this conductor will be moving in a particular direction and
I have taken a snapshots at a certain time frozen everything. Then I would expect, the four
coil sides, the four slots will be under the influence of the North Pole, next four slots will
be under the influence of South Pole and so on.

Let us assume that 1, 2 these are slots number also. 1, 2, 3, 4 these slots are such that the
induced voltage polarity are positive. And obviously, they are returned they are under
South Pole that is this side, coil sides, this must be minus, this is how? Then the next four
coil sides, that is s5, s6, s7, s8 direction of prodigious same but they will be suppose under
South Pole has to be if it is under North Pole s5, s6, s7, s8 must be under South Pole and
the polarity of the voltage will reverse. So, it will be minus plus, minus plus, minus plus
and minus plus. And similarly, then 9, 10, 11, 12 will be once again under North Pole 9,
10, other will be negative 9, 10, 11 and 12.

And this will be then once again opposite, minus plus, minus plus, minus plus and minus
plus. So, I have taken a snapshot and I know this will be the induced voltage ok. But where
is DC about it? Mind you the magnitude of the voltage instantaneous values polarities are
like this may not be same with this one. Each one of them, because the value of 𝐵 might
change, under the North Pole no doubt, but the value of 𝐵 may change, is not? In fact, 𝐵
distribution let me tell, in case of DC machine it will be like this. Somewhat trapezoidal if
this is the thing; this is the 𝐵 distribution, ok. So, this will be the trapezoidal 𝐵 distribution,
flux density distribution, 𝐵𝑙𝑣. Here the conductors are moving.

So, the value of 𝐵 here, suppose this is under South Pole, this is North Pole ok. Conductors
are moving here, relative to this field. Those who are having under South Pole, they will
have some polarity plus minus etc, but each one of them will have same polarity because,
they are under one pole. But the magnitude of the voltage of this coil will be different from
this, no doubt that is this polarity of the induced voltage, although it will be plus minus,
plus minus for this four coil sides, but their magnitudes may differ, depends upon that
position of the conductor and the relative value of the 𝐵 there ok. 𝐵 distribution, what is
this axis? Space angle. There is no compulsion that 𝐵 should be sinusoidal. In case of AC
machines we insist that 𝐵 distribution let it be sinusoidal.

591
But, here my goal is to get DC, why? I unnecessarily insist upon that fact make 𝐵
distributions sinusoidal. It will be made DC in a very nice way. In fact, 𝐵 distribution has
to be like this because the pole, if you draw one pole, stator pole under this if you suppose
this is South Pole, this is the center ok. Air gap air it will be minimum here it will the
influence of the previous North Pole has ended so, your 𝐵 distribution will be somewhat
like this then flattened, ok.

Rotor structure is like this. So, here air gap is more uniform it will be flattened and it will
once again come to. So, trapezoidal; 𝐵 distribution trapezoidal, but in a single coil it goes
on the south, north what will be the induced voltage, if you see in the oscilloscope. That
will be also trapezoidal. Whatever is the nature of 𝐵 distribution that will be the induced
voltage pattern, what else, is not. So, alternating voltage will be induced, that will be
trapezoidal in nature.

Now this is the crucial part now. I want to get DC voltage out of this picture I mean what
should I do and this mind you it is rotating, time elapses. Once again another it is; right
now it is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 will be there after some time the 16 coil will come this side
and coil 8 will go to that side, are you getting this is rotating nah, I have taken a snapshot.

But at any given time this name is now not important. What I am telling, I would expect
there will be 8 coils on this side and 8 coils on that side. Because this fellow is rotating ok,
this coil goes to that side, but it will be filled up by this coil coming to this side; are you
getting the point, this is most crucial. That is at a given time, this numbering I have done
fine to understand what is happening, but after some time 8 will come to this side, 7 will
occupy the position of coil 8 here, 6 will advance here, if it is rotating in this way and so
on, got the point?

Therefore, it looks like that in this space, these are position of this space. Suppose I say
that I will from the junctions here, I will bring out some wires; are you getting. From all
the junctions I will bring out some wire and this is conducting wire, this is suppose some
copper strip thick copper strip, like that. This is the most nicest part of this whole thing,
whoever first imagined this way it can be done excellent, I mean ideas.

So, you think in this way; that ok, from the junctions what I will do? I will drop down
some wires here and terminate it on thick copper strips each one; are you getting? So, it

592
will be brought on to same distance, I mean you understand like this. So, these are junctions
of this series connected coils, you have brought.

And then if I say that look what you do, you take a carbon brush and therefore, what will
happen? If this fellow rotates this junctions will also rotate in space is not? If this coil is
rotating this can be also numbered, this fellow will also rotate it will come after sometime
here, if the direction of rotation this way. This fellow will come here like that. But, I am
certain about one thing, what is that thing? That you see this junction that is this point in
space, whoever; whichever coil comes, it will have a plus here.

Similarly, so what I will do is this, I will connect a carbon brush here, brush 1. And I will
connect a carbon brush there, in space B2. And they will be nicely placed and they are
fixed B1, B2 are not rotating; B1 and B2 carbon brushes, fixed in space, not moving. But,
what it will do is this, whenever any coil side come in this position, it will touch that coil
end plus and no matter whether it is 5, 6, 7, 8 or 1, 2, 3, 4 has come this side, this polarity
of this voltage will always be plus minus, no alterations, ok, newer and newer coils will
come this coil will go behind the same, it will go to that side. But this will be occupied by
this coil.

The interesting point is whoever comes in this position it cannot escaped. This destiny of
polarity of the voltage plus minus, it has to be this side plus this side minus no matter
whether coil 8 has right now here or coil 6 is there or coil 14 has come here; whoever
comes he will be treated in the same way, because 𝐵𝑙𝑣 decides the polarity a magnitude
of the voltage and polarity by right hand. Therefore, I will fish out from this series
connected voltage I will identify where is plus minus in space and in the proper space, I
will connect the brushes. After some time this copper strip will come in contact, mind you
this because of my inability to it is in the same position, when this coil come, it will come
in touch with B1; this junctions are moving, this brushes carbon brushes are fixed in
position.

And I am we can conclude that no matter let the armature rotate at high speed or whatever
it is, across B1, B2 you will always get DC voltage, no AC voltage. That is we are from
the space distribution of the polarity of the emfs we are ascertaining, we are satisfying with
arguments that whoever, whichever junction comes here it will have plus. This one plus,
oh I am so sorry I would connect it here this you please forgive me, this one this brush B1

593
we I will connect it here. That will be the most optimum sequence, wherever plus joined
you connect it here. This should be the position of B1, B2 is ok, minus minus is not.
Always you will get across B1, B2 DC and these fellows are moving after some time this
junction will touch, after some time this junction will come but, whenever it comes it will
a plus plus here.

So, from the junctions you have to drop out some wires terminated some copper strips and
placed your fixed brushes in appropriate positions and so on, is not. Then it looks like that
wherever plus minus, plus minus, plus minus. This is here also I could place a brush very
nice, fixed brush say B3, because minus minus as joined. So, this is the negative brush,
this will be the positive brush. Similarly this one will be B3 is there a negative brush; B3
negative it will give and where plus plus has; I will connect another brush here B4. I can
tap the voltage from these positions and then what I will do is this, this is also plus.

So, have you got the idea? This is the essence of the thing. You have AC voltage
fundamentally induced in each coil, no doubt and it will be alternating in nature because
𝐵 distribution is alternating although not sinusoidally, it does not matter. It is trapezoidaly
it is varying. Therefore, I will get AC voltage induced across each coil, here if you see the
voltage waveform between these two terminals, that will be AC in the oscilloscope and
that will be trapezoidal alternating.

See the voltage between these two points, it will be AC. Only thing this voltage and this
voltage will have a phase displacement, because they are not put they will not be in phase,
their positions are different in space. But the interesting point is, I want to get a DC voltage
out of this AC voltage environment. Then it is done like this, argument is imagine that any
it is rotating at high velocity like that fine there are suppose 16 coils.

So, at a given time I will expect four starting coil sides will be under North Pole say 1, 2,
3, 4; s1, s2 s3, s4 under the influence of North Pole. And its return coil side must be that
is f1, f2, f3, f4 finished coil sides will be under the influence of this South Pole. And
suppose direction of rotation is such, then by applying right hand rule I come across this
polarity plus minus, plus minus, plus minus for this 4 coils. If s1, s2, s3, s4 under the
influence of the North Pole, I take a snapshot at that time. Then s5, s6, s7, s8 should be
under the influence of South Pole and they are returned or finished coil sides f5, f6, f7, f8
should be under the influence of North Pole. And that way I decide the instantaneous

594
polarity of the induced voltage, how in space it is distributed, because each coil has got
two terminals.

Then I argue that let the rotor rotate, but at a given time it is expected not that 1, 2, 3, 4;
s1, s2, s3, s4 will remain always under North Pole. It is moving s1, s2, s3, s4 suppose it is
moving in the clockwise direction, it will move this way, but next s terminals will come
another four. And their distribution of polarity will be exactly same, when they occupied
the positions of s1, s2, s3 and s4 which was occupied earlier a bit earlier by those 4 coil
size. Therefore, in space the polarities of the voltages it remains same. Therefore, we now
know what to do to tap a DC voltage out of this AC distribution of induced EMF is that,
that where ever plus plus joins drop a; from all the junctions you drop conductors and
terminated thick copper strips, ok.

Then place some carbon brush, in space which will not move mind you these junctions
will move because they are at these junctions this fellow is moving. But this brush I will
not allow to move with some spring this type of arrangement stator structure I will hold it
in this position always similarly, B2 negative-negative, B3 negative-negative and B4
positive-positive. Then I will say that across B1, B2 you get a DC voltage.

And I will go further, I will join this positive-positive by an external wire, these are all
stationary. And I will join this negative-negative together and this I will say ultimately as
my armature terminal A1 and this negative-negative I will say as I may get terminal A2,
ok. We will continue with this in this next time very interesting, I mean how really from
AC voltage you get this DC voltage.

Thank you.

595
 Electrical Machines – I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 61
Armature Winding of D.C Machines – III

(Refer Slide Time: 00:39)

Welcome to lecture 61 and we are going through Armature Winding which is more
complicated than an AC machine winding. And you recall that to convert it to DC we have
to do these things that is spatial distribution of polarities of induced voltage existing across
each coil. We have taken 16 number of coils for convenience to explain the things out and
assume the stator poles to be 4 mind you 𝑃 = 4 and this way I did it. I will just tell you
that suppose we say that it is a 2 pole machine with 16 coils, how this will look like.

596
(Refer Slide Time: 01:25)

So, that you understand the previous one much in a better way. So, if it is a 2 pole winding
and total number of slots are 16, then I will first calculate coil span, number of coils a
number of slots per pole this is what I have to calculate slots per pole that will then become
equal to 8, is not? And with that understanding that the start of the coil under North Pole
and all the coils are connected in series of course, so, that thing I quickly do. So, that you,
what will happen if the number of poles is equal to 2 not 4.

So, as I told you all the coils should be connected in series nothing like that. So, these coils
have connected in series, will there be any circulating current? No, although each coil will
become seat of emf, because if I show the polarities of the voltages as many plus minus
voltages we will see in that series closed thing so many minus plus we will see they will
cancel each other.

So, if it is a 2 pole machine therefore, I would expect the starting coil sides of say the first
8 coils s1, s2, s3, s4 up to s8 they will have a fixed polarity. They will be under North pole
I have taken a snapshot when this 8 coils coil sides that is s1 to s8 coil sides are under say
North Pole and direction of rotation is such that polarities of s1 s2.

If s1 is plus f1 must be minus because f1 is the other coil side must be under South pole
that is how I have made the windings plus minus and s9 to s16 this coil side must be under
South pole coil. At this given instant of time; at this given instant see coils are moving, but
on an average 8 coils will be under North pole s1 s2. So, it will be like this.

597
Therefore s9 to this one it will be on opposite polarity, it will be like this. Then the next
step is series closed then from the junctions I will draw it in a much better way now what
I will do I will draw a circular my god this one I will draw. Now, from the junctions I will
bring out some wires physically connecting it to this one and this side it will be a thick
copper strip, here there will be a thick copper strips, there like that and this is how I will
complete the diagram like this and here will be another 16 coil sides.

And then what I am telling? I will put carbon brushes in space which will be fixed that will
not be rotating with this armature coils rotating this copper strips 2 will rotate in a
particular direction. Then I after drawing these take after taking a snapshot and this thing
with time I am telling you this distribution of plus minus this will remain intact whoever
comes in position of s1 f1 after sometime a 16 f16 will come here and s1 f1 will advance
to that side, but it is destined to have this polarity plus minus that is the crucial point. Then
what I will do? I will put two carbon brushes I will take which are fixed where plus plus
has come I will call it B1 and where minus minus has joined this is also this carbon brush
it is positioned in such a fashion that this copper strip will be touching this whenever it
moves fast.

And this is say B1, this is say B2 carbon brush and these two I will say this is armature
terminal 1 and armature terminal 2 and this time only two brushes will do no 4 brush is
required, because you want to maximize voltage all the emfs here, no matter which coils
which 8 coils are on the right which 8 coils are on the left polarities of the voltages is such
that across B1-B2 you will always get DC voltage, got the point. Now, this is fine so, far
as understanding is concerned this is what you have to do, but in a practical DC machine
this type of arrangement it is to be made more solid I mean constructionally ok, what is
done is this in the actual DC machine.

So, brushes are to be placed in proper positions in space that is whoever has made the
winding he will tell you put the brush here put the brush there. So, that you will get DC
voltage in this case, this A1 become plus voltage it will give it will give minus voltage
rotate the armature in that field produced by the stator coils and you will get DC voltage.
So, that is very nice. Now, this one instead of doing like this it is to be done in this fashion.
This copper strips in effect I will I must tell that these are to be called commutator
segments, each coppers thick copper strips in this representative diagram and these are
fixed brushes; fixed brush.

598
So, in the armature winding of a DC machine coils are closed connected in series then you
will have 2 additional thing, one is a commutator segments as many commutator segments
has the number of slots and there will be 2 or 4 brushes or 6 brushes depending upon the
number of poles if the winding is lap winding that is what I told you. Now, let us see how
this commutator segment is to be connected see from the junctions you have to drop this
one.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:53)

Now, let us come to this diagram that is suppose this is one coil let me draw in this develop
diagram, this is suppose one coil I will henceforth show with two terminals it is a multi
turn coil ok.

Now, what is to be done is this, below this on the shaft of the machine this is the shaft I
will put another thing like a ring whose which will look like this one. These are copper
strips the one I told showed with a circle it is on the shaft of the machine I will put it like
that these are called copper strips or called commutator segments. Copper strip conducting,
but each copper strip there will be as many commutator segments as the number of slots
because number of those circular thing we have seen it is equal to the number of slots.

So, those circle thick these lines we talked previously nah these I am telling these are the
copper strips in actual machines it is done like that ok. I have not brought that armature
winding today unfortunately next time I will show you, but this is on the shaft of the

599
machine it will be inserted this way it will go and this is the shaft of the machine shaft got
the point.

And each commutator segment adjacent commutator segments should be insulated from
each other they should have their own electrical identity. For example, in the previous
diagram these two are insulated by space they should not be if they are touching purpose
will go very purpose will be lost. Therefore, what happens is this with a different color I
will show. The red portions are called mica insulations.

So, that these two each segment has it is own electrical identity, it is not sharing anything
up with the adjacent commutator segment, they are insulated from each other, got the idea.
Therefore, commutator segment 1 2 3 like that 16 commutator segments will be there on
a circular cylindrical structure and each one of them is separated by a layer of mica
insulation. And from the shaft also they will be separated insulated not that otherwise shaft
will become electrically aligned and it will be in fact, shaft all the commutator segments
not because shaft is metallic. So, insulations are provided so, each one with a weight like
this then a thin mica insulation thin and then another commutator segment.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:32)

So, it will be the replica of this stator armature like this it will be the replica of this one
here and it will be shown like this that is suppose this is the shaft in this sectional diagram
what I will do, I can show it like this, 16 such 1 2 3 each one is commutator segments these
lines are mica insulations like that. So, on the shaft it will be shown over a small radius.

600
So, it will be replica of the rotor to slot arrangement only, but anyway these are all
commutator segment 1 2 3 4 to 16 got the idea ok. So, this is one coil, then there is a you
know another coil like this second coil is there I will draw with a different color, second
coil will be in the next slot it will start from here and it will return from the next slots like
this is it.

So, first coil and this is the second coil, this is the s1 and it is return f1 in terms of slots
this is f1 and this is start of second coil finish of second correct this is the thing. In terms
of slot number it will be in slot number 1 if 𝑆 = 16, 𝑃 = 4 then this should be f2 should
be in terms of slot number 6’ is not.

So, it will be 1-5’ and this is 2-6’ and this coils are to be connected in series that is s1 f1,
then I will start with this join s2 f2 and this process will continue it gives you a lap winding.

Now, below these I will try to show the commutator segment like this 1 commutator
segment also I will number them, 2, 3, how many commutator segments will be required?
As many slots are there, as many coils are there, because you recall that from the junctions
I need 1 commutator segments there are 16 coils. So, for each junctions I require a
commutator segments. So, this junction I will connect it in commutator segment suppose
1 that is where is the junction, first coil and second coil the junction I will drop it to 1, then
second coil I will drop it to 2 and so on ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:49)

601
Now, I will go straight away to winding table in it is full form winding table, 𝑆 = 16, 𝑃 =
16
4, coil span for maximum voltage is equal to = 4 slots. So, here now I do like this coil
4

and here I have to do another thing commutator segments two things must be there. Let
me try to explain to you, suppose this is first coil 1-5’, this one I will connect to
commutator segment to 1, where coil ends are terminated. It will be in 1 that is one I will
terminate it this is the coil I will terminate it in commutator segment 1 and next one I will
it is return I will terminate it in commutator segment 2.

So, commutator segments I will also numbered 1 to 16. 1 will be terminated here 5’. Next
coil 2-6’ this junction I will terminate it in commutator segment 2 and it is other end 3 like
that, 3-7’ in this way I will carry on for let us draw the full thing 5-9’, 6-10’, these are coil
ends mind you start finish start finish.

7-11’, 8-12’, then another 8 coils are there, 9-13’. Actually what will happen is this anyway
up to this point I will just do and all these coils are connected in series and continued like
this. So, it is 1-2, 2-3, then 3-4 like that, this way I will complete my winding tables up to
16, next time I will bring the complete diagram in a PDF form so, that I do not have to
spend much time.

Then what I want to tell is this there are now several coils connected in this way, that is
this is coil one each sides are connected in commutator segment 1 and next is 2, it is return.
Then next coil from 2 I will start next coil. So, next coil first thing is commutator segment
2 this blue one and it is return will be I will just show this one, it will be terminated in
commutator segment 3.

So, from the junctions those vertical lines are coming to the commutator segments and
these commutator segments because it is connected to shaft it will also rotate. Then I have
to take carbon brushes which will be not rotating and they will touch this commutator
segments at the appropriate place that I have indicated how it is to be done after showing
the polarities that I will do next time like this will be the brushes nothing else.

So, all in this diagram in this previous diagram this will be the commutator segment your
commutator segments will be moving and you make arrangements. So, that carbon brushes
will touch this commutator segments with the help of some spring and external thing. So,
that this fellow will rotate, but carbon brush will remain stationary.

602
So, a typical brush will be connected like this at appropriate place that you have to decide
where plus plus sign meets where minus minus sign meets negative brush and then from
this armature terminals say A1 say. So, I will continue this discussion next time, but go
through it very carefully it is so interesting although complicated, but the analysis of DC
machine is much easier people say construction wise AC machines are simpler analysis is
difficult.

In DC machine it is opposite construction is rather difficult to understand particularly the

armature winding field winding is absolutely fine no complications, but armature winding
there will be slots there will be armature conductors. Armature conductors are to be
terminated on commutator segment which are mounted on shaft on the shaft and there will
be fixed carbon brushes which will be stationary and touching the commutator segment
and placing up the brushes is an intelligent work I mean if you put the brushes at wrong
positions you might get 0 voltage as well. So, this is how the complication starts, but
nonetheless across the brushes you will be ensured about the DC voltage.

So, in our next class I will show a complete armature diagram lap winding I am discussing
only wave winding I will do a little later and then two fundamental equations we have to
derive. One is if you know the flux distribution, if you know the number of conductors
present in the slots of the armature, then what will be the expression of the induced voltage
if the armature is rotated at so much rpm or rps that will be the generated voltage equation.

How much DC do we expect on? What factors will it depend? And similarly we have seen
that in case of DC machine for all machines in case of DC machine as well whenever
generated will supply power it will experience some electromagnetic torque when
armature will carry current, how much torque will be developed, these fundamental emf
and torque equations once we derive then life is rather easier for DC machines.

Thank you.

603
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 62
Generated Voltage Across the Armature

Welcome to 62nd lecture on Electrical Machines I and we are discussing about DC

machines.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:26)

And, in DC machines the armature winding is slightly difficult unlike AC machines

windings, but although the basic features of a winding is still present that is each coil will
be generally full pitched coil and they will have two coil sides and the separation between
these two coil sides will be 180° electrical. So, in the simplified diagram you recall that
earlier we for a 4 pole machine we had the simplified winding diagram.

I need not go to slot and show the exact winding how it is done provided I know how I am
presenting a coil in these slots in this diagram. That is suppose 7th coil s7 and it is finished
another coil side f7 and I if at any point of time this coil side s7 is under North pole, f7 has
to be under South pole. And after assuming some direction of rotation generated voltages
were shown and then we found that no matter which coils occupy this particular position
which is presently occupied by 7th coil, whether it is 6 or 5 whoever comes here because

604
if things are rotating they cannot, but have this polarity of induced voltage and it is
magnitude will be also same.

This prompted us to think that in that case I will take from the junctions with the help of
conducting wires terminate on some commentator segment circular and then we will
placed fixed brushes in space which will be stationery, but in which position where plus
plus will be joined where minus minus will be joined negative plus here plus plus joined
positive plus and this one we explained this. So, there will be in case of this lap winding
there will be four brushes B1 and B4 they can be joined together and 4 brushes can be will
have to be connected.

Then this is not how exactly this is done last day I forgot to bring this model. So, this
portion that is this and this copper strips these are done by what is known as commutator
segment. If you look at it very carefully the in the commutator segments there are several
commutator segments and the which is mounted on this shaft and two commutator
segments this and this next commutator they are insulated by it is looking like a gap, but
there is a mica insulation ok. So, that each commutator segment has got it is own identity.

Therefore commutator segments number of commutator segments will be just replica of

the number of slots here if they are equal in number. So, we will considered the simplest
case when the commutator number of commutator segments are equal to this one, because
in each commutator segment two ends of two different coils will be joined therefore,
number of commutator segments has to be equal to number of slots present in the machine.

So, this whole thing will rotate and then we will have carbon brushes suppose this strip is
a carbon brush placed in space like this and fixed. Therefore, as it rotates this fellow does
not rotate this one this brush it will touch whoever whichever coil comes in that position
it will connect that particular commutator segment, ensuring that B1 and B4 will remain
always positive B3 and B2 will always remain negative polarity of the voltage their by
giving you a DC voltage.

And another thing you note that. So, this two terminal so, commutator segment later I
showed that it can be like this if you go there will be commutator segments here.

605
(Refer Slide Time: 05:41)

And each coil suppose s1 and f1 is a coil it is 2 ends will be terminated here and it will be
terminated there. The commutator segments where the coil ends will be terminated of a
particular coil the difference this length is called commutator pitch commutator pitch
which is denoted by 𝑌𝑐 .

In case lap winding 𝑌𝑐 = ±1. In this case, 𝑌𝑐 = +1. So, this coil number 1 is connected to
adjacent commutator segment, similarly coil number 2 will be actually connected between
2 and 3. So, so from 2 you start this junctions and your 2; 2 and this side it will be
terminated on 3 and like this then s3 it will continue like this. So, this is called commutator
pitch this is what the difference between the commutator segment numbers of a particular
coil which happens to be 𝑌𝑐 = +1 in case of lap winding ok.

So, and after we complete it then we make the winding table as I have shown simplified
winding table and from here I know which at which junctions the brushes are to be placed
everything is known B1 B2 B3 B4 if it is a 4 pole lap winding which two are plus which
two are minus brushes are stationeries I will connect them and ultimately get the armature
terminal.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:26)

606
Now, and this one can complete I leave it as an exercise up to 16 coils you complete then
put plus minus here they their also and the commutator segment first coil 1-5’ in terms of
slot number 1-2, 2-3 like that and then you can determine the position of the brushes much
more scientifically if time permits I will further discuss on this, but it is not necessary at
this stage.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:59)

Therefore, I now know that field winding a DC machine I will represent it schematic
diagram I will show the field winding like this F1 F2 and we you know how these two
terminals are coming and armature I will show it like this, a circle and two brushes.

607
Even if it is a 4 pole machine only two brushes I will show why, because of the reason that
it is the equivalent simplified representation ok, whatever is happening under a pair of pole
in the armature conductor under the next pair of pole same thing is bound to happen it is
not. North, South whatever is the happening whoever conductor is present under the next
pair of pole same thing is going to happen. Therefore, it is the simplified representation
which are called the armature terminals A1 A2 which are coming from where if it is 4 pole
machine B1 B4 we have shorted got this and B2 B3 you have shorted you have got this.

Now, if you look carefully between this one this diagram I will refer too previous to this,
this is a two pole machine if you join like that you can easily see if you start from B1 you
traverse 4 coils and you come to minus ok. So, between positive and negative brush this is
one parallel path, it could be you could reach the negative terminal because negatives are
shorted also. So, B1 another 4 coils and you reach the negative terminals so, second
parallel path ok.

So, here is one parallel path, here is the another parallel path, similarly from this positive
terminal if you want to reach the negative you see 4 coils you reach the negative, from this
another 4 coils you reach the negative. Therefore, between the positive and negative
brushes the armature circuit all the coils will be divided into as many parallel paths as the
number of poles of the machine provided it is a lap winding at least, because I have not
discussed anything about wave winding that I will do slightly later.

So, for lap winding the conclusion is between the brushes there will be a number of parallel
paths a number of parallel paths means if the number of poles of machine is 4, number of
parallel paths between positive and negative brush will be 4, if it is a 6 pole DC machine
number of parallel paths will be 6. So, this point you please see it can be easily seen from
plus to minus if I want to reach because it is this plus thing what I am telling I will write
here A1 I have written yeah I already I have written sorry.

This is the brush A1 plus this is A2. So, coming back to now the simplified diagram this
A1 is coming from the junctions of B1 and B4 which are positive and this is suppose
positive and these are called armature terminals and this is minus. Of course this plus
minus may interchange depending upon direction of rotations depending upon the
direction of flux from left to right, but anyway. So, it is if it is an ideal machine no point

608
in showing this plus minus, but only a pair of brushes. This is how it will be shown, but
what I am telling if suppose at any time the armature carry some current here.

Suppose it is carrying some current here suppose it is generator mode it is delivering a

current here connected to the load because it will become a seat of emf. We will soon find
out what will be the expression of the emf, but the point is if it delivers current what will
be current in the conductors flowing. It will not be equal to 𝐼𝑎 why because there are 4
parallel paths if it is 4 pole machine. So, this current divided by the number of parallel
paths all parallel paths are identical so, current will be equally distributed in the parallel
paths.

So, if the if number of parallel paths if I say if 𝐼𝑎 is the external armature current then
current through the armature conductors through the armature coil sides or conductors
𝐼𝑎
armature conductors will be equal to , where 𝑎 is the number of parallel paths parallel
𝑎

paths in the armature circuit in the armature circuit that is across the brushes mind you it
is important to note this external current and the armature conductor current is their not
the same.

In case of lap winding we have seen in case of lap winding a number of parallel paths 𝑎 =
𝑝 is equal to number of poles of the machine, is that clear. So, this comes naturally, if it is
a 2 polar machine lap winding number of parallel paths will be 2 it can be easily seen
because we have seen that 2 pole winding we have drawn the physical that winding
diagram 2 pole machine you see.

609
(Refer Slide Time: 17:49)

There are only 2 brushes B1 and B2 to reach from plus brush to minus brush you traverse
either this way 8 coils reach minus and another alternative path is this one 2 parallel paths
for a 2 pole machine hopefully you have understood this.

Now, today I will do one very important thing that is suppose I will say I have a DC
machine with a field winding and armature winding I will run the DC machine by a prime
waver at certain rpm or rps I know will be knowing the field current which will create a
flux along this line and I would like to know what will be the EMF available across the
brush of the brushes of the machine across the armature terminals on what factors it will
depend and how to calculate that. So, let us try to do that first.

610
(Refer Slide Time: 19:19)

So, consider a DC machine it is the armature terminal calculations are simple in case of
DC machine this is the field winding and this is the 𝜑 called the flux per pole if you have
passed a current 𝐼𝑓 North South will be created the other side is generally not shown. So,
flux is created and this is often called the d axis forget about this name right now it is not
necessary, so this is the flux. Incidentally if you look at it why brushes are shown here not
here also will be apparent from this diagram ok.

Brushes will be always along the quadrature axis clear. So, so that is why the brushes are
shown like this ok. Now I have a flux per pole created and suppose I decide I will run the
machine in a particular direction with a speed of 𝑛 rps rotation per second if it is rpm
divided by 60 to get this number and it is across the armature terminal I want to calculate.
How it is run, driven? It is driven by a prime waver because generator as a generator I want
to run it may be a diesel engine, may be a steam turbine, whatever it is. So, prime waver
drives it at 𝑛 rps.

Then the question is what will be the generated voltage that is the reading of the voltmeter
when no load is connected that is our intention is ok. First is how to calculate flux 𝐼𝑓 is
known therefore, and 𝐼𝑓 is DC ok. So, this emf divided by reluctance of the path will give
you some flux per pole ok. Now if flux per pole is known, but I want to calculate the
generated emf, I told you that flux density distribution will be somewhat trapezoidal is not
that is what I told ok.

611
This is 0, this is space angle 𝜃, this is 𝜋, this is 2𝜋 and lines of force entering into the stator
is suppose South pole anyway 𝐵 distribution, under which and this field pattern need not
be sinusoidal because here my intention is not to get a very nice sine wave voltage,
whatever will be the nature of this 𝐵 that will be the nature of the induced voltage in the
coil sides or in the coil because two opposite coils are under different poles that direction
of rotation are same therefore, this two voltages will be additive we know that 2𝐵𝑙𝑣 will
be the voltage across the coil.

And the value of 𝐵 whichever conductor will be here suppose and this fellow is stationary
it is not moving at all. So, armature conductors if I show it like this with a red lines
armature conductors are here in this slots is not and armature is moving suppose from left
to right and this field is stationary and suppose this is South pole corresponds to this is
North pole. Then I will apply right hand voltage to find out the voltage induced in a single
conductor, how to do it?

This is the direction of say tangential velocity 𝑣 of this conductor say I want to find out
what is the voltage. This is 𝐵, this is 𝐵, this is 𝑣 direction of voltage and this 4 finger this
tip will tell you the polarity of the induced voltage coming. In fact, for all the conductors
this will be dot dot like that, for all the conductors this is true they are having same velocity.
However, the magnitude of the voltage induced in this coil will be I have to take this 𝐵
length of the conductor is same perpendicular to the paper into 𝑣.

The induced voltage in this conductor will be this 𝐵𝑙𝑣 is same, but nonetheless polarity is
same that is what I am telling. So, and similarly you can easily see it will be cross here the
polarity of the induced voltage they will be additive. What I will do is, this I will start from
this that induced voltage in a single coil I will use a better pen I will first calculate induced
in a single conductor single conductor is how much, you pick up a single conductor what
is the induced voltage in it.

Now, it may look a bit funny that this conductor will traverse this whole length nah as time
passes polarity remains same, but the magnitude of the induced voltage here, here it
because this fellow was a little time a time earlier was here, it has now occupied this
position induced voltage has become more b is more, then once again it retains that value
if it is flat top, then once again it is decreasing. Therefore, magnitude of the induced voltage

612
induced in a single conductor is not constant when it is under one pole that is fine, but it is
polarity remain same.

So, what people do is this conductor is in different value of flux density between 0 to 𝜋.
So, why not take the average value of the flux density and multiply with 𝑙 and 𝑣 to get that
voltage that is will be absolutely accurate nothing wrong in that. So, what you do, you take
average value of this 𝐵 which will be something here 𝐵𝑎𝑣𝑔 total flux what is 𝐵𝑑𝜃 total
flux divided by this length average value of flux density I will calculate and pretend that
the conductor shoe is all the time 𝐵𝑎𝑣𝑔 and multiply with that 𝐵𝑎𝑣𝑔 with length and
velocity.

Now, the big question is how to calculate 𝐵𝑎𝑣𝑔 that calculation is also very simple, see if
you look at this diagram suppose it is a multi polar machine I will draw it here say 4 pole
machine, this is suppose North pole, this is the South pole this is once again North pole
windings I am not showing on the stator we know how to create that this is suppose South
pole. Suppose air gap is little so, suppose the diameter of the rotor or the air gap whatever
you call it is suppose 𝐷 diameter of rotor is equal to 𝐷.

This North pole will create flux which will come out as we have seen it will go like this is
not that is how it will be completing through this other portion of irons yoke that is called
anyway. So, 𝐵 will be present here, here, here, here, here, here then there will be a if you
draw a line dotted line I am showing this portions there will be no flux density
perpendicular to the iron because there is it is 0 nothing.

So, whatever total flux comes out from the North Pole which I have denoted by 𝜑, let 𝜑 is
equal to total flux per pole total flux per pole in waver suppose. So, this flux what will be
this length, if 𝐷 is the diameter of the coil I mean not that that length on the periphery this
length how much will be this length, because 𝐵 I have to calculate I have to divide the
total flux per pole divided by area. So, I must know what is the length of this one this
portion, I highlight it with different colour got the point, here this length is how much?

This length will be; obviously, this length is 𝜋𝐷 is the total periphery divided by number
𝜋𝐷 𝜋𝐷
of poles if it is 4 pole I have shown if it is 6 . So, flux per pole and what is it is unit,
4 6

it is unit it is meter and area through which this 𝜑 is acting I mean is present whatever

613
 𝜋𝐷
language you write will be equal to into length of the machine, because this is
𝑃

perpendicular is not. That will be the area curved area we assume this is sort of rectangle
𝜋𝐷
into length of the machine that will be the area.
𝑃

Therefore, 𝐵𝑎𝑣𝑔 in the air gap I can say flux per pole divided by the area through which
this flux per pole this is 𝜑 total flux all the lines of force coming out 𝜑 distributed over
𝜋𝐷
this length 𝑙. What is 𝐷? Diameter of the rotor. What is 𝑙? Length of the machine or the
𝑃

length of the conductor because rotor length is the coil side length you should remember
these are over hand portions.

In this portions there will be no induced voltage I should not bother I will be bothering
about the effective length of the machine, here the voltage you will be induced this fellow
is rotating seeing different values of flux density under a pole. Although polarity of the
voltage remain same when it is under South pole, but magnitude may change because
strength of 𝐵 is changing. That is why it will see some times low value of 𝐵 sometimes
higher values of 𝐵 once again back to low value therefore, why not calculate the 𝐵𝑎𝑣𝑔 and
pretend that 𝐵𝑎𝑣𝑔 remains constant multiply with 𝑙 and 𝑣 and you will get absolutely
correct result nothing wrong in that.

So, induced voltage this question mark I can now write it as is equal to it will be in a single
conductor mind you in a single conductor will be 𝐵𝑎𝑣𝑔 length of the conductor and 𝑣 the
velocity and I can if 𝑛 is the rpm rps this mind you is the linear velocity metre per second.
So, if it is 𝑛 then conductors residing here and the rotor diameter is 𝑛 then velocity in metre
per second is nothing, but 𝜋𝐷𝑛, in one second conductor will travel how much distance,
𝜋𝐷 is the perimeter in one rotation 𝜋𝐷 in one second it makes 𝑛 rotation. So, in one second
it will move by so much meter per second is not and that is I think.

So, I will say that induced voltage let it be a bit clumsy I do not mind, but let me on this
page only. So, it will be then is equal to 𝐵𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑙 and for 𝑣 I will write 𝜋𝐷𝑛 this is the
expression for induced voltage in a single conductor. We will continue in with this in the
next lecture.

Thank you.

614
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 63
Electromagnetic Torque in D.C Machine

Welcome to 63rd lecture, remember that in my last lecture we reached up to this point.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:19)

My goal was to find out what will be the voltage available across the armature terminals
when no load is connected open circuit condition we have passed a DC current in the field
winding it has produced a flux per pole 𝜑 then my question was what will be the voltage
induced in that. I know brush between the brush there will be several circuits in parallel
that is all the armature conductors will be divided into several parallel paths.

My plan is I will calculate the voltage induced in a single conductor and then I will multiply
this expression with a number of conductors presented in a parallel path one should not
tell that this is the induced voltage in a single conductor average induced voltage. And,
suppose 𝑍 is the total number of armature conductors just do not multiply it with 𝑍 then it
will be wrong because all the parallel paths have definite number of armature conductors.
So, I will start from here that.

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(Refer Slide Time: 01:50)

Here I will say that the last days expression induced voltage we have got induced voltage
in a single conductor we got it to be is equal to

𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐵𝑎𝑣 𝑙𝑣

This I found out to be 𝐵𝑎𝑣 is flux per pole is 𝜑 divided by the area over which this flux per
𝜋𝐷
pole will enter into the rotor and that is equal to 𝑙. This is the area I got.
𝑃

𝜑 𝜑
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐵𝑎𝑣 𝑙𝑣 = 𝑙𝑣 = 𝑙(𝜋𝐷𝑛)
𝜋𝐷 𝜋𝐷
( 𝑃 𝑙) ( 𝑃 𝑙)

where 𝑛 is in rps armature rotations this is the thing.

And so, this will be equal to

𝜑
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑙(𝜋𝐷𝑛) = 𝜑𝑃𝑛
𝜋𝐷
( 𝑃 𝑙)

So much volts, that will be the expression for voltage in a single conductor. Now, I will
say let 𝑍 be the total number of armature conductors, total number of armature conductors.
What do I mean by that? Armature has a coil like this, which may be multi turn coil, in
each slot how many coil sides will be there? Two coil sides.

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So, in a conductor in a slot like this here I draw in a slot there is the upper deck multi turn
coil section of that and another coil side multi turn coil got the point. Therefore, if it is
supposed having two turn then two sections you will see two conductors for this also two
conductors. So, multiply each coil with that multi turn number if it is a two turn coil
multiply with two then with another two for this one.

So, total conductors means this conductors also which because they will become seat of
emf is not, they are having same velocity same flux density they will see all the coil sides
in a particular slot will have same voltage 𝐵𝑎𝑣 𝑙𝑣. Suppose 𝑍 is the total number of armature
conductors and I hope you know how to calculate it. If 𝑆 is the total number of slots how
many coils are there, 𝑆 number of coils are there. If 𝑆 is the total number of coils how
many coil sides are there, 2𝑆 coil sides are there and if I say each coil has 4 turns then
2𝑆 × 4 = 𝑍 is that number 𝑍 total armature conductors ok.

Let this and also this thing I have defined 𝑎 be the armature parallel paths number of
parallel paths in the armature that is a good English; number of parallel paths in the
armature circuit. That is between the brushes across armature terminals that is good across
the armature terminals across the armature terminals, because we have seen at least in case
of lap winding it between the brushes it is divided into as many number of parallel paths
between plus and minus brushes as the number of poles and this so, I take a general case
ok.

Let the number of because I have not yet investigated wave winding maybe it is number
of parallel paths will be different. So, that is why a general variable name is given of the
parallel paths, I am certain about one thing that 𝑎 = 𝑝 if lap winding this much I am sure
about lap winding. So, better use a general variable name parallel path, then how many
conductors will be there in each parallel path?

𝑍
So, number of conductors, conductors in each parallel path will be equal to what else
𝑎

equally divided. Therefore, voltage available across the brush available across the brush
or armature or armature terminals will be simply voltage in a single conductor multiplied
𝑍
by 𝑎

𝑍 𝑃𝑍
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠 = 𝜑𝑃𝑛 = 𝜑𝑛
𝑎 𝑎

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That is all such a simple expression.

So, what I mean to say is now this if you have a DC machine like this if you pass some
field current and it produces a flux per pole 𝜑 and you allow this to run with a speed 𝑛,
then voltage across A1 A2

𝑃𝑍
𝐸𝐴1 𝐴2 = 𝜑𝑛
𝑎

In this formula mind you 𝑛 is in rps, 𝜑 is flux per pole 𝑃 and 𝑎 are numbers 𝑍 is the
conductor ok. So, this is the most famous formula for a DC machine, if a DC machine you
know the flux per pole, if you know at what rpm or rps it is running, if you know the total
number of conductors, total number of poles of the machine, you can easily calculate what
will be the generated voltage very simple formula.

In case of AC machines we used to have rms voltage as 4.44𝑓𝜑𝑁1 and then winding
factors this that, but here everything goes very simple neat and sometimes if the field
circuit is assumed to be linear then this 𝜑 can be related to 𝐼𝑓 by a linear relationship and
we say here the induced voltage will be if 𝜑 ∝ 𝐼𝑓 which will be at least in the linear zone
𝑃𝑍
of B-H curve then generated voltage this 𝐸𝐴1 𝐴2 will be also can be see is a constant of
𝑎

the machine.

Once the machine has been manufactured, 𝑃, 𝑍 and 𝑎 are fixed you cannot do anything
with that. So, it is sometimes they written like this machine constant

𝑃𝑍
𝐾=
𝑎

𝐸𝐴1 𝐴2 = 𝐾𝜑𝑛

If it is linear magnetic circuit

𝜑 = 𝐾 ′ 𝐼𝑓

𝐸𝐴1 𝐴2 = 𝐾𝐾 ′ 𝐼𝑓 𝑛

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So, that generated voltage is proportional to 𝐼𝑓 𝑛 it looks like for a fixed speed, go on
increasing the field current your generated voltage will increase and such an arrangement
for producing voltage also I will tell you the name is called a Separately excited DC
generator.

That is field winding requires a separate excitation from DC source here you require a DC
source to pass this DC current through the field winding to create flux and then of course,
there should be a prime mover to drive the armature and you get a voltage generated ok.
This is the most one of the most important formula another formula important formula is
there that is called the expression for torque electromagnetic torque ok. If there is no load
connected just try to see what I am trying to tell.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:32)

This is suppose the field winding we will now refer to this simplified diagram and this is
your armature terminals, you pass some field current please try to follow me. Suppose this
is the 𝐼𝑓 and because of this 𝐼𝑓 where you have connected perhaps say potential divider
connection you do and you can vary the field current also plus minus you require a DC
source like that and it is a separately excited DC machine field winding is excited.

Now, here what I am telling of course, there will be a generated voltage, suppose the flux
per pole produced is 𝜑 and suppose you are driving the machine at 𝑛 rps suppose in this
direction ok. Then from this diagram I am not sure whether I will not be able to tell whether

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this is plus this is minus brush that is not possible, but what is possible is, there are
conductors here I am drawing a representative conductor and this pole is what North pole.

If I show the poles also to complicate the matter this is suppose over which this field
winding zone it is not correct to draw like this, but this side flux is entering to the conductor
better I will not show like that it will only create confusion. So, I have in my back of my
mind it is like this is the field winding. If it is like this then this is 𝜑𝑓 that is what I mean.
So, other side there is a South pole is not, lines of force will go in. So, it is South pole here
it is emanating.

So, this is the flux per pole, in the simplified diagram it is drawn like that and you can
always think that there is a South pole which will observe this lines of force here after
cutting the armature conductors. Now what I am telling in this diagram so, this is right
hand rule I will apply what will be the polarity of this induced voltage. It will be right hand
rule 𝐵 that is from left to right ok, this is the 𝐵 and direction of rotation is like this.

So, this is the right hand rule I am applying 𝐵 velocity for this conductor is in this direction
𝑣 it will be cross and you can be rest assured if you apply the same rule velocity is same,
but it is under South pole it will be dot. This is what and for all the conductors whoever is
there that will be cross only is not and this will be dot. Now, out of these two which one
which brush is plus or minus difficult to say from this, we will assume this is plus minus
for that nothing is going to change because the it is the armature current distribution which
matters you assume this is plus, this is minus and suppose you make an arrangement DC
voltage you will get.

So, loads will be if it is generator mode that is what I have assume I will connect a resistive
load switch is opened which switch opened this voltage here is the open circuit voltage is
𝑃𝑍
given by 𝜑𝑛 so much volts you will get. What will be the armature current? Armature
𝑎

current is 0 this cross and dot here shows the polarity of the induced voltage mind you
these are all dot on this side and that the South pole and these are all cross.

But it will drive a current if the switch is closed it will deliver an external current 𝐼𝑎 will
this current be same as this current no I know between the brushes there are parallel paths.
𝐼𝑎
So, current in the conductors will be and what will be this direction I am certain it as it
𝑎

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is absolutely correct with this direction of motion this being North pole this is the thing.
So, this is the current and they get divided in cross and dot, it looks like two parallel paths
in this simplified diagram, but it is not we know that.

Anyway now the question is the moment so long with S open these conductors where not
carrying any current, prime mover was running this generator at some speed in the
clockwise direction. How much torque the prime mover had to apply so, as to make it run
in the clockwise direction? Opposing torque was may be some little friction torque a little
that is fuel consumed by the prime mover at that time was very little less just overcome
friction to run it at a constant speed. Now, you close the switch the moment you close the
switch you see there appears current in this direction all the conductors here cross dot.

If that be the case then they will experience force and once again I will apply right hand
rule to find out the direction of the force. So, mind you the prime mover is giving a torque
in this direction 𝑇𝑃𝑀 torque by the prime mover. Now the moment you try to extract power
from the armature of the DC machine, this is the 𝑅𝐿 load resistance current will appear.
And, then the conductors are will be carrying also current in the same direction as the
induced voltage and apply left hand rule to see that it will experience this sides will
experience a force in this direction.

In the opposite direction of the prime mover torque, prime mover thing is a mechanical
thing who is providing you the torque electromagnetic torque 𝑇𝑒 and if you find the
generator is supplying power running at a constant rpm or rps you will conclude the prime
mover torque and electromagnetic torque are same, that is why it is running at a constant
speed. Because if prime mover torque wins over electromagnetic torque it will accelerate
in this case, if electromagnetic torque is greater than prime mover torque it will decelerate.

So, it is a generator mode it goes like that we will come to this aspect many a times later,
but for the time being what I am telling that ok, the moment armature carries currents
conductors will experience force hence torque, how to get an expression of the
electromagnetic torque that is what we will be discussing. So, to find that out what we will
do is this we consider suppose a 4 pole machine just what the sake of suppose imagine
very interesting calculation from the fundamental we will do suppose 4 pole North, South,
North, South field windings I am not showing here are armature and these are the
conductors on the slots periphery of the armature like this suppose a 4 pole machine.

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Now, you divide this in four zones that is this is the zone of magnetic neutral axis these
are called where the flux density will be 0 etc. So, this zone is controlled by this South
pole, this zone is controlled by one fourth controlled by this North pole, this one forth zone
quarter zone is controlled by South pole and these are the 45° lines you draw and as I told
you that if you assume because this diagram will not tell you the true pictures, why because
very it is a very simplified schematic diagram of the whole things, but if I want to calculate
the expression of the torque I have to referred to this and say that machine is running in
the anticlockwise direction with a velocity 𝑛 rps same. Then I know the currents in the
conductors under the influence of the North pole will have cross so, I put cross here.

Suppose the number of poles of the machine is 4. So, these are all cross are you getting
cross current whichever conductors are under South pole they will have dot what else,
similarly this conductors cross and this conductors once again dot you have got. Then what
how the torque will be produced? I take any conductor here suppose this conductor put
attention to this. What is the force it experiences 𝐵𝑖𝑙. So, force experienced by a single
conductor will be equal to

𝐼𝑎
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐵 ( ) 𝑙
𝑎

𝐵 at this point into current through this conductor not this total current that is very
𝐼𝑎
important and the current through this conductor is that I know that is very important,
𝑎

into length of the conductor just like the emf equation I am going.

And, once again this conductor as it moves we will see different values of 𝐵, but none the
less direction of the force will be like this in the anti clockwise direction therefore, it is
prudent not to deal with that 𝐵, but to take what is the average 𝐵 it experiences

𝐼𝑎
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐵𝑎𝑣 ( ) 𝑙
𝑎

This is mind you is a slightly disturbed 𝐼𝑎 this will be the force. So, average force
experienced by a single conductor is this, what is the torque? Torque about the origin or
the about the shaft torque experienced by this conductor

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 𝐷 𝐼𝑎 𝐷
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × = 𝐵𝑎𝑣 ( ) 𝑙
2 𝑎 2

The interesting point is that it is true for all the conductors, if it is here under south pole it
will see once again same 𝐵𝑎𝑣 and what will be the direction of the force of this say
conductor dot south pole right left hand rule. So, this is 4 finger is the direction of the
current, it will also experience a force like this. What will be the torque contributed by this
𝐷 𝐼 𝐷
conductor, this into what about this one, same 𝐵𝑎𝑣 ( 𝑎𝑎) 𝑙 2 everyone contributes there is
2

no conductor experiences force which is the directions of which will change.

Therefore, all the torques will add up is not therefore, total torque experienced by a single
conductor is this therefore, total torque electromagnetic torque will be

𝐼𝑎 𝐷
𝑇𝑒 = 𝐵𝑎𝑣 ( ) 𝑙 × 𝑍
𝑎 2

It must be 𝑍, because each conductor is contributing to the torque unlike the emf
calculations where there are several parallel paths. We have to consider between the
𝑍
brushes we have to consider only one parallel path good enough so, conductors.
𝑎

𝐼𝑎
But in this case all the conductors each of them one of them is carrying a current of and
𝑎

they are contributing torque in the same direction therefore, it must be multiplied with 𝑍
𝑍
not with 𝑎. Therefore, finally, I will say that electromagnetic torque will be equal to
𝐼 𝐷
𝐵𝑎𝑣 ( 𝑎𝑎) 𝑙 × 𝑍, which will be equal to I know,
2

𝜑
𝐵𝑎𝑣 =
𝜋𝐷
( 𝑃 𝑙)

𝐼𝑎 𝐷 𝜑 𝐼𝑎 𝐷 𝑃𝑍
𝑇𝑒 = 𝐵𝑎𝑣 ( ) 𝑙 × 𝑍 = ( )𝑙 × 𝑍 = 𝜑𝐼
𝑎 2 𝜋𝐷
( 𝑃 𝑙) 𝑎 2 2𝜋𝑎 𝑎

So, this will become equal to if you see several things cancel it out is not this is the
expression of the torque, we will continue with this in the next lecture.

Thank you.

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 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 64
Generator & Motor Operation – Basics

Welcome to lecture 64. The previous lectures were very important, because of the fact that
we derived a two relationships; one is when a DC machine will be operating, then it will
have generated EMF, no matter whether it is acting as a motor or generator, a conductor
moving in a magnetic field will have generated EMF. Although, we considered generator
mode of operation and we found that a DC machine, which is represented like this here
and this is the flux per pole created by the machine.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:57)

When you pass some current, 𝐼𝑓 here and we considered generator mode of operation and
suppose, it was running in this direction with a speed 𝑛, then this side is North Pole, this
side is South Pole. So, what I am trying to tell in the schematic diagram, we must try to
understand that whatever is happening in the armature conductors under a pair pole, same
thing is going to happen to other armature conductors under the next pair of pole.

So, people represent the this simplified diagram pretending it is a two pole machine, if you
know what is happening under a pair of pole, same thing will happen. So, that is why it is

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done like a two pole machine North Pole, South Pole, a pair of pole. This degree is 180°
electrical and so on.

Anyway, we found out that if this is rotated in this case, the voltage across the armature
𝑃𝑍
terminals A1-A2, under open circuit condition if I say generated emf 𝐸𝑔 = 𝑎
𝜑𝑛. So,

much volts if 𝜑 is in Weber and 𝑛 is in rps, do not forget that it can be changed to rpm and
another thing is the polarity of this voltages can be found out, instead of drawing all the
conductors here in this slots, I will just draw two conductors, because this side DC machine
one good thing is under a particular pole, the direction of currents will remain same in all
the conductors or generated emf polarity will remain same.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:45)

So, if you apply right hand rule we found that it will be equal to cross under a North Pole.
So, applying right hand rule this side will be cross and this will be dot. This is the thing;
this is the polarity of the induced emf in each conductor. Suppose, the brush becomes plus
from this, I am unable to tell which brush will become plus minus ok. Unless, I go through
the actual machine and I will be able to tell, but for my mathematical analysis it does not
matter whether this is plus this is minus or this is plus this is minus. Anyway, let us assume
A1 becomes plus when this is generated emf cross dot here this becomes plus.

And then you have a load 𝑅𝐿 where you want to consume power. Now, several things
comes out; if this switch is opened, then there is no external current supplied by the

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armature and therefore, no current in the conductors as well, but if it is closed, then it will
deliver power to the load. If it delivers power to the load, this current and current in the
𝐼
conductors will not be same, it will be 𝑎𝑎.

What is 𝑎 this, small 𝑎 is the number of parallel paths that will be the current in each
conductor and if they carry current in this direction, then by applying left hand rule we
observed that the electromagnetic torque (𝑇𝑒 ) will be in this direction. Direction of rotation
is decided by the prime mover torque 𝑇𝑃𝑀 and if these two are equal then only generator
will run continuously at a constant rpm delivering power. Any disbalance between 𝑇𝑒 and
𝑇𝑃𝑀 will either accelerate or decelerate the generator and this will happen, when the
machine will be under transient conditions and finally, machine will always seek to reach
a state where 𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝑃𝑀 .

Now, therefore, a DC machine in case of generator, I am telling it will be like this. Then
when it delivers a current, we would like to know how much electromagnetic torque the
generator is producing. We also find out that and these two expressions are most vital in
understanding the operations of DC machines whether generator or motor it does not
matter and we will do that, but here it will be like this. So much of Newton metre provided
𝐼𝑎 is in ampere, and 𝜑 in Weber.

Similarly here, 𝜑 is in Weber then only it will be in volts. These are the two most important
equations and DC machine anything you want to explain about DC machines, you cannot
𝑃𝑍
do without these two equations that is why they are so vital. Remember this things is a
𝑎

constant of a machine. Now, the constant appearing in generated voltage and constant
appearing in the torque expression differs by a factor of 2𝜋 you should be very careful
about it ok.

Sometimes what people do is this expression can be also written as

𝑃𝑍 𝑃𝑍 𝑃𝑍
𝐸𝑔 = 𝜑𝑛 = 𝜑2𝜋𝑛 = 𝜑𝜔
𝑎 2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋𝑎

I can do like this, 𝑛 is in rps I told you and this is nothing, but 𝜔 in rad/sec if you express
this speed then these two constants will be equal it is important to point it out that. If you
express the speed in rad/sec mechanical rad/sec mind you nothing electrical here then these

626
two constants will be same anyway you should be careful if it is in rps then these two
constant of proportionality are not same.

In any rotating machines, I have been telling to you a through my machine two course that
to produce torque in a AC machine number of stator poles and number of rotor poles must
be same. And another thing, I told you that the field produced by stator and field produced
by the rotor the angle between them should be time invariant should be constant, then only
it can produce sustain the electromagnetic torque.

Now, in case of DC machine also this is true, why? Let us see that. Suppose, I redraw the
same thing, this is the thing, this is the armature rotor and this is the stator field. Suppose,
when you pass current, it produces field lines like this, this side is north, that is what we
have been telling and this side there is a South Pole here, all this means like this and
physically it is like this north south ok.

Now, if there is no armature current that is if this switch is open then of course, there is no
rotor field stator field is present. Mind you armature is the rotor, the armature winding is
housed in rotor not on stator. Stator is this field winding. So, anyway this is the defined
case. Now, for example; if armature carries current under what condition it will carry
current, when you want to draw power out of the generator this 𝐼𝑎 then this is the thing oh
sorry, these are the lines of force we understand this is north, this is south, I am not
drawing.

So, armature conductors will be here bigger, I am drawing and if the armature current is
𝐼𝑎 , armature conductors will carry has to carry current cross dot applying right hand rule I
get and all the conductors here under North Pole will carry cross current and they will
𝐼𝑎
carry same current. Mind you whichever conductor is under South Pole and whichever
𝑎

conductor is on this line, they will not carry; induced voltage will be 0 ok, current will be
there.

Now, let us see what will be the poles of this machine. Rotor, the these are the conductors
which are cross this side this side dot therefore, the direction of the field produced by the
armature current will be like this, right hand rule, this side cross, this side dot. So, lines of
force created by the armature will be going like this top to bottom, that is lines of force

627
produced by the armature will be somewhat like this is not this will be the line of force
green lines are the lines of force.

Now, look at the rotor iron, rotor iron then this phase of the rotor iron will it become North
Pole or South Pole? North Pole, because lines of force this is iron mind you iron slotted
iron in which conductors you have placed, but I iron it is rotor cylindrical iron. So, lines
of force if they come out from this, this portion of this it will become Nr, let me.

So, rotor this portion will become North Pole Nr rotor and this will become South Pole
lines of force are entering and you see interaction of these two poles produces
electromagnetic torque. This North Pole will be repaired by the stator North Pole that is
what the electromagnetic torque is in this direction. This South Pole will be attracted by
this. So, this is the direction of electromagnetic force.

It is for a two pole thing, for four pole same thing will happen Nr Sr, Nr Sr therefore, those
things are valid. Now, the question is a stationary observer, if he is looking to this things,
you will say there is stator poles NS, NS, this N, this S and they are stationary in space.
He will also conclude there is rotor field Nr Sr although, conductors are moving, but Nr
Sr are fixed in space that is the stator field is like this and rotor field is like this.

This is the rotor field Fr, this is the stator field Fs and angle between them is 90° always,
no matter. Unlike, a induction machine or synchronous machines with respect to a
stationary observer, they may move, but they must move with same velocity. So, that a
stationary observer must conclude these two fields are angle between them. These two are
fixed, then only a constant torque will be produced.

In case of induction or synchronous machine as we changed, if the load power factor is an

important issue there that also decides where the rotor position of the field will be, where
the stator field will be, we discussed at length in our machine two courses and this angle
changes with change of load on the machine shaft. If it is a motor or your electrical load,
if it is a generator, position of this two fields might change, but in steady state condition
they must have some sin 𝛿 etc matters.

But in this case this angle, 90° is always ensured. No matter what is the degree of loading
increase load, load current increases this strength of this two field will increase rotor field

628
there by more electromagnetic torque in the opposite direction. Mind you prime mover
torque is here, in this direction getting therefore, it is like this. This is slightly, I mean not
surprising, it is interesting to note that armature conductors are moving they are carrying
current, but the direction in which the armature field is present that is Fr, that is always
fixed. What do I mean by this?

Suppose, you have a coil a coil it is carrying a current cross and dot it will produce a field
here is not a rectangular a coil is there, it will produce a field here. Suppose, you say that
I will move this coil by certain angle carrying same current then the field it will create will
also move by that same angle is not, the field produced by a single coil let us understand,
it is like this perpendicular to the plane of the coil. If you move the field created, once
again will move in space, but here something surprising is happening.

Coils are physically moving, but the direction of the field is always remaining fixed, that
is why the armature winding, armature coils are also called are also called stationary
Pseudo coil, Pseudo I am not mass spelling Pseudo stationary coil. What is this Pseudo
stationary coil? Coil is really moving, but so far as the magnetic field is concerned, it is as
if stationary and who is behind all this things. Why this is happening? It is the commutator
segment and brush arrangement, because any conductor coming under the influence from
the North Pole is distinct to carry a current in the same direction.

Now, it is conductor want to hear after sometime this 1 will come this side and 2 will come
this side, but the moment they crosses this side they cannot, but carry dot current cross to
dot, that is the most interesting part of the DC machine, that is the coils are moving
physically, but it is the commutator segment and brush arrangement which makes any
conductor whoever, comes under the influence of north pole will always carry north
current. That is this armature is moving, it is not that same conductor is just resting in piece
here no everything is moving, but it will be replaced by this fellow after some time, this
fellow, this will cross over and so on.

So, mind you, it is like this and therefore, in case of DC machine number of poles of stator
and rotor must be same and not only that the we can draw knowing the whether it is
operating as a generator or motor, the current distribution by applying right hand rule and
it is all DC therefore, direction of emf decides the direction of the current no question of
any power factor coming in between therefore, the distribution of current, I mean polarity

629
of the currents under north and South Pole is fixed once it is you know it is generator or
motor. Similarly, let us see what will happen in case of generator.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:03)

Suppose, this is your armature, this is your field which creates North Pole here and South
Pole there and there are brushes. Suppose, I say it is operating as a motor what do I do I
will connect a this armature terminals A1 A2 to some supply, DC supply now, DC source,
voltage source and it will carry some current, 𝐼𝑎 armature current to the outside world.
Mind you, this is not the conductor currents and this goes like this, then this current will
𝐼𝑎
be divided into various parallel paths will be the currents. Anyway, that will be the
𝑎

current. Now, I will draw just a one conductors to avoid clumsiness in the figure.

Now, this current whether this will be cross or this will be dot I am not pretty sure is not
outside, how can I say, but if this current gets divided into parallel paths and if it so happens
that this is cross this is dot this armature current divides like this then I will apply left hand
rule to say in which direction it is moving that is now, I have to apply left hand rule.

So, this is north this is the direction of the current provided by external source current is
fixed first and it will experience force in this direction and this fellow will experience force
in this direction and all the conductors will experience force like this it will start running
and suppose so, motor will run like this, in the anti clockwise direction, because I applied
left hand rule.

630
Similarly, here you see this is dot same direction of. So, this is the rps at which it is moving
in the anticlockwise direction that is fine. How much is the electromagnetic torque? It will
be equal to, if it is steadily running suppose at some rps I am then certain that the
electromagnetic torque if it is suppose constant it, I find a DC machine is running in the
anti clockwise direction, then I will say electromagnetic torque developed by the machine
𝑃𝑍
is 2𝜋𝑎 𝜑𝐼𝑎 , this 𝐼𝑎 is the total current 𝑎 is the number of parallel paths.

So, this is the electromagnetic torque and I will say electric by applying this rule,
electromagnetic torque is acting in the counter clockwise direction and if everything is
running steadily, then I will say oh there must be an opposing torque present on the shaft
of the machine, which is the load torque and this must be equal to the load torque as well,
the magnitude.

So, electromagnetic torque in the case of motor decides the direction of rotation. So, in
case of motor mode, direction of rotation and electromagnetic torque will be acting in the
same direction and the mechanical load torque will be acting in the opposite direction that
is what I know and at steady state operation 𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝐿 . It is running at a constant rpm
therefore, net torque acting on the machine must be 0 and it will do like this.

In this case also, it is acting as a motor, if you wish the armature field rotor field will be
always vertical. Once again, here in this case lines of force for rotor field will be like this
vertically downwards therefore, this side will become Nr is not this will be this is the
armature current, this is Nr and this is Sr.

And this Nr will be repealed by this therefore, electromagnetic torque which we got from
left hand side could be also just now, right now tell this Nr will be replaced, but interesting
thing is I am repeating the this Nr the position of this Nr and Sr remains same. No matter
whether this conductor is here or it as gone this side, this conductor has come there that is
the thing. So, in case of motor mode, it will be like this.

So, in case of motor mode, you connect a DC source, pump current into the armature and
this one. Another point, I want to tell, this is the direction of the rotor field, this is the
direction of the stator field they are at quadrature fine. Another good thing is in case of DC
machines these two are decoupled they call it, I mean armature and field are practically
decoupled that shunt field coil.

631
That is why this armature field whatever will be produced since, it is in quadrature with
the field access that is the stator field is like this and armature field will be along this
vertical line in may be this direction also depending upon current etc, but they are at right
angles therefore, this armature field is not going to disturb your field circuit in any case,
because component of this flux along this line is 0 is not.

Therefore, the interaction of these two fields is not there, that is why when you are drawing
power out of the prime mover in case of out of the DC machine in case of a generator
mode. For example here, this field circuit as if it never knows that what happens is this
𝑉
field circuit current is whatever is the voltage applied here 𝑅 nothing you change the load
𝑓

this that this field current is not going to affect whether the armature is carrying or not, this
𝑉
field current will be 𝑅 only, no interaction between field and armature.
𝑓

In the field circuit whatever power you give that is lost in the field circuit resistance. Field
circuit only creates the flux, main power is handled by the armature circuit. It is the prime
mover which gives power to this armature and that power is translated here. In no way
through the field circuit power comes in the armature circuit, which is not possible because
they are at quadrature.

𝑉
Similarly, in case of motor mode, field circuit current is decided by 𝑅 , field circuit game
𝑓

is over, it is you connect a mechanical load on the shaft that is load torque in the opposite
direction, its speed will get adjusted such that it can produce enough electromagnetic
torque to counterbalance this and make your machine run at constant rpm therefore, to
conclude what I am telling today, is that last, but one thing I must tell that in case of motor
mode, this is this thing, this is the supply DC voltage 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 .

Now, if I look at the conductors this direction of the current, current is forced into the
armature circuit cross dot ok. Now, you see this conductor is moving and it is placed in a
magnetic field therefore, why not there will be induced voltage in the conductor or across
𝑃𝑍
the armature terminal, following the rule 𝜑𝑛, because what you need across the
𝑎

armature to get generated voltage you need a flux per pole created by 𝐼𝑓 .

632
You need a rotation which is N in any case the conductor is rotating, because of whatever
reason I do not care, but then across the armature there must be some induced emf and
what will be the polarity of that voltage apply the right hand rule. Now, in this conductor
what will be the polarity of the voltage 𝑣 direction of rotation is like this like this that is is
like this direction of rotation assume to be this way.

So, direction of V is this. So, apply right hand rule and polarity of the induced voltage will
be a dot 𝐸𝑔 are you getting this. This is very interesting that is the armature circuit
equivalent circuit if I draw, this is your I mean for motor mode, it will be like this plus
minus V supply there may be some armature resistance ra is there armature coil resistance
then or I will draw it like this, this is your armature ok.

There will be an armature resistance here, conductors is having resistance, here is your
𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 and between these two points across the armature, there is an emf which is in
opposition to the current flow and that emf is back emf 𝐸𝑏 and whose value will be your
this

𝑃𝑍
𝐸𝑏 = 𝜑𝑛
𝑎

So, this is the equivalent circuit of the armature as a motor mode. In case of generator the
equivalent circuit will be generated voltage 𝑟𝑎 and then load resistance that is all and
armature will deliver current like this, in case of motor it will draw current, but the
direction of the armature current and direction of the generated emf are in opposite
directions.

In fact, it will 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 > 𝐸𝑏 , then only it is acting as a motor drawing power from the
supply and doing things. We will continue with this, but you these two formulas are so
simple to remember better memorize them, I do not mind when it is complicated I said do
not remember them, but it is. So, you can also apply some physics torque is force.

𝑃𝑍
So, force is 𝐵𝑖𝑙. So, some 𝜑𝐼𝑎 product and similarly, generated emf is 𝐵𝑙𝑣. So, 𝜑𝑛
𝑎

velocity is taken care of by rps and so on and try to understand this points that armature
emf, armature field and actual field produced by the stator coils, they are at quadrature
always. No matter at what rpm it is running or things like that and in case of motor mode,

633
always see that there is a supply voltage, but the conductors are in any case moving in a
magnetic field.

We have also found out that expression for generated emf, if a conductor is moving in a
flux per pole 𝜑 then across the armature, there will become another source of emf across
the brush, if it is running at some speed 𝑛. We will continue with this, but physically try
to also understand, it is very simple way you can understand many things of a DC machine.

Thank you.

634
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 65
O.C.C & Load Characteristic of Separately Excited Generators

Welcome to 65th lecture. We have been discussing with DC machines and we are
discussing simultaneously, the generating as well as motoring mode and in our last class,
last two lectures maybe we found out the most important two formulas, which will be used
often to study the performance of a DC machines and DC machine henceforth, I will be
drawing like this.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:42)

As you know these are the brush and these are the; this is the field coil, that is all and field
coil to be excited from a separate DC source. When it is separately excited, DC machine
𝐼𝑓 and suppose, when field current flows like this, the flux produced per pole is in this
direction, this is called 𝜑 and these two are armature terminals, which will be like this and
these are the four terminals, which will be available to us.

So, if it is to be operated as a generator, I must connect a prime mover to drive the armature.
Armature is on the rotor mind you and incidentally just I would like to point out, in case
of other rotating machines, the rotor winding and stator windings can be interchanged. For
example, in a synchronous machine, AC machines, you can have field winding either on

635
stator and AC windings on the rotor or vice versa. it is equally true. Similarly, induction
motor, you can supply give supply to the rotor terminals stator terminals can be shorted
and it will work nicely but in case of DC machine, it is not possible to put the field on the
on the field winding on the rotor and armature winding on the stator.

Simply, because that this commutator actions, commutator and brush which makes DC
will just not be there. With the advent of power electronics devices very fast switching can
be done where such a thing is possible field winding on the rotor and on the armature
winding the mechanical way that we are rectifying the ac input voltage can be done with
solid state switches.

If the armature is on the stator that is of course, outside the scope of this lecture will be
conventional DC machines, field winding and armature winding cannot change their
places that is armature cannot be on the stator and field winding on the rotor. So, this is
the thing this is stator, always stator. Anyway and we found out that the induced voltage
generated induced voltage across the armature, we found out as

𝑃𝑍
𝐸𝑔 = 𝜑𝑛
𝑎

𝑛 is in r p s and if armature carries current, the electromagnetic torque is

𝑃𝑍
𝑇𝑒 = 𝜑𝐼
2𝜋𝑎 𝑎

𝐼𝑎 is the armature current and also we noted that if the machine is operating as generator,
then there is a prime mover.

Prime mover fixes the direction of rotation and electromagnetic torque which will be
acting on the armature conductors when armature conductor carries current
electromagnetic torque will be in the opposite direction, in case of generator. On the other
hand, in case of motor mode this is the brushes and this is the field winding, separately
excited machine we are considering. If you excite this, there will be field here flux per pole
produced and the armature current if it is 𝐼𝑎 , then this will develop the torque,
electromagnetic torque will decide the direction of rotation and opposing load torque will
be in the opposite direction that is 𝑇𝐿 like this, got the point always remember this thing.

636
Now, today I will first tell you that about shunt generator I will be talk about ok. Before
that so, generator mode and shunt generator I will talk about. Shunt generator, will be the
primary topics of today but before that a separately excited DC generator and it is open
circuit characteristics must be understood very clearly and there is another phenomena
called armature reaction and its adverse effect that I will take a little later. First, we rather
go straight to a DC machine, which is operating as a generator and as a separately excited
DC generator. Now, so open circuit characteristics.

So, first, this is the separately excited DC generator. First, we take this DC generator,
means this one, this is the separately excited DC generator clear. In this generator suppose,
the armature terminals are open circuited, S is off, there will be no armature current. We
test in open circuit condition, we are not going to load the machine. What we will do is
this, we will change the value of the field current.

We will make this circuit like this connect a circuit like this, where there is a DC supply
like this plus minus DC, you should have a separate DC source and then you make a
potential divider connection. So, that you can gradually increase the voltage from 0, if you
put the rheostat variable point towards left and if you connect an ammeter here, field
current can be increased.

So, the characteristics of this generated emf versus field current is called OCC or open
circuit characteristics ok, and if I do that the characteristics will look like if the field current
is 0, induced voltage will be 0, 𝜑 is generally proportional to 𝐼𝑓 .

So, as you go on increase the field current, 𝐼𝑓 here the generated voltage will increase and
it will increase linearly at the beginning, but after some time as you go on increasing field
current, the flux produced will not be in proportion to the field current, because of
saturation which will set in.

So, what happens is this OCC characteristics is goes up and then take a bend like this. So,
this is the open circuit characteristics. So, here you sketch field current and here you sketch
the generated voltage 𝐸𝐺 . So, it will follow the actual magnetizing curve, B-H curve sort
of thing. So, this portion is the linear zone.

So, this equation depends on 𝜑 mind you not directly, 𝜑 can be replaced by some constant
multiplied by 𝐼𝑓 , provided that the generator operates in this zone, otherwise not, because

637
if you increase the field current the flux produced will become lesser and lesser. For 1
ampere increase in field current in the initial portion changes the flux by a large amount,
but same amount of increase in current at this end will increase the induced voltage or flux
per pole very little. So, this is called the saturation.

Now, while carrying out the open circuit test, note down the field current and you connect
a voltmeter here and just plot them ok, but during this experiment keep the speed constant,
speed that is 𝑛 is kept at related value. If it is a 1500 RPM machine on the nameplate it is
written, run it at 1500 RPM and get the open circuit characteristics speed 𝑛 is kept constant
while taking down this reading, then only it will be proportional to only 𝜑.

𝑃𝑍
So, 𝑛 is kept constant speed. So, in this equation 𝑛 constant is of course, a constant of
𝑎

the machine 𝜑 depends on field current 𝐼𝑓 and the relationship of 𝜑 and 𝐼𝑓 is linear initially,
but later it is non-linear ok. So, this is the open circuit characteristics at certain fixed RPM,
rated RPM. Now, if I ask you that what will be the open circuit characteristics?

Why it is called open circuit characteristics, because I am not going to draw any power out
of the armature that is why it is open circuit, S is opened. If suppose, I carry out the same
experiment at half the rated speed, how the OCC will look like? OCC will look like lesser,
in scale. What I mean to say, it will be like this, it is like this for a given field current here,
suppose at this field current, this was the induced voltage at 𝑛 RPM.

If you make speed half this induced voltage will also become half that is it will be here got
the point. Therefore, it will be like this, such that the generated voltage

𝐸𝐺 2 𝑛2
=
𝐸𝐺 1 𝑛1

At a particular field current at a given 𝐼𝑓 , because field current will decide flux per pole
and speed is the factor. Therefore, one can easily get the OCC at any other speed he likes.

Similarly, if you increase the speed OCC will be above this, like that, it is suppose at rated
value ok. Now, on the nameplate of the DC machine, some voltage will be specified. So,
you increase the field current, such that the rated voltage is reached. Suppose, it is a 220
volt DC generator, and suppose, this is the 220 volt and the field current necessary at rated
speed to generate 220 volt is this value, these characteristics only tells that. You can

638
ascertain or know the value of the field current needed at rated RPM to generate 220 volt,
if you have OCC at your disposal.

So, this is the thing we will do, we can now do the load test on this DC generator that is
you generate this rated voltage that is the open circuit voltage. Now, what you do you start
drawing power out of the generator. So, that characteristic is called the load characteristics
and how it will look like very simple that is, I will go to next page and explain to you.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:52)

So, we have got these no load voltage, this was the OCC, this was 𝐸𝐺 across the armature
and this is suppose the rated voltage and this is the field current, there is the normal field
current and OCC whenever you draw you must specify at what RPM at 𝑛 r p s. So, this is
about this and what is the connection diagram. Keep it in your mind that this is the diagram
which is relevant now.

So, we are passing an 𝐼𝑓 here and generator is driven at some RPM 𝑛 r p s and here has the
induced voltage 𝑉 or 𝐸𝐺 and then you have a switch to use the power which will be resistive
in case of this is DC supply after all 𝐸𝐺 . So, with this opened the load characteristics will
be like this therefore, on this side I will sketch 𝐼𝑎 and here, I will sketch this 𝑉, I will
connect a voltmeter here.

So, with 𝐼𝑎 = 0 voltmeter will be this value generated voltage, 𝐼𝑓 is maintained. So, open
circuit voltage is this one. Now, if you close this switch it will deliver current and 𝐼𝑎 will

639
flow, this terminal voltage what will happen? It will be increasing or decreasing or remain
same, it is expected it will decrease because the armature has got a resistance.

So, what is the equivalent circuit here. This resistance is very small made of copper this is
𝑟𝑎 and here is your generated voltage 𝐸𝐺 and here is your armature terminals mind you
A1-A2 and here you have connected the load resistance 𝑅𝐿 , at that time some current will
flow. So, this voltage, this voltage we are measuring 𝑉, then will be equal to terminal
voltage across the load will be

𝑉 = 𝐸𝐺 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎

There are some two brushes are there. There will be some voltage drop in the carbon
brushes and we write it as brush drop which is little, sometimes it is neglected.

𝑉 = 𝐸𝐺 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 − 𝐵𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝

Generally, what people assume is that 1 volt per brush and things like that the reason for
that is carbon brushes. No matter what is the armature current you draw, people assume
brush drop is some 1 volt per brush like that therefore, maybe 2 brushes are there minus 2
volt extra apart from the armature resistance, which is inside this armature, because of the
armature winding. Now, the brushes are carbon and carbon has a negative resistance
coefficient that is with larger current drawn from the armature carbon brush will have
lesser resistance, because of temperature rise.

Therefore, as if so, so what I am essentially telling armature winding is represented by

resistance over, but carbon brush cannot be represented by fixed resistance instead, what
people try to find out what is the voltage drop per brush and that is the reason is the carbon
brush has got negative temperature resistance. No matter what is the armature current you
draw, for larger current resistance is smaller. Therefore, the voltage drop across the brush,
which is resistance of the brush multiplied by armature current that will perhaps remain
fixed that is the idea.

So, some brush drop is there. So, for our understanding we can neglect also that ok, if
brush drop can be neglected the simple equation will be from circuit point of view, it will
be 𝑉 = 𝐸𝐺 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 , this will be the drop therefore, if you vary this resistance if you load it
means you are decreasing the value of the resistance you are delivering more power but at

640
the same time terminal voltage will fall from this as you increase the armature current and
in fact, it will be like this.

This way it will fall and at a given armature current 𝐼𝑎 load current, this then will represent
(𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 + 𝐵𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝) whatever, it may it may not be a straight line nice like this, because
of brush drop present but 𝐸𝐺 is this level minus 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 drop is your voltage now across the
terminal of the generator. Like transformer we can then say regulation of a generator that
is from no load to full load current, if it is full load armature current 𝐼𝑎 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 , terminal
voltage will drop by this amount and regulation as we know, we want a small value. A
little change of terminal voltage should take place as you load the generator from no load
to full load, this is how things will go.

Remember that in this case, if somebody puts a short circuit that is 𝑅𝐿 = 0, then how much
will be the current. So, with 𝑉 = 𝐸𝐺 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 , it is like this but suppose 𝑅𝐿 = 0 means short
circuited, if it is short circuited then current will be very large. So, it is a separately excited
generator.

𝐸𝐺
If armature is short circuited, armature current which it will then become equal to what
𝑟𝑎

is our armature resistance which is very small that will be very large 𝐼𝑎 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 will be
very large and if that short circuit current is allowed to continue. If you have not connected
any fuse, where for protecting these it may burn the armature winding even therefore, short
circuiting at the separately excited DC generator armature should be avoided like any other
sources, why a battery, why should I short it.

All power will be drained out, but in case of generator, it is much more it assumes
importance, because the armature winding will be at stake, because of large current brushes
may burn things like that. So, these are the main points of a separately excited generator,
you excite the generator from a separate DC source, run it at rated speed, adjust the field
current so that rated voltage is generated under open circuit condition, then start loading
the generator but during this test you must maintain the speed of the machine constant that
is if speed changes a bit it will in fact, tendency will be there.

Will be a drop in speed because the prime mover torque and electromagnetic torque has to
balance and electromagnetic torque acts in opposite direction, for whatever reason you
have to always adjust the prime mover to maintain this speed constant to get these

641
characteristics. So, this is called load characteristics this is load characteristic and this is
open circuit characteristics ok.

So, separately excited generator good, it is fine at one time it was used, but only drawback
of this generator is you want to generate DC voltage, but at the very beginning you are
asking for another DC source, that is the problem. See earlier, to this power electronic
devices, DC generator was there, batteries were there, people started with DC generation
only but only objection to this method is you require a DC supply at that time it was not
there.

So, this is nice DC generated regulation will be better ok. I will discuss at length apart
from this armature resistance drop to get the terminal voltage because of armature reaction
there will be an extra voltage drop that I will discuss in the next class.

Thank you.

642
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 66
Voltage Build up in Shunt Generator

So, welcome to next the lecture on Electrical Machines I. And in my last lecture, I was
talking about separately excited DC generator and what is open circuit characteristics, and
what is load characteristics.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:25)

So, open circuit characteristics you run the generator by a prime over at rated rpm, adjust
the field current with this as opened, get the rated voltage, and after you get the rated
voltage start connecting load, means electrical load to use that power, ok. So, armature
will deliver power. And your terminal voltage of course will not remain at 𝐸𝐺 that is the
open circuit voltage and it will decrease.

And the voltage decrease will take place because of armature resistance drop, because of
another voltage drop in the brushes. And another term I used that is called armature
reaction. We will come to that after I discuss a bit about shunt generator, ok. So, today I
will just tell you about shunt generator.

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(Refer Slide Time: 01:45)

Now, in a shunt generator what happens is this, this is your armature and this is the field
winding F1-F2, same separately excited generator you take. Mind you, you are having
these four terminals with you, if you excite the field winding from a separate DC source it
becomes a separately excited generator. Now, what we will be doing is this, we will be
connecting some resistance in series with the field winding called the external resistance
and connect this field winding in parallel with the armature winding which is marked as
A1-A2. And then I will run this generator, this generator is driven at the rated rpm, ok.

Now, the in contrast to a separately excited generator, which I will draw it here for ready
reference. This is the armature, this is the field winding and here you pass DC current from
a separate source and it creates flux per pole. Now, so, this is the connection of a shunt
generator. Now, the first question is if you compare this situation with this, I can very
confidently tell here will be generated voltage 𝐸𝐺 which is equal to some

𝑃𝑍
𝐸𝐺 = 𝑘𝜑𝑛 = 𝜑𝑛
𝑎

Here I am not sure, you connect like this because I am not now asking for a separate DC
source. What I have simply done is that field winding, I have connected after connecting
an external resistance series with field winding, this combination I have connected in
parallel with armature and I am claiming these are the two terminals of the generator where
I will connect load that is what I will I am going to do. Now, apparently it looks like that.

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What? Do I will expect any voltage to be developed here? Answer is no because who will
create the flux per pole, this 𝜑.

Here 𝐼𝑓 was responsible for creating that part here I do not find any field current which
will establish this stator flux 𝜑 and generated voltage is proportional to 𝜑 × 𝑛. Mind you,
no matter how you connect field winding armature winding this relation is always true.
Generated voltage across the armature is what is the flux per pole, what is the speed,
product of this two. Therefore, that terminals a question now. Do I expect any voltage?
The answer is most probably no, because there is no field current no 𝜑 and generated
voltage depends on both speed as well as flux per pole. That is fine.

But one thing you just see suppose this generator I have connected as the separately excited
generator earlier, what happens? After you complete this experiments switch off
everything what happens is this, even with field current 0 there may be a residual flux
because of retaintivity of the magnetic material. So, the term I am telling is suppose the
machine has some residual flux, 𝜑𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 (≈ 0) which is small not that large field will be
there retaintivity, B-H curve you know you use it make the current 0, it will have some
residual flux, left in the poles of the machine.

Therefore, perhaps in very small residual field may be there, may not be there, if it is a
new machine may not be there. So, if 𝜑𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 0 then of course, my answer is very
straight forward, no voltage will be available, game is over. Now, I have to think a little
bit what happens if there is a residual field, whether under that condition some voltage
may be generated?

The answer to this question is yes. A substantial voltage may be generated across the
armature like you are separately excited machine although, there is apparently no source
to excite the field winding apparently. We will see how this is possible. So, for a shunt
generator to work we will first conclude that 𝜑𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 is present. So, 𝜑𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 for a shunt
generator is a must. Therefore, if it is a very new machine, if you are not sure better excite
the field winding from a DC source disconnect the DC source some residual field will be
present. That way one can easily make a machine to have some residual field.

If that residual field is there, and if it is running; running means it is driven by a prime
over, I told you it is generator mode of operation. I must have a prime mover to run it.

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Then is it not I should expect a small voltage induced across the armature following this
relationship that is initially generated voltage. Although, there is no field current, but for
𝑃𝑍
some 𝜑𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 is there, generated voltage will be 𝜑𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛 = 𝑘𝜑𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛 this much
𝑎

voltage, but 𝜑𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 is very small. A little voltage will be induced across the armature.

Now, what is the circuit now? It looks like this is the equivalent circuit field, this is
connected in parallel with the armature. And what is this armature? This is 𝑟𝑎 and there
may be some brush drop here small and then there will be some generated voltage 𝐸𝐺 and
this toward the terminals where I am planning to connect a load. Therefore, what happens
is this there is a residual field because of this residual field 𝐸𝐺 will have a very small value.
But the moment 𝐸𝐺 is having some value with this polarity, so I will expect there will be
a field current here because with this switch open, nothing is connected.

𝐸𝐺 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝐼𝑓 =
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎 + 𝑅𝑓

So, I would expect then a field current at the initial stage at 𝑡 = 0, ok. I have started driving
the machine at 𝑛 rps. Now, in case of separately excited machine or shunt connected
machine, they are one and the same machine you can connect it as the separately excited
or a shunt machine, 𝑅𝑓 ≫ 𝑟𝑎 . If armature resistance is 1 Ω this 𝑅𝑓 total may be 250 Ω, it
is of that order 200 times like that.

Therefore, this is approximately then equal to I can say

𝐸𝐺 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝐺 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝐼𝑓 = ≈
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎 + 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓

Because 𝑅𝑓 ≫ 𝑟𝑎 . So, a little field current will flow. See, earlier when it was not running
there was residual field because of no current; because of its previous history it acquired
some residual field. Now, the moment you run it they run the generator we say oh there
was residual field that is fine, but there is now a little field current will flow. Therefore, it
will produce additional field, on top of the residual field which was there already, is it not.

Therefore, it looks like you started with residual field, but because of the self mechanism
this small generated voltage will drive some current in the field circuit and this flux will
be the residual flux. And also, the flux created by this new mmf that is number of turns of

646
the field winding and little field current of course, that will be little, but nonetheless this
two will now decide the flux per pole. Now, there may be two situations, one situation is
that the polarity, the way it has been connected that this because of new field current this
mmf acts in opposite direction of the residual field.

This is suppose 𝜑𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 was there, but I am not sure whether this field current strengthens
this initial residual flux or not. Suppose, it does not, because of 𝑁𝑓 𝐼𝑓 , suppose it is acting
in this direction therefore, this situation will be worst. What will happen? It will try to
nullify this residual field and a time will come when the residual field will be destroyed,
and 0 residual field no question of any voltage 𝐸𝐺 here. You must understand this point.

However, it may so happen that this new mmf also produces flux in the same direction as
that of the residual field. Then what is going to happen? Then this 𝐸𝐺 will rise, 𝐸𝐺 = 𝑘𝜑𝑛
and 𝜑 has now become more, and this 𝐼𝑓 will further increase and if this 𝐼𝑓 further increases
𝜑 will become even more and this voltage will further rise. In this way, this 𝐸𝐺 will grow
up it will have more and more voltage. Therefore, for a shunt generator we now know at
least qualitatively that to make a shunt generator work I will demand that there must be
some residual field.

Second point is you connect the field winding in parallel with the armature and depending
upon direction of rotation whatever it is. You must ensure that because of residual field
whatever little voltage will be produced that will create additional flux in the poles of the
machine which will strengthen the earlier residual flux, then only this growing up of
voltage is possible. For example, if I find that this way if you connect this additional flux
strengthens 𝜑𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 , this is called additive mode in this correct mode if you connect and
you may get some substantially large voltage generated.

If that be the case, then one can one thing you can do you stop the machine and interchange
these two terminals and start building voltage then you will find it is not building up
voltage. Because, if F1 is connected to A1 and F2 is connected to A2 then we have seen,
it builds up voltage, large voltage you are getting. This being known what I am telling, you
now stop the generator, then you interchange this polarity F1 and F2 parallel connected I
will connect this side now to A1 this side to A2, then I would expect because there will be
residual field no doubt from left to, right, but the polarity of the voltage will be such that
it will decrease. Anyway, we will come to this much more.

647
But this is the qualitative assessment, but I am, I want to know how much exactly will be
the voltage. Merely stating that it will grow up voltage and things like that will not do, I
must know how much real voltage if I want to generate 220 volt what should I do and how
should I explain to that, ok. It grows up voltages, will it grow up in definitely? Somebody
will stop that process and make a finite substantial voltage to appear across the armature,
is not. These are the issues we have to now discuss. And we, this can be very nicely
explained. I will first do it here.

Suppose, I have connected the machine in shunt fashion; shunt means field winding is
parallel with armature, another external resistance of course; you connect then connect this
in parallel with armature. Suppose, this machine as a separately excited generator I know
what is the OCC because same machine can be used as a separately excited generator or a
shunt generator. In the previous case, we have seen the same machine I have connected
like this I know what is OCC all about.

So, I am telling that for this shunt generator, I know the OCC for this machine when it was
connected as a separately excited generator. Mind you, this characteristics is for separately
excited generator this is field current and this is the generated voltage. And I am telling
that now only thing I will tell you is this that this machine has some residual field. Then
the OCC even with field current 0 will not start from 0 because it will have a little voltage
induced because of this residual field and let that residual voltage be this much.

What I mean to say is this, with field current 0 this is OCC. If you carry out the OCC and
if this machine has been earlier used, so that it left some residual field there then even with
field current 0 at rated rps, at 𝑛 rps, you will find that in this circuit with no field current
𝐼𝑓 = 0 you may expect a little voltage here because of residual field. Because 𝑘𝜑𝑛 is the
generated voltage and that 𝜑 is the residual flux. So, this amount of small voltage will be
induced, ok. So, that is there, fine.

Now, I will use this information to explain what is happening in a shunt generator. How?
Let, first thing is let 𝑅𝑓 is the total field circuit resistance, total field circuit resistance. That
is field winding has got a resistance that will be not very small like 𝑟𝑎 plus any external
resistance you have connected. So, 𝑅𝑓 total is

𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙

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Now, what I will do is this part is very interesting. You just sketch the V-I characteristics
of this resistance which will be a straight line like this, this is people call it 𝑅𝑓 line. Mind
you, it has nothing to do with machines etc just V-I characteristics of this field coil that is
you have applied some known voltage here what is the current drawn, apply a higher
voltage what is the current drawn; V-I characteristics of a resistance, 𝑅𝑓 total.

So, that characteristics I will super impose on this OCC of a separately excited DC
generator. Then I will say that look this is the sequence of events it will go on. Initially,
there was some residual field and you are running the generator at 𝑛 rps at that time how
much will be the generated voltage this much. But if this much is the generated voltage
field current should be this much, from this red curve I will read this must have become
now the field current. If this is the field current OCC tells me generated voltage must be
this much. It increases to this.

And if this is the voltage because 𝑅𝑓 is connected in parallel with this one; field current
will further grow, it will become this. And if this is the field current generated voltage will
be this. If this is generated voltage field current will be this much, because you know field
𝐸𝑔 𝐸𝑔
current is 𝐼𝑓 = 𝑅 ≈ 𝑅 , 𝑟𝑎 you neglect because as I told you 𝑅𝑓 is 100 times more than
𝑓 +𝑟𝑎 𝑓

𝑟𝑎 . What is the point of adding that? So, so this way it will continue.

And finally, where it will settle down? Where will be the stable points? Stable point will
be here. You need not worry about that machine will seek its own stable point where this
OCC of separately excited mode that is the OCC and the field resistance line wherever
they interact intersect that point will be the stable operating point, field current will be now
this much, and your generated voltage available across this terminals is this much that is
the thing.

So, it is nothing left to chances, that is it will grow I cannot say where it will settle down.
Why I am saying it is the final intersection point? Because it is at this point generated
voltage is this much and field current is this much, everything is satisfied, ok. Therefore,
the final generated voltage will be this.

So a shunt generator, although apparently it looks like, it cannot generate a voltage. But
with some residual field present and with proper connections of field and armature coils
in parallel that is very important, because if it is connected in such a fashion that now this

649
field current mmf opposes 𝜑𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 then this process will not go. It will instead nullify
that 𝜑𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 back to 0 and everything remains quiet; no voltage can be induced. But if
properly connected and the resistance value of the field winding is like this, then voltage
will build up and this voltage is substantial voltage, and this voltage may be 220 Volt or
whatever it is you want.

So, mind you, a shunt generator can generate a voltage only one point. Suppose, somebody
connects a very high resistance in series with the field coil such that new field resistance
becomes say this much. Then only this much voltage will be induced 𝑅𝑓 increased, is not.
If you increase 𝑅𝑓 further it may go like this, no point of intersection. So, we can list out
another points that will look here a shunt generator having residual field and you have
properly connected it, still it may not have any appreciable induced voltage if the field
resistance value is very large.

We will continue with this in the next lecture.

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 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 67
Load Characteristic of Shunt Generator

So, welcome to 67th lecture on Electrical Machines - 1 and we have been discussing about
DC generator.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:26)

And DC generator primarily are of 2 types we have discussed, one is a separately excited
generator and another is called self excited or shunt generator. Why it is self excited? You
do not require any DC supply applied that is to generate a DC voltage you will not ask for
another DC supply needed that is the beautiful thing about self excited generators or shunt
generators ok.

Now, these are the things in case of separately excited generator you have this field
winding and excited from a separate DC source with the resistance connected whatever it
is DC source and you get the generated voltage. In case of and these are the armature
terminals F2 field terminals and in shunt generator what you do is this, this is the field
winding same field winding F1-F2 connect an external resistance connect in parallel with
the armature and this will be these terminals.

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The value of 𝑟𝑎 is much smaller compared to the total resistance of the field coil and we
have seen that it is open circuit and load characteristics is where it was like this, OCC of
this generator was like this. And do not forget to mention at what speed attain rps said it
at speed and this is suppose the rated voltage. This is the nominal field current and the load
characteristics of this generator is always sketched against 𝐼𝑎 and terminal voltage that is
here I will connect load, terminal voltage is this voltage 𝑉.

And we have seen this will be a drooping characteristics try to draw more and more
armature current of course, there is a rated current of the armature beyond which you will
not go. So, from no load this voltage will drop because of no load voltage it is 𝑉 = 𝐸𝐺 −
𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 − 𝐵𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 and because of armature reaction also a little bit of voltage drop takes
place and armature reaction aspect I will take later as I told you, but this is a the overall
thing here.

In case of shunt generator that is you are discussing all right now it will be like this. That
is you have to run the machine as a separately excited generator and what will be the
voltage available under no load condition is decided by and mind you here I should be also
drawing correctly it is like this there is a residual field must be there it will not pass through
origin, even if field current is 0 there will be some little induced voltage.

In fact, that is the reason you at the end get a very large voltage and how much voltage to
which this machine will excite, it depends upon what is the value of the field circuit
resistance this is called 𝑅𝑓 line. Which is just the V-I characteristics of the field circuit,
this is voltage axis and how much voltage the generator will generate? It will generate
across the armature A1-A2 this generated voltage will be about 𝐸𝐺 is not.

To be very frank this is 𝑟𝑎 and here is your 𝐸𝐺 . So, with this switch open it will be 𝑉 =
𝐸𝐺 − 𝐼𝑓 𝑟𝑎 , but 𝑟𝑎 is very small and 𝐼𝑓 is also very small because this 𝑅𝑓 is very high so, it
is approximately this 𝐸𝐺 will come. Now and here also you do not forget to write at 𝑛 rps
when the machine was this characteristics I in fact, used here that you must understand to
get a feeling of the amount of voltage available from this DC generator connected in a
shunt fashion. Shunt means parallel armature and field windings are in parallel that is fine.

Now, what about the load characteristics? So, so I will go to next page.

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(Refer Slide Time: 06:36)

So, it is a nothing wrong if I redraw the things once more. So, this is the circuit diagram
because that will be needed and this is your armature terminals and this is your field circuit
terminals and here is the switch, where I will connect load, load means resistive load
everything is DC load resistance and that is all.

Now, the open circuit voltage with S opened we know what is the voltage developed, that
is this is the point of intersection this much is the voltage ok and in this axis mind you this
is field current and this is the open circuit voltage. When the load current is 0 this current
you can easily see this is not armature current, because there is a junction armature current
will be here if I draw it properly it will be here.

Suppose I show this branch also then it will be much more clear this is the thing I have
parallel them this is 𝐼𝐿 this is 𝐼𝑎 and this is 𝐼𝑓 assuming polarity of the induced voltage this
side plus the side minus. Mind you in case of generator if you want to reverse the polarity
of the induced voltage 𝐸𝐺 = 𝑘𝜑𝑛. You can either change field current direction supply
polarity of a separately excited generated if you reverse keeping the direction of rotation
same.

If this is plus, this is minus, then if you reverse field current keeping direction of rotation
same supply voltage will reverse it is polarity. If you reverse both of them both the
direction of field current as well as direction of rotation polarity of the induced voltage

653
will remain same, because 𝐸𝐺 = 𝑘𝜑𝑛. Anyway these are important things, but it should
you should be very clear about that so, this is the thing.

Now, this one is called the at open circuit and what is the load characteristics, load
characteristics looks like I can sketch for load current versus the terminal voltage or
armature current versus the terminal voltage either of them I can do, because external load
current whatever you are drawing with respect to that how terminal voltage is changing I
can find that out.

Therefore if I say that this axis I can sketch 𝐼𝐿 or 𝐼𝑎 and so, when 𝐼𝐿 = 0 then the open
circuit voltage is this voltage is not that is what I will get, terminal voltage here this voltage
and as I told you this is 𝑟𝑎 here is your 𝐸𝐺 . So, little drop 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 you can neglect or whatever
it is so, it is like this.

Therefore if you start drawing current 𝐼𝐿 it is expected that terminal voltage will fall,
because 𝐸𝐺 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 will come into picture 𝐼𝐿 ≈ 𝐼𝑎 . So, the anyway this can be written as
KCL:

𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑓 + 𝐼𝐿

What I am telling 𝐼𝑓 is pretty small because the resistance of the field circuit is many times
more than real load resistance. Anyway, so this is the thing, about one thing I am sure that
is with respect to a separately excited generator I told you if you go on reducing the load
resistance and if by chance a short circuit takes place here that is zero resistance current
will be very large armature current you recall that.

So, for example, here in fact, it is there I will show you. So, this is the thing if this terminal
is shorted this current will be pretty high, terminal voltage is 0, how much will be the
𝐸𝐺
current very large, what is the order of the current, that generated voltage if it is shorted
𝑟𝑎

very large current will flow, now let us see that extreme point first in this case.

Suppose you will connect a load resistance next page I think I went yeah. So, suppose this
is the switch it is connected, armature current is flowing which cannot now be neglected
𝐼𝐿 ≈ 𝐼𝑎 and suppose I make this terminal resistance suppose 0 that extreme case let me
first tell you. If a short circuit occurs what is going to happen? How much will be 𝐼𝐿 ? How

654
much will be 𝐼𝑎 ? That is the question, one thing is clear if a short circuit occurs that is with
𝑅𝐿 = 0 we must conclude 𝑉 = 0 that is I have shorted terminal voltage.

If this voltage is 0, this voltage is also 0, what is the voltage applied across the field circuit,
𝑉
0. Therefore, field current will become 0, 𝐼𝑓 = 𝑅 , 𝑅𝑓 is the total field resistance, if
𝑓

somebody makes this terminal voltage shorted then voltage existing between these 2 points
is bound to be 0 and thereby 𝐼𝑓 will drop down to 0. If 𝐼𝑓 = 0 how much is the generated
voltage, very little because of residual field then only residual field will generate the
voltage which is very small this much and 𝐸𝐺 will drop down to a very low value.

Thereby the current in this circuit will be that small voltage divided by 𝑟𝑎 , mind you this
circuit is in parallel with this that is with short circuited thing how the things will look like
this is the thing, this is shorted and here is the another resistance path parallel. Therefore,
this 𝐼𝐿 and 𝐼𝑎 will be same no current will now pass through this, and what will be the
value of this, this is 𝑟𝑎 , this is 𝐸𝐺 residual only now.

𝐸𝐺 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙
So, will be this current very little current therefore, one good thing is that even
𝑟𝑎

somebody goes to short circuit this shunt generator momentarily current will shoot up, but
final steady state current will be very little. See this was my starting point when 𝐼𝐿 = 0
and I am decreasing 𝑅𝐿 in order to draw more and more power out of the generator and if
I go to the extent of short circuiting it then the final operating point will be here, see in the
load characteristics what I want to see, how terminal voltage changes as armature current
or 𝐼𝐿 changes.

So, one thing I am telling the other extreme point in this particular case it is so obvious
𝐸𝐺 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙
that I can make it out this final current this current will be this , this current and
𝑟𝑎

there is no bifurcation of current here it is shorted this 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 it will be like this.

Now, the question is in between then what happens it is like this. So, this is the no load
voltage this point we say no load voltage or open circuit voltage. Suppose I will increase
the load gradually I have connected some I am drawing little current from the armature
then I know this voltage will be equal to 𝐸𝐺 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 . Therefore, terminal voltage is expected
to fall initially like the previous your separately excited generator and what will be the
reason of this fall, because of 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 drop because of brush drop and other thing and the

655
because of armature reaction which of course, I have not discussed it will not take much
time to discuss also, but I will come to that later, but terminal voltage will fall.

Therefore this characteristics must have somewhere bended towards this side to reach it is
final destination when the terminals are shorted. So, the characteristics must be of this kind
and to help explain this why this happens I mean like that got the point. So, so, load
characteristics of a shunt generator will be somewhat like this, it will start with large
voltage then you increase the load current there will be drops. In case of separately excited
generator it was not like that it was going like this for separately excited generator.

This you must understand ok, now how to do it? See the it can be done in several ways
you first tell that ok, I will pass some armature current listen carefully for some certain
armature current what is going to happen I want to see 𝐼𝑎 you fix. Then what will be 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 ,
I can calculate 𝐼𝑎 chosen generator is delivering this much current then what will be 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎
drop I can calculate.

Then what I will do and what is 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 drop, see this is the field resistance line this is the
voltage across the field at any time. So, 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 = 𝐸𝐺 getting me. This is 𝑉 suppose you
assume 𝐼𝑎 is chosen and terminal voltage is 𝑉 at that time found to be and terminal voltage
is suppose this is very crucial 𝑉. So, I have chosen 𝐼𝑎 and suppose terminal voltage is 𝑉.

If terminal voltage is 𝑉 voltage applied across the field circuit is also 𝑉, because they are
in parallel this voltage if you fix then I will say field current will be this much that is I will
write here.

So, if you have chosen 𝑉 I will say field current is this much, how much is the generated
voltage, assuming speed remaining same generated voltage must be this much from OCC
I can read. So, 𝑉 then field current must be this much suppose say 𝐼𝑓 say it is 𝑉1 terminal
1

voltage is suppose terminal voltage is 𝑉1, 𝐼𝑎 1 is the current at that time in the armature.
Then I will say that 𝑉1 + 𝐼𝑎 1 𝑟𝑎 , must be equal to your generated voltage, and what is the
𝐼𝑎 1 𝑟𝑎 ? 𝐼𝑎 1 𝑟𝑎 is this drop and I will say oh generated voltage is now this much.

Suppose I have some idea if you load the terminal voltage is bound to fall there is no doubt
about it, let the terminal voltage be 𝑉1 and at that time I find the armature current is 𝐼𝑎 1 .

656
Then I will say look here at that time field current is 𝐼𝑓 and the generated voltage at that
1

time is this much 𝑉1 + 𝐼𝑎 1 𝑟𝑎 that is the thing got the point.

Therefore if you choose 𝐼𝑎 1 and 𝑉1 for that matter then I will say in this characteristics I
can fix up this point maybe this is your 𝑉1 and this is your 𝑉1 and this is not surprising
terminal voltage is falling, but the interesting thing is if somebody draws the load
characteristics like this which I am expecting it has to be like this we find that, this terminal
voltage versus armature current is a double valued function that is for a given armature
current I will discover oh, the terminal voltage may be either this one or this one is not I
have to think in that way no other way, because these characteristics somehow has to bend
and come here. And then this for a given armature current if you draw a vertical line then
2 terminal voltage maybe there of which have taken one 𝑉1 and 𝐼𝑎 1 .

Now, then the question is what about this point, this point is maybe it will be here if you
draw a whatever it is here and but nonetheless 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 = 𝐸𝐺 . So, so this length is also
𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 and generated voltage will be then this much. So, this is once again 𝐼𝑎 1 𝑟𝑎 . So, to make
matter now after understanding these I will I can now from the open circuit characteristics
I can predict the load characteristics of the DC generator look in this way, after
understanding this, this is the thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:54)

657
Suppose what I will do is this, this is suppose the V-I characteristics OCC this is the field
resistance line this is the generated voltage and here I will sketch the load characteristics.
This is either 𝐼𝐿 or 𝐼𝑎 armature current ok, then what I will do? I will say that say that
generated is loaded and do not forget the connection. So, that I can show you the armature
current the separate thing it is always better. So, this is parallel here and this is your 𝐼𝑎 ,
this is your 𝐼𝐿 and this is your 𝐼𝑓 .

Now, what I will assume suppose the generator is loaded to deliver a current 𝐼𝑎 then I can
calculate 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 now listen me carefully what I am doing 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 I will calculate. Now this side
is a voltage axis and this is current axis field current in this OCC therefore, I know the
voltage scale I know the current scale what I will do, I will calculate this 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 and then this
part is most interesting what you do you cut a length which is equal to this 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 .

So, I have assumed armature is loaded to deliver 5 Amp current, then 5 × 𝑟𝑎 I know so,
5 × 𝑟𝑎 I will calculate it will give me some volts. So, that voltage I will cut a length from
this and then I will draw a line parallel to this field resistance line like this, then I am sure
this length is 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 and this length too is 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 .

Then I am absolutely clear if you say armature is delivering so much of current then I will
tell that it can do. So, at 2 terminal voltages what is that, this was the open circuit voltage
as usual and suppose you are sketching 𝐼𝑎 only. So, 𝐼𝑎 value I have chosen I will go to that
𝐼𝑎 value here and I want to know what are the terminal voltages. Terminal voltages will be
this one and this one because terminal voltage plus 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 gives you the generated voltage.

So, one value is very little. So, I will get this point and I will get this point corresponding
to this and this and this I will repeat for all the armature currents I like. Now the point of
return will be a parallel line 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 which will be parallel to field circuit resistance line, but
tangential to this then only you will get one value unique value.

So, like that I will go on doing 2 values for another armature current and you will get this
final value corresponding to a line parallel to field resistance line, but touching not giving
you 2 point of intersections. There it is a single valued current this current is 𝐼𝑎 maximum
if you call it 𝐼𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑟𝑎 and your characteristics will therefore, I am in I will correct it a bit
this is the open circuit voltage it may be here may be there. So, so terminal voltage will
𝑉
fall like this bend here and come at this point where it is .
𝑅𝑓

658
So, with respect to 𝐼𝑎 if you have open circuit and field resistance line at your disposal
then you can predict the load characteristics of the DC generator shunt generator as well.
In case of separately excited generator this point was like that it was going to very large
current, but in case of shunt generator it is not like that it will go reach a maximum value
and come back.

This armature the this axis can be converted to 𝐼𝐿 axis you can show because this I wrote
𝐼𝐿 and 𝐼𝑎 because I know that 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑎 − 𝐼𝑓 is not this is the KCL here. So, what I will do,
for a given this is suppose with respect to armature current we have drawn suppose
armature current versus terminal voltage this axis I must write what it is this is terminal
voltage.

Therefore what I will do for a given armature current I will go I got 2 values is not, this
value and for this value I know what is the field current is not for this value what is the
field current I know from this curve, because terminal voltage is this amount therefore,
how much is the field current this current from the 𝑅𝑓 line you read that. So, field current
will be known therefore, I will be able to tell what is the value of 𝐼𝐿 then because 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑎 −
𝐼𝑓 similarly for that this point.

Therefore I can always translate map this 𝐼𝑎 into 𝐼𝐿 provided I also add 𝐼𝑓 from the
corresponding points. Therefore, this is the story of a shunt generator where both open
circuit characteristics and load characteristics I have explained. Here also from no load to
full load of course, full load will be here do not worry about that I will not go to this extent
or things like that whatever is the rated armature current corresponding to that I will get
this point only.

These points are unstable points if you short circuit it will straight away I come here, but
what I wanted to tell you it will traverse perhaps a path like this. Therefore, up to 𝐼𝑎 rated
you will go and it will come here, in case of shunt generator the voltage drop or voltage
regulation is slightly higher because of the fact not only because of 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 drop brush drop
these are common in separately excited generator as well armature reaction will be also
there.

But because of the fact field current also drops a bit flux per pole is also reduced as you
move from one operating point. Here whatever is the flux per pole at this point flux per

659
pole is bound to be different because terminal voltage decides the field current which is
absent in case of a separately excited machine, because separately excited machine filled
coil voltage is independent of the terminal voltage of the armature because these 2 are
separate totally but nonetheless the shunt generator has the advantage that you do not
require any external DC supply to make it operate with this I stop here today we will
continue with this in the next class.

Thank you.

660
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 68
Qualitative Discussion on Armature Reaction

So, welcome to this lecture on DC machines. And we have been discussing about the no
load and load characteristics of Separately and Shunt Excited DC Generator.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:19)

Separately excited generator field is excited separately and in our previous lecture we have
seen, that how the no load and load characteristics of the machine can be found out.
Anyway, no point in repeating that.

661
(Refer Slide Time: 00:51)

But, in case of shunt excited generator. This is interesting because of the fact to generate
DC voltage you do not require any extra DC supply. Only thing is that you just connect
the machine in shunt and drive it run it by a prime mover, may not ensure any voltage to
be induced. There are various conditions to be satisfied that I will list out here today
formally first for shunt generator. The conditions let me write it down. The conditions to
be fulfilled; to for shunt generator the conditions to be fulfilled to generate voltage.

And here is the circuit diagram brushes, and here is your field winding and here is your
load 𝑅𝐿 . So, first point is that point number 1. Generator must have some residual field
must be present, that was one thing. Second thing is that armature and field winding should
be connected in such a fashion for a given direction of rotation the field current must assist
the residual field, ok. And third point is the field circuit resistance must be below a critical
value.

The meaning of these things, I will just tell you that we know these things, but perhaps
formally I did not tell that if this is your characteristics, OCC, how in the open circuit a
shunt generator builds up voltage it is something like this. This is the open circuit
characteristics. There is a small residual voltage and this is the field resistance line.

Field resistance line must pass through the origin because it is only V-I characteristics of
this circuit, that must pass through origin, but this open circuit will start above it. So, this

662
is the open circuit and do we know that the machine will under open circuit condition must
develop this much of voltage, point of intersection that is known.

Now, and this OCC as a separately excited generator is at rated speed that we must always
write. At what speed this OCC is drawn? Suppose it is at rated speed and to generate rated
voltage, this is suppose the field current and you get that is fine. Now, suppose if this
resistance value 𝑅𝑓 line is increased, this field circuit resistance I am going on increasing
then what will happen? The this mind you this is the voltage axis and this is the current
𝑣
axis field 𝑅𝑓 = .
𝑖

So, its slope will go on rising. 𝑅𝑓 was the original value now make it 𝑅𝑓1 which is greater
than 𝑅𝑓 induced voltage under open circuit will become less. In this way, if you go on
increasing the field resistance line a time will come when this field resistance line will gets
passed through this occ. And this resistance field resistance is called 𝑅𝑓 red one
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

critical value.

And if you make it bigger than this then there is no point of intersection existing and no
voltage will be induced. So, 𝑅𝑓2 suppose is greater than 𝑅𝑓 , no voltage will be
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

induced. That is what I just wanted to mention. Perhaps I did not tell it how it goes on and
what is critical resistance 𝑅𝑓 .
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

If you find residual field is there it is assisting you are sure it is still not generating any
appreciable voltage then better check the total field circuit resistance, that is the 𝑅𝑓
𝐸𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙

and 𝑅𝑓 . This two together of course, you cannot do any change here because coil is inside
the machine, so you have to reduce this and check whether it is adjusted to a value less
than 𝑅𝑓 than you will get of course, voltage.
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

Some people also say of course, after telling this it is obvious, somebody says that another
point which is also include here, but separately some people mention that this speed of the
generator should be greater than; greater than a critical speed. What does this mean, the
fourth point?

663
(Refer Slide Time: 09:39)

It simply means this because shunt generator we have seen, this is OCC, and suppose you
have seen that field circuit resistance is below critical field and it is at 𝑛 rps. And it will in
the open circuit generate this much voltage and this is field current that is quite good.
Now, you start imagining that this speed of the field resistance, I will keep whatever it is
for which it generates rated voltage under open circuit condition.

Now, you imagine that somebody or rather the speed of the prime mover is being
decreased, in that case keeping this field resistance line, if the speed is made lesser then
the OCC, position of OCC we know it will change it will be below this line. So, suppose
the field speed of the machine is reduced, then the OCC will be something like this, ok.
Keeping 𝑅𝑓 same, if speed is being reduced then OCC will be below this because for a
field current we know ratio of speeds gives you the new voltage for a given field current.
We have discussed that.

Now, in this way if you go on reducing this speed, then your OCC will come here. So, a
time will come you will get an OCC which will be tangential to the present field resistance
line, ok. A time will come, a time will come when the present 𝑅𝑓 will be the critical field
resistance. I am not varying 𝑅𝑓 . What I am simply doing? I am reducing speed present 𝑅𝑓
is constant. A time will come when this value of 𝑅𝑓 will be tangential to an OCC and this
speed because for each OCC I must mention speed. So, this is OCC we say at critical
speed, critical speed. I think you have got the idea.

664
So, this is what I wanted to tell. Apart from the fact that last time we discussed, a shunt
generator load test will be when you close the switch and the load characteristics will go
like this. So, for shunt generator always draw like this, this is armature, this is field and
there is your switch and here is your load resistance 𝑅𝐿 which can be varied and this is the
terminal voltage, terminal voltage.

So, in the load characteristics, the main points to be remembered for a shunt generator is
this, this terminal voltage 𝑉 will be when at the site can be; mind you this is your 𝐼𝐿 load
current and this is your 𝐼𝑎 and this is your 𝐼𝑓 . So, that 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑎 − 𝐼𝑓 . So, in this case the
when the load current this is 𝐼𝑎 or 𝐼𝐿 , when 𝐼𝑎 or 𝐼𝐿 is practically 0 this generated voltage
will be corresponding to this point. And then we have seen interesting thing, that in case
of shunt generator it will go like this then finally, it will come back here. And this current
𝐸𝑅𝑒𝑠
value will be nothing but generated voltage due to residual field very small current,
𝑟𝑎

residual field voltage is very small this value.

So, if 𝑉 = 0 means direct short circuit. And therefore, from a shunt generator you cannot
draw any current you like, there is a maximum value of the current and the maximum value
of the current which can be drawn from a shunt generator and easily be found out from
can be estimated experimentally. Last time I discussed, what you do? You draw a line
parallel to this line here so that this will be your 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑟𝑎 .

So, if you have OCC at your disposal field resistance line, then draw a line parallel to field
resistance line like this, then at that point wherever it touches it will be a one valued
function for a given current giving voltage. Otherwise, it is a double valued function. This
we explained in my last class from which you can estimate how much maximum current
it can deliver, ok.

So, this is about the characteristics of separately and shunt generator. And voltage drop
takes place, I told you because of armature resistance and because of brush drop which is
sometimes neglected. Otherwise, it is taken into account by considering one volt per brush.
This much voltage also you subtract from the generated voltage and then you get the
terminal voltage. But there is another cause for which the terminal voltage will fall and
that is due to armature reaction.

665
(Refer Slide Time: 17:43)

So, first what I will do is this I will discuss about armature reaction. First, I will discuss
qualitatively. Let us discuss. It very simple idea. See, I will consider say generator mode
of action only and I will be showing the poles also just symbolic, ok. These are the poles
and here is your armature, this is the thing.

Suppose, it produces this side produces a North Pole, field coils I am not showing, it must
be field current must be in this direction 𝐼𝑓 , so that lines of force will come out and here is
the South Pole. This is qualitatively intuitively we are trying to of course, with reason
nothing like that and these are the armature terminals we know. And these are the armature
conductors which are staying here. And this armature conductors are what? They are
pseudo stationary coil recall that.

So, for as production of magnetic field, by this conductor is concerned field will be
stationary in space although conductors are physically moving, ok. Now, suppose I say
that the generator is moving in this direction, 𝑛 rps, that is the prime mover is running this
armature of the generator in the clock wise direction then I can decide about the polarity
of the induced voltage by applying. So, it is generated voltage will be like this. Now, if
you apply right hand rule not the velocity it will be cross, all these conductor under the
purview of North Pole will have cross and obviously, the other side will have dot like that,
the field will be we know this many a times we have discussed.

666
 𝑃𝑍
Under no load condition and what will be the generated voltage? 𝜑𝑛 across the brasses.
𝑎

Under no load condition what is under no load condition 𝐼𝑎 = 0. No matter whether it is a

separately excited generator or shunt generator it does not matter, although I have shown
it separately. Armature will carry current when you connect some load, otherwise it may
carry current, but very little current. It does not matter. But generally under no load
condition means 𝐼𝑎 = 0. This is the current. So, this will be the situation.

Now, under no load condition when I will be loading the machine this is 0, but when I will
be loading the machine that is I will connect some load resistance here, across the armature,
then only current will be flowing and the direction of the current will be dictated by this
only that is direction of the current will be also cross under North Pole dot under South
Pole. And it will be because the torque experienced by this electromagnetic torque will be
then this way 𝑇𝑒 , if you apply left hand rule. So, it has to be in this direction the current is.

Now, the question is what happens to this field. When 𝐼𝑎 = 0, field I am sure it is decided
solely by the field coil. Symbolically, I am showing you one term for the field coil, it is
north to south lines of force will be like this. But when armature will be carrying current
then armature this coils two will produce their magnetic field.

Therefore, we should then ask ourselves that whether the flux per pole in the machine will
still remain what it was earlier when 𝐼𝑎 = 0 and based on that I calculated the generated
voltage and so on. See, what I assumed? 𝜑 is the flux per pole recall. And decided by
whom? Decided by 𝐼𝑓 that is all. That is what I told you. I never told that armature current
is going to do what. But now after learning that after you load this generator, this is
generator mode armature will carry current and naturally the question is it will also create
its own field.

So, armature field and the field produced by the field coil, the resultant of this two is to be
now considered to calculate the generated because machine conductors does not know, it
𝑃𝑍
only knows it has to generate this much voltage 𝜑𝑛, 𝑛 is rps, 𝜑 is the flux per pole.
𝑎

Whether this flux per pole is disturbed by somebody else that is the armature in this case
is to be investigated now.

Now, in the qualitative explanation it is pretty simple to understand what is going to

happen. What? Consider that each coil, see if you consider conductor by conductor here,

667
if you have suppose a conductor which is carrying cross current, the magnetic field
produced by this will be like this, we know. There is another conductor here see I am
drawing this side, that is another conductor which is also like this, circular like this, this is
carrying cross. It will produce its own magnetic field like this, sorry, sorry, this will be
producing like this, this will be producing like this, same direction, ok, clockwise.

Another third one. I am just drawing because it is qualitative explanation this is another
conductor cross and it will produce it is magnetic field like this. You know that is how it
will produce. Therefore, in this diagram now after learning this because this diagram will
be then quite clumsy if I go on drawing this circles here like that.

What I understand is that see this is equivalent to, this is equivalent to for example, this
three conductor, this intermediate point it is going like this they will cancel out and you
can group all the coils together and show lines of force like this. Are you getting? It is very
easy to understand this part.

Now, you see the original lines of force produced by the field coil. It was like this, it was
like this, uniformly distributed when there was no armature current. Now, what I find that
for each of this conductor here, this was the original flux and there is an mmf here, here.
So, this will be more, this will be more and when you come to this side it will be opposing
this. In other words, what I am telling is this scenario will be something like this, very
interesting scenario. That is your armature is like this, then the conductors, this was your
say North Pole.

So, lines of force in this up they will become much more dense and here lines of force will
be redefined because of this opposing thing that is what is going to happen. That is in one
up of the pole as if the magnetic field strength will increase and in the other half of the
pole it will be decreased.

Earlier it was uniformly distributed. So, the moment you pass armature current. How do
you pass it? You load the machine, this was the direction of generated voltage, DC it is
same direction current will flow. And because of this cross current here, here we
understand that the lines of force on this side will be more because in this case best way to
tell this you consider a single conductor. See, it is effectively like this. This is the armature.
Direction of the field is like this, for this is cross, this is dot.

668
So, you just represent it by an effective current, this side cross, this side dot as if all taken
together. This was my North Pole, this was my North Pole, this was my South Pole, good.
Now, the lines of force of this thing what I am telling will be like this. So, here it will be
this armature current because of this lines of force will nullify some of the lines of force
produced by the field. And here it will be strengthened on the upper side there is what in
effect I am telling.

Therefore, in one half of the pole the lines of force or the flux per pole will increase, flux
will increase, in other half of the pole flux will decrease. If that be the case, then it looks
like that it is the flux per pole which decides the induced voltage across the armature, when
you are not loading the flux per pole was 𝜑.

Now, if I load it then I know that in one half of the pole flux will increase and in the other
half it will decrease. Therefore, flux per pole perhaps will remain same this is the most
interesting part. So, the conclusion is in one half because of armature current flux will
increase in one half of the pole and will decrease in the other half.

This will perhaps, this will perhaps keep the flux per pole unchanged, from no load to full
load condition, full load say full load armature current is flowing. In no load armature
current is 0, draw the rated current then the argument may be like this, flux per pole in one
half increases, other half decreases, it is the flux per pole which decides the generated
voltage that then will perhaps remain same.

If that would have been the case life would have been much more easier, that sort of
arguments. That arguments is nice, but it has only got one thing we are not considering.
The next statement I am going to make is the increase in flux in one half will be always
less than the decrease in the other half. So, that effectively there will be a net decrease in
flux per pole. Why I am telling that?

It is because here whatever will be the flux produced will be decided by in the upper half,
the mmf of the field coil and the mmf of this armature conductor here. And it is carrying
rated current, I am talking about rated current. At low value of current this is precisely
what will happen. But at rated value large value of current this may not happen that is what
I am telling.

669
Why? Because this part in this part saturation may take place. More mmf is causing this
flux to increase. However, it is unsaturated portion here it will decrease in proportion.
Therefore, I put this sign here perhaps it will remain same. We will keep the flux per pole
phi unchanged. May be true for a lesser degree of loading low value of armature current,
but may not be true at large value of current. In fact, since the increase in flux per pole in
one half will be less then decrease in the other half, net flux per pole will suffer a loss of
value. Therefore, the induced voltage itself will become lower compared to no load
condition.

Then, after that armature resistance drop, brass drops these are there always. That is why
people say when you load a generator the voltage drop takes place because of armature
resistance drop, because of brush drop and because of armature reaction effect. We will
continue with this discussion further.

Thank you.

670
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 69
Ill Effects of Armature Reaction

(Refer Slide Time: 00:23)

So, we have been discussing about Armature Reaction in DC machine and for that I took
a generator mode of operation and assume the this direction of rotation and assume that
this pole is north pole and then this side is south pole, I am not showing the field winding.
So, under no load condition when armature is not carrying any current then the lines of
force will be uniformly distributed over a pole that is the flux density will be same.

But, the moment armature is loaded this side of the conductor all will carry cross current,
all will carry cross current here and this side of the conductor will carry dot current got the
point, but the moment armature carries current this there will be a concentration of lines
of forces on the on this side half to half it will be something like this and then it will be
ratified here in this zone. Opposite thing will happen here the lines of force will go
concentrated is not because of this here dot current it is like this and it will be ratified here.

So, half of the pole will have more flux per pole I mean more flux and so, there will be an
increase in flux in one half and an another. In this context I will tell you just one very basic
information all of us are having, suppose you have a magnetic field and suppose it is

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carrying a current I in this direction. So, it is a suppose uniform magnetic field; when it
was not carrying a current it was uniform like this ok. When it was not carrying any current
that is fine uniformly distributed.

But, the moment I to the same conductor you pass a current I the lines of force will be like
this, lines of force will be like this. And, you can easily see the lines of force here will be
more now after it carries current. So, lines of force will be thicker, I thicker means
concentrated here because whatever lines of force was provided by the original field will
be strengthened and, here it will be in the opposite direction, it was downwards here lines
of force will be rarefied that is what I am trying to tell.

And, another interesting thing is if this is the picture this is some current the conductor is
carrying and you just imagine that these lines of forces are elastic sort of thing. So, if you
just pull them like this then the conductor will experience a force this side force. This is of
course, I know from left hand rule this is what is going to happen by applying left rule this
way. Current, 𝐵 and this is the direction of the force, that is conductor will always move
from high concentrated field to low concentrated field, in this case also same thing
happens.

So, that is the electromagnetic torque will be in this direction consisted with the prime
mover torque which has set the rotation. So, prime mover torque is also in this direction,
electromagnetic torque would be like this. So, so this picture is like this and the argument
was in general for low value of armature current, increase in flux in one half and decrease
in other. If they are equal then flux per pole will remain same and nothing appreciable is
going to happen. Also you recall the direction of the torque can be also found out the; I
told you earlier.

Because, of the interaction of the two fields of the armature and that of by this stator poles.
In this case the this side of the iron of the armature will become N north pole and this side
will become armature poles will be Na-Sa and, you can see this Na will be repelled by this
N, the position of this Na and Sa in case of DC machine is same with time it does not
change, it will not move because of commutator and brush arrangement that is the beauty.
In so, many ways you can explain this armature reaction.

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(Refer Slide Time: 07:11)

Now, as I mentioned in my earlier lecture that increase of flux in one half will really not
be compensated by decrease in the other. In fact, decrease will be less than the increase in
one half. I mean increase will be less than the decrease in the other half because, of
saturation effect. If that be the case then the induced voltage will suffer a loss of voltage.
So now, new flux per pole will be not by a very large amount flux per pole will decrease
because, after all in one half increasing another half decreasing.

But only thing is this; the increase in the half where increment take place that is likely
lesser because saturation effect. There will be a net reduction in flux per pole, some people
what they do; they will simple say that because of armature reaction flux is reduced by
4%. By that some problems may be sent with experience flux per pole becomes or you
measure the generator voltage, try to estimate the generated voltage.

And, from that you see that effective reduction in flux per pole may be 2%, 3% or 4%. So,
original flux was 𝜑, it will then become 0.95𝜑, 5% decrease with respect to the no load
field present in the machine. So, apart from the loss in voltage there are other ill effects of
armature reaction that I am telling you now and these are much more problematic; you see
that in the machine I will redraw this, nothing wrong in re-drawing.

So, that you understand better and better, this is the armature it was there and there was
the brasses, there were the brushes and here are the conductor. Now, these points are
important for DC machine I mean very important. See this was your poles, good they are

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not permanent magnets in a practical DC machines, windings are there ok. Now, under no
load condition lines of force will cross the armature then reach the south pole, complete
its path through the yoke portion of the iron of the stator.

What will be the flux in this axis at sometimes I mentioned this to the my direct axis d-
axis, along which the stator field operates and this axis some people call it q-axis,
quadrature axis. When the armature is not carrying any current, what is the field? Here the
field strength is how much? Ok. Whatever is this; what will be the flux in this direction;
0.

When 𝐼𝑎 = 0, no flux in the quadrature axis in the q-axis where brushes are placed
therefore, no flux in the quadrature axis. However, when there will be armature current
flowing armature mmf I do not want to let me disturb this. So, suppose these are carrying
cross generator mode, this direction it is moving and these are all cross. These are dot nice
no problem, the moment you do this the armature mmf effectively it is cross, it is dot.

So, it will be like this, this way. So, that is why this fellow has become a north pole on the
rotor iron. So, lines of force will be like this and this will be the armature mmf along the
quadrature axis which was either to absent when the machine was under no load condition
𝐼𝑎 = 0 but now there appears a field here. Therefore, I would now expect there will be
some flux per pole here, some flux be present here because of this armature mmf along the
quadrature axis and therefore, the coils this coil when it was under the influence of north
pole its other coil side was under the influence of the south pole having cross dot currents.

After the crosses these comes under south pole they have to carry current in the opposite
direction and it is conditioned, you cannot do anything about that. The moment it crosses
to this side from left to right crossing the q-axis or brush axis, it has to carry this dot and
cross current it has to. When armature current was 0 but it has to pass through this zone q-
axis. When armature current is present, when this coil will come here in the q-axis it will
also having least voltage in it; with what polarity? It was under the influence of north pole,
this is the armature mmf; so, still under the influence of another north pole as if.

This is the south pole of armature, this is the north pole of armature. So, flux lines it is
coming like this therefore, it will still have cross voltage induced in it. Therefore, the
switching of current from cross to dot will be delayed, I will explain that in a much more
simpler way. But, before that you understand that earlier it was like this cross under no

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load condition, it comes here, voltage becomes 0, current is 0 then you asked to carry dot
current that was one thing.

So, it was getting some time, current become 0 then became dot but here it is almost; when
it is present here in the otherwise magnetic neutral zone when 𝐼𝑎 = 0, this was the
magnetic neutral zone.

There was no induced voltage in this conductor and because, but with armature current I
find oh this is cross, this is dot still it has to carry current. So, this process of changeover
of current deduction for a particular coil, each coil will undergo this process after sometime
this fellow cross to dot current, it has to become.

So, this process is called what is known as commutation, commutation of current. An

important term in the DC machine it has to, this is one thing and another thing is which
while explaining the DC machine armature winding what I told is this, I will draw a very
rough figure.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:13)

Now, see there were several coils I drew like this, I will draw a few of them, it was like
this and there were commutator segment, commutator segment I am now drawing bigger
ok. So, that we understand the process and there are so, many commutator segments and
all coils are connected in series is not and the coil ends are terminated, this junctions on

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commutator segments, you recall that. Like that it went on and there are brasses here, this
side is under north pole this starting etcetera.

So, brasses were here, brass width is same as the commutator segment, while calculating
the voltage per coil in the armature I told you one thing ok. It is running at a high speed
assume half of the coils it is expected, half of the coils is under north pole, half of the coils
is under south pole and based on that I calculated the armature voltage but I did not tell
that there may be a situation one coil will be in the quadrature axis also at sometimes it
has to; but since the number of coils are more to calculate the induced voltage it will not
cause any problem. Suppose, there are 100 coils, 1 coil will be undergoing such a process
1 or 2 coils.

When they will pass quadrature axis and go to that side and interestingly under no load
condition the coil which will undergo commutation, I will draw it what I want to say. There
are two committed segments, brass width is same as the commutator segments width and
here is a coil on the quadrature axis, this is coil in quadrature axis. This is the brush, these
are the commutator segments insulated by mica insulation and there is other coils here like
that, it is under north pole that is next coil that is under south pole and so on.

But, you see this coil is then it is the direction of rotation, this coil is now undergoing
commutation. Earlier it was carrying some current this way and after it crosses, it will
carry current in the opposite way same current but in the opposite direction and I now find
that the and this coil is undergoing commutation, when it is undergoing commutation in
the this coil you see it gets shorted. By whom? By the commutator segments which is
moving in space, but at that instant it will be shorted by this brush and this commutator
segment and here.

Under no load condition there was no induced voltage, no problem. But, now when the
armature current is moved in the quadrature axis, it is not true that the flux is 0. There is
some flux 𝐵 is there therefore, 𝐵𝑙𝑣 induced voltage there and induced voltage will be there
and that induced voltage will circulate some short circuiting current. Not in the other coils,
but only the coils which are which is undergoing commutation but the boundary condition
is when the coil was this side it has to carry current I in this direction and when it goes to
that side it has to carry current in this direction, this is boundary condition nothing to in.

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Now, therefore, it looks like there will be some problem, problem means there will be
some circulating current, if there is flux in the quadrature axis and, also coil carries coil
has to change the current from plus I to minus I, it has to change the current. In any case
this coil has also got some; however, small it is a small inductance associated with coil.
Any coil is having some inductance which is proportional to 𝑁 2 etc, we know that.

The period of time during which this commutation will take place is very small because,
machine is running at a high speed; everything is happening very quickly. Therefore, if I
say a coil having some inductance 𝐿 and the current is changed from +𝑖 to −𝑖, in a very
𝑑𝑖
less amount of time do not you expect some induced voltage in the coil 𝐿 𝑑𝑡, which will be

very large because in a small time from one finite value of +𝑖 to −𝑖 it is changing therefore,
there will be also induced voltage in the current.

What will be the polarity of the induced voltage? Polarity of the induced voltage will be
such that it will try to oppose the very cause for which the voltage is due, that is it will try
to oppose the change of current. For smooth operation of DC machine I would expect the
changeover of current from +𝑖 to −𝑖 takes place very peacefully, +𝑖 then it becomes 0 in
the quadrature axis, then it becomes −𝑖.

But, inductance of the coil which is short circuited will prevent that, that is the induced
voltage in the coil is such that it will try to still carry +𝑖 current and that is why people say
commutation is delayed and not only that there will be large induced voltage in the
𝑑𝑖
conductor 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 will be large and this voltage may even because it is a thin mica insulation

may cause a flux over between the commutator segments.

See there are so, many things happening here; the coil which undergoes commutation get
short circuited in the quadrature axis. By whom? By the commutator segments and the
brass in the quadrature axis that is one aspect that will be we expect some circulating
current which I do not like because current still persist and the polarity of this induced
voltage because of rotation of quadrature flux I just told in the previous diagram, it is
saying like this.

It cannot distinguish north pole it was under still north pole under and they that is I am
making a situation coil still carries +𝑖. Although finally, his task is he has to carry a −𝑖
current and −𝑖 current it will do in any case and the price we pay for that is the large

677
 𝑑𝑖
induced voltage across the coil 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 and that large voltage may compare this, there maybe

a direct flash over between the brushes and there will be arching taking place between the
brushes flashes.

It is a common practice, if you see a DC machine running and if you can see the
commutator segment moving at a high speed there are brushes and you switch off the light
you will find there are arcs between the commutator segments. It is because those coils
which are undergoing change of current from +𝑖 to −𝑖, under a short circuit thing
environment like this there may be a little flash over. That is why you one disadvantage of
DC machines is that it cannot, it is ruled out you cannot make use of it inside a mine for
example.

There may be explosive gases and because of this flash over there will be fire, out of
question DC machine because it is bound to have some flashover between the commutator
segment, even for normal operations. Apart from it may affect the your nearby
communication network, it will radiate energy all these things because high speed it is
running. If you have a radio set or TV on and nearby a DC machine is running, you will
see that disturbance will be picked up by your TV set, picture will be spoil disturbed.

So, all these things I am telling is that armature reaction has a far reaching consequences
in terms of various things. It will delay the commutation, it will not make a smooth change
over a current; although +𝑖 to −𝑖 the moment it causes it has to carry −𝑖 and you are giving
it a very small time, high speed it is running; suddenly it was there, it goes there; large
voltage will be induced that may function at the insulation mica insulation this is a thin
mica insulation and it may it will cause problem and it cannot be use DC machine, this is
the reason.

In normal case also there will be a little bit of flash over and you ruled out you rule out the
use of DC machines in a hazardous, in the environment with I mean particularly mines etc;
DC machines cannot be used, conventional DC machines ok. So, these are the ill effects
of armature reaction, for small machines people do not care a little bit of flash over will
take place between the process. Every time a coil undergoes computation say up to few
kW you tolerate it.

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But, suppose there is a DC machine of large capacities, suppose 20 kW DC machine, a DC
motor or DC generator. Their armature current will be very large, if armature current is
very large there will be armature flux also very large is not and commutation will be further
delayed, larger voltage will take place, will be induced in the quadrature axis; whoever
passes that zone it will have additional induced voltage. In normal case if 𝐼𝑎 = 0, nothing
no flash over nothing because 𝐼𝑎 = 0, no quadrature axis flux everything is fine; but the
moment large machines, large armature reaction you cannot avoid this. Therefore, you
must do something to avoid this armature reaction and this I will discuss in my next lecture.

So, qualitatively I have explained with simple logic ok, these are the things going to happen
and these are going to cause problems, please understand that. Then we will actually draw
the armature mmf diagram also, super impose it with the field coil mmf and see ourselves
in fact, it is happening that is in the next class.

Thank you.

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 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 70
Compensating and Interpoles

Welcome to Electrical Machine I course and we discussing about the armature reaction
and its ill effects on the performance of a DC machine and that too I am not using primarily
any mathematical things with physical reasoning trying to understand that.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:42)

And we have seen that these are the poles, this is the armature, and there are brushes here
in the quadrature axis which is otherwise a magnetic neutral zone, there is no 𝐵 in this
direction when the machine is under no load condition; this I assume north, this I assume
south and so on.

And then I told each coil has to cross from this side to that side; a little while ago, if a coil
was here carrying cross and dot current, after sometime the same coil will come here and
has to carry dot and cross current; therefore, current changes from +𝑖 to −𝑖 and mind you
that there is, there will appear a quadrature axis flux along this direction 𝑀𝑎 because of so
many conductors.

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I will slightly digress, because I cannot resist, but say another interesting thing. I told you
that, these are the things dot, these are cross and this coil is now undergoing commutation,
direction of rotation I assumed like this generator mode that is the thing. Now see while
studying induction motor all of us know that, suppose it is a slip ring induction machine;
how do I access the rotor terminals? Rotor terminals of a slip ring induction motors are
accessed by slip ring and brush arrangements.

Slip ring is a continuous ring, and brush is touching; is not slip rings are continuous rings
three slip rings will be there and there will be fixed brushes which I am showing like this;
three slip rings and three brushes these are continuous ring and why it was necessary
because I want to access the rotor terminals it is going to R phase of the rotor, this ring is
connected to Y phase of the rotor winding, B phase of the rotor winding.

So, that this rotor terminals R, Y, B becomes stationary here and you can connect external
resistance this that, in case of slip ring machine. In case of DC machine also because the
armature conductors is moving; how to assess the armature terminals? We have not
accessed it through slip ring and brush, because if you access it by slip ring and brush you
will get AC voltage. It was necessary that commutator segment and brush arrangement
intelligently connected will convert a DC voltage.

So, in case of a DC machine I access the rotor terminals through brush and commutator
segments. What is the fundamental difference between these two connections? Here each
terminal from the, this is brush in this machine, it is always connected to a particular coil
end; has the coils move etcetera it never it is always connected to that coil fixed coil, one
side of a fixed coil. Similarly this fellow is connected to one side of a fixed coil, but in this
case this brush through commutator segment is getting connected to different coils.

So, when a coil comes to a particular position then only this brush gets connected to that,
it is not connected to a fixed coil end; otherwise you would have got AC like this fellow.
So, that is why the rotor terminals in a DC machine is accessed by commutator segment
and brushes to make it DC and also when a particular coil come in this position then only
this two ends gets connected to brush and different different coils at different different
times comes. That is why this space; what is the position of the coil? Whoever comes to
that particular position in space that gets connected through brush, that is known ok, that
is there.

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Now another interesting thing I will tell, we have now learnt what is the ill effects of
armature reaction; generator mode. Now suppose I want to say large machine armature
reaction will be quite heavy, is not, armature flux this 𝑀𝑎 depends upon 𝐼𝑎 straight away.
If it is a large machine, large 𝑀𝑎 will be large, this quadrature 𝐵 will be large, there will
be large voltage, circulating current, and induced voltage in the coil, undergoing
commutation two will be large because of inductance effect, more flash over is expected.

So, in a large induction machine, you cannot just have only field winding and armature
winding and we feel happy; no, it is not going to happen, there will be very large flash
over. What is to be done then, see without doing any maths and this that I want to nullify
the effect of armature mmf. Suppose I say that the here is a conductor which carries cross
current, and it produces field around it, like this we have seen fine.

Now suppose I say do something, so that there will be no field because of this current.
What is the answer to this? You will say, that I will then place this was the original
conductor, and in the close proximity I will place another conductor carrying same current
in the opposite direction and there will be no field external. Field will be 0, this fellow will
produce this, this fellow will be produced in the opposite direction; net field in this will be
at least will become substantially small. Field is 0 to the external world, if you have placed
two conductors side by side includes proximity, not short circuiting each other, then this
field will not be there, no field; approximately no field better to say.

Therefore, if I want to, I know armature current will be carried, the moment you load the
machine; conductors will carry armature current, 𝑀𝑎 will be produced. Is it possible to
place some additional conductors in close proximity of this armature conductors, which
will carry opposite currents and of roughly same strength say; but where to put the
additional conductors, here is a place to put those additional conductors. See this is air gap,
air gap 𝑔, air gap length is very small few millimetres things like that, is not.

And here is a space on the pole face, that is what I will do, what I am trying to tell on the
pole face I will cut slots and put conductors, like this; on the other side also I will do like
that oh sorry, on the other side also I will do like this that is this one. I will put conductors
like this; conductors this is stator structure mind you, and this is suppose one turn, this is
another turn these are all stator coils.

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So, what can be done perhaps is common sense tells, I am not giving any mathematical
calculation, that on the pole face this is called pole face on the face of the pole you have
slots, grouped in, and place conductors like this, it turns like this, and this coils are called
compensating coil.

So, what is the situation now in the DC machine, there were field coils, it was carrying 𝐼𝑓 ;
𝐼𝑎
there were armature coils carrying current 𝐼𝑎 in the conductors of course, that is parallel
𝑎

paths and there is now another coil which I will pass to nullify this mmf currents in this
direction, this is cross, and this side dot.

Learning from this example cross dot nearby you place, so, it was producing, armature
was producing flux like this; compensating coil will produce flux in the opposite direction
and they will nullify and they will nullify they will be in a position to nullify provided this
compensating winding is connected in series with the armature. When armature current is
0 this compensating coil will not carry any current, it is not needed; when armature current
is growing up you are loading the machine up to rated current, then this current also
increase, so that for all currents you can compensate the armature winding mmf.

Therefore, I showed now use like this to draw a machine winding, represent a DC machine,
large DC machine; for small machines this is not done, because cost will be much more
for such machines additional winding. So, what you do there is, it is shown like this
symbolically field winding; this is F1-F2, here is your armature coil A1-A2 and the
compensating coil magnetic axis of that is also along the quadrature axis, because these
are the turns cross turn; are you getting me, cross coil comes here another turns, another
turns and this runs on the stator structure through that you make this winding; therefore,
compensating coil can be shown like this, its magnetic axis is along the quadrature axis
and so, while connecting.

So, this is compensating coil, where it is physically present on the pole face, it is present
here; and say C1-C2 like that and then you say that a large DC machine, large capacity DC
machine, you connect this in series with the armature this and then connect the load this is
what you do got the idea; therefore, it is always ensured that this is 𝐼𝑎 the compensating
coil winding current is proportional to 𝐼𝑎 , armature current is always 𝐼𝑎 .

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So, you choose suitable number of turns of this one. So, as to nullify the effect of armature
mmf; we will talk about selecting the number of turns later, but the point is this is the thing.
The idea is very simple, that is what I am telling not really calculating how much should
be the number of turns of the compensating winding. Another practical thing is you should
be very careful when compensating coil is there, you have to connect correctly; what I
mean to say, that I could also connect the compensating coil like this, this is the armature
for the same machine, somebody this is C1, somebody connects like this and C2 with S
and this is the field coils.

What I want to mean is this; the compensating coil is to be connected with appropriate
terminals in relation to A1-A2. Suppose for the same machine I connect in both the ways
separately, I will do testing; in one of the case it will compensate, that is armature C1,
suppose in this position generator mode this is 𝑀𝑎 , 𝑀𝑐 must be in this direction. Suppose
in this position when current leaves C1 it produces 𝑀𝑐 , then only 𝑀𝑐 can balance 𝑀𝑎 off
and reduce your armature mmf along quadrature axis; hence voltage induced in the
quadrature axis in the coil undergoing commutation.

But if it is true, then in this case this is C2 sorry. In this case, what is going to the happen;
if this is the direction of 𝐼𝑎 , through C1 current enters therefore, it will produce mmf also
in the downward direction and 𝑀𝑎 was also in the down ward direction, situation will be
worst.

Therefore, while connecting compensating coil you must properly connect, so that the mmf
produced by compensating coil opposes the mmf produced by the armature coil and then
you get some relief, so far as the commutation problem is concerned. Do I get really a
100% relief? The answer is may not be; because see the pole face only extends not up to
this zone the pole is there from this to this, while calculating pole face you know this is
one pole, then there is another pole here, I drew it flux bar pole calculation, this is the
magnetic neutral axis.

So, in this zone; however, armature conductors are there that is it is up to this point, but
after that also cross dot is there. Can it fully compensate this? No, most of the armature
mmf will get nullified in this process, no doubt but if you want to get perhaps there will
be some still quadrature flux, which will be reduced no doubt, but may be present.

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(Refer Slide Time: 20:42)

So, in that case what is done is that you this is the armature coil, this is the armature
conductor, here is your field coil F1-F2 and here is your compensating coil, this can be
compensating coil I will draw later.

What is done is this; let me draw here, also the poles so that you then get the idea of the
term. So, this was the main poles, these are called main poles; north, south created by field
coils, this is the quadrature axis. Now what you do is this; in this inter polar zone that is
around the q axis, you produce some small poles, thinner poles very small width; and that
is your stator will look like this one this is the yoke is and these are called inter poles, thin
interpoles not this much large only small this thing and these are what field coils, these are
what filed coils, and these are what, you put another coils here.

So, this is called interpole coils, for large DC machine you will find interpole coil. So,
armature if it is generator mode, generator rotating in this direction; we know this currents
will be cross, this side current will be dot only drawing two representative conductors and
your armature flux should be when armature carries current, armature flux should armature
mmf will be like this.

So, what should be the polarity of the current? So, that this flux, I will not tolerate; what
should be the polarity of the current, to oppose this quadrature axis flux, if interpoles were
not there, there would have been a flux that causes the problem therefore, I must pass cross

685
current here and dot current there, is not. Similarly cross current here, dot current there,
like that I have to put, because there will be some quadrature axis flux present.

And then and this will take care of this nearby conductors, so compensate, this fellow
cannot compensate for all the armature mmf. Majority of the armature mmf, I will also
connect compensating coil whose axis will be same as the inter polar axis; this is the
compensating coil sorry this is the compensating coil. I am just telling about the ideas,
perhaps there was problem when you have compensating coil ok, you get rid of the
armature reaction problem for majority of the armature conductors; but still you cannot
compensate for conductors lying in this zone because this fellow ends there.

So, to avoid this flux still whatever it is left you connect some interpoles in this zone and
this machine therefore, maybe having can be shown one large machine maybe having C1-
C2 compensating coil and also it is axis is also along quadrature axis and these are interpole
terminals, right by which name should I call it compensating and this is interpole IP1 and
IP2 and this fellow also is to be connected in series with the armature, so that it can react
to any armature value of the current properly. So, that this then will become your armature
terminals; I mean effectively to the load then this will be the thing.

So, to summarize what I am trying to tell, that qualitatively we are first seen what is
armature reaction, and what are the ill effects of armature reaction; and then how to avoid
the effect ill effects of armature reactions by connecting a compensating coil,
compensating coil will be pole face coil and also by if you have enough money then go for
a fully almost fully compensated DC machine, having both compensating coil and also
thin poles, thin inter poles; poles to nullify the effect of armature reaction that is what I am
to tell.

Under no load condition 𝐼𝑎 = 0 this fellow is not there, no poles; one should not be under
the impression that ok, but at no load condition there will be induced voltage across the
brushes correct. But because of this field also there should be induced voltage, but that
field is not there, is not, 𝐼𝑎 = 0 that is why you have made it dependent on the load current.
So, that it can compensate for all the currents. Of course, I have not told how to calculate
the number of turns of inter poles, compensating coils etcetera; if possible I will tell you,
but the physical reasoning are very important then only you go for computation, what are
the things happening in a DC machine.

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If you want to connect it such a big machine as a generator, then treat these two as your
armature terminals and connect field winding like that I think you have got the idea. There
are compound machines, I am not mind you I am not yet told about machines which has
both field coils and series coil; that is different thing altogether. These two coils are to be
connected in order to avoid the armature reaction effect. That is what we have discussed
today and in our following lectures I will in fact sketch this armature mmf, in space how
it looks like, field flux in space, super impose them and same thing whatever I have got
here will be also obtain there ok.

Only last point I want to tell that if you see this is not, this is this polarity has to be south,
is not, this polarity has to be north interpole polarity cross dot, lines of force will enter.
You see the conductors which is; this point is very interesting, if you connect like that how
it will improve commutation. This coil concentrate on this coil, it was here on the left hand
side, it was having cross dot voltage, is not and you know after some time after a brief
period of time it will cross this what is called this borderline, go to the other side and he is
asked to carry the opposite current; this cross current is which ends to dot immediately
after it crosses.

Now when it comes here in this zone, there will be induced voltage because of the armature
reaction north pole that we have studied and also because of the south pole, I can choose
the strength of the south pole. So, as to nullify that armature north pole here, opposite poles
I have brought in and induced voltage will be 0. The direction of the field was like this
earlier under no load condition because of the 𝑀𝑎 in this direction; what I have done I have
put another coil, so that there will be a field there, this two may nullify and therefore,
quadrature B does not exist, no induced voltage etcetera; and then it cross current here the
current will 0, then negative some sort of smooth change over takes place.

Now, I may make this compensating poles by selecting it number of times, a little higher
then what is required to nullify this quadrature axis flux itself that is. Instead of north pole
layer there when this conductor comes here it will see a south pole; that means, this
conductor was carrying cross current, cross it has to get in cross, nothing doing because
these are in series here. Then it reaches here it carries cross current but I am already I have
already started educating the conductors that look here you are going to face a sudden
south pole.

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So, I will rather start training him that you start experiencing from now onwards. So, that
it will improve commutation, it will be accelerated commutation it will be very helpful to
the conductor, it has to suddenly see a south pole you start in advance that. That is he in
this case interpole is designed not only compensate this 𝐵 but also over compensated
slightly overcompensate, so that the same polarity which this conductor is going to face
after a little bit of time start facing a little ahead.

So, these are the nice physical reasonings with which one can go to understand what is
going to happen in a DC machine when armature carries current.

Thank you; we will continue with this in the next class.

688
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 71
Armature Reaction Continued

Welcome to next lecture on Electrical Machines I and we were discussing about Armature
Reaction.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:26)

And in our last lectures we qualitatively discussed what the is the armature reaction and
then what are its bad effects and also we discussed about how to get rid of this ill-effects
of armature reaction by using compensating winding and also along with interpole
winding, and as I told you this discussion was on qualitative basis very simple to explain.

Today we will try to draw the field pattern in the air gap of the machine because of the
stator field which are projected poles and the nature of the field is trapezoidal and then, we
shall try also to draw the mmf distribution of the armature currents along the air gap of the
machine.

And this mmf we will cause armature air gap, in the air gap also this amateur mmf will
produce some armature flux therefore, resultant flux will be the sum of these two. And
from that also whatever we got in our earlier qualitative discussion, we shall try to

689
conclude those things once again, but this time really drawing the net air gap field in the
machine.

Now, before that you recall that this was my armature I just want to point out one thing
and these are my projected poles field windings I will symbolically I will show by one turn
that is this is suppose South Pole and this is suppose North Pole and lines of force will go
there. So, this is symbolic representation of field coils sectional view, and here also these
are the field coils. They will carry direct current called field current and this will be also
cross and dot they are connected in series, so and this is this thing.

Now I told you that a DC machine like a its AC counterparts may be a multipolar machine
that is number of poles may be greater than 2. In this representation mind you that if I
know what is happening under a pair of poles, the remaining things will be repeating for
the other pair of poles same things will be repeated. These I told you on many occasions
during AC machines as well as during where DC machines also.

Therefore, if we concentrate our attention what is happening under a pair of pole, then that
will be a good thing to study and then I can say same thing is happening in the other pair
of poles as well. So, in this simplified diagram no matter whether it is a multipolar machine
or not only two poles are shown and all angles here are in electrical degree ok, that is how
it will be carried out and this is your armature reaction armature terminal sorry, I will just
copy this down because many times I have to sketch this.

So, this is the thing and then there are armature conductors. So, this is under a pair of pole,
all angles are here in electrical degrees and this is direct axis along this line and this is the
quadrature axis, ok. Now, suppose it is operating as a generator that is what I told you then
and the direction of rotation of the armature with the help of a prime mover is supposed
clockwise then this dots will be the direction of the EMF as well as current, this you must
understand when the armature will be loaded. So, this side under North Pole, this will be
all cross and this side under South Pole this will be dot.

Now in this one when there is no armature current that is the machine is not loaded then
of course, the field will be same as this field; field produced by the stator. And we know
that this field will look like this one along the air gap of the machine, this field as I told
you it will be trapezoidal in nature like this and it continues. So, this is the South Pole and
this is the North Pole that is it is and this is the 𝐵 flux density distribution along the air gap

690
of the machine and mind you this angle is in electrical degree; electrical degree, ok. So,
this will be the 𝐵 distribution when there is no armature current that is 𝐼𝑎 = 0.

Now the moment, this armature is allowed to carry some current to deliver power to a load,
then the direction of the currents in case of generator mode will be same as the direction
of the induced EMF. Therefore, these dots once again we will represent the direction of
the current and cross will represent the direction of the current in the under the two poles
as shown.

Now, in our qualitative discussion we told you that the direction of this armature field will
be vertical like this because this is cross this is dot; so, current direction will be up. So,
this is the armature mmf, it will act along in a line along the axis perpendicular to the direct
axis that is called quadrature axis. And this armature mmf there will be no component
which will demagnetize, this poles had there been a component in opposition to the original
field; original field was like this that is say let us call it a 𝑀𝑓 and let us call it 𝑀𝑎 .

You can easily see there is no component of armature mmf which opposes this directly,
but only thing it will distort this field such that the lines of force will be concentrated in
this side and it will be rarefied this side that is what I discussed I am not repeating that.
Therefore, lines of force will be concentrated on this side another thing is this is the
direction of rotation, another term people use often so far as the direction of rotation is
concerned every pole can be thought of; there are two pole tips this is one pole tips this is
another pole tips.

Suppose you are sitting in on the armature and moving like this, you will first see these
poles and after some time you will see this pole. So, that is why these poles are named as
this pole is named as leading pole tip; and this pole tip is called trailing pole tip. So,
armature is moving this way similarly this one will be leading pole tip and this one will be
trailing pole tip because the moment you first see this not pole you see this pole tip and
then this one. So, like that.

So, in case of generator mode of operation, the flux will be concentrated more towards the
trailing half of the pole because lines of force will be concentrated here and it will be
ratified here such that the electromagnetic torque will be in the opposite direction.
Therefore, in case of generator mode; remember, lines of force lines of forces will be
concentrated in the trailing pole half, this is this half can be called trailing pole half, this is

691
leading pole half concentrated under trailing pole half and it will be rarefied under leading
pole half we know that.

And electromagnetic torque will be always experienced from the denser concentration of
lines of force towards the ratified portion of the lines of forces therefore, electromagnetic
torque will be in the opposite direction, these things we discussed. Therefore, it looks like
the flux per pole will remain same as I told you because increase in one half will be perhaps
compensated by the decrease in the other half and so on, flux per pole remains same and
whatever formula we derived for the induced voltage really remains intact. But because of
saturation the increase in one half may not be will be slightly lesser than the decrease in
the other half therefore, flux per pole decreases slightly.

But nonetheless there is no reduction in the lines of in the value of flux per pole because
of demagnetization component, everything is concentrated this is an a 𝑀𝑓 and this is 𝑀𝑎
therefore, 𝑀𝑟 will be somewhere here. So, lines of force will be concentrated this side that
is the whole idea. Anyway this was the scenario, now today we will go a step forward we
will try to investigate really we are how this armature mmf will look like when it carries
current. So, with brush position in the this point is what mentioning with and another thing
you just note down this axis the field axis it is this one, ok.

Then there are two terms used, one is called GNP is a Geometric Neutral Plane. So, this is
GNP; with 𝐼𝑎 = 0 is along q-axis. Geometric neutral plane is along q-axis that is
perpendicular to field axis by field axis I mean stator field axis.

So, so geometric neutral plane will be this is the armature, this is your field axis, geometric
neutral plane is called this one GNP, clear this is the field axis. So, GNP is a line
perpendicular to this GNP and there is another term called MNP which is called Magnetic
Neutral Plane. Magnetic neutral plane is the plane where 𝐵 = 0, where no magnetic field
exists that is called magnetic neutral field.

692
(Refer Slide Time: 17:24)

Now, let us consider a this same machine. In this machine therefore, what is the geometric
neutral plane? Geometric neutral plane is defined this is your field axis perpendicular to
that is the q-axis is your geometric neutral plane, q-axis which coincides with geometric
neutral plane. When 𝐼𝑎 = 0; that is the machine is under no load condition which one will
be, where in which points here the field will be 0 along this line only because 𝐵 distribution
is like this.

So, in this case this is the line on which 𝜃 is measured and what is d-axis? D-axis is middle
of this 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋 or 360° electrical. So, magnetic neutral axis with no armature current, if
there is no armature current no armature field therefore, where will be the flux 0, here only
at 𝜋 that is q-axis. So, this happens to be it will coincide with GNP. So, when 𝐼𝑎 = 0,
conclusion is GNP and MNP coincide with 𝐼𝑎 = 0 mind you, that is fine.

Now, there are conductors as I drew earlier and once again let me keep a copy of this, it
will be otherwise I have to draw often. Now, here that is fine, GNP and MNP coincides
when 𝐼𝑎 = 0, but the point is the moment the armature will carry current such that these
are dots these are dots and this side are cross. I can easily see there will be now a field here
because of armature field, if I applied right hand rule there will be some magnetic field
here.

The contribution of the main field will be 0, no doubt here, but because of armature current
when 𝐼𝑎 is not equal to 0 there will be some field existing along the q-axis is nothing, but

693
geometric neutral plane along that line there will exists some flux. And we want to find
out where will be MNP that is what I am telling. So, your resultant field is like this armature
field, cross field then we will find out where that armature field is there.

Now, so, GNP and MNP you just keep in mind we will be using that concept therefore,
without any load on the armature this is the field form along the air gap of the machine
and this is also the resultant field form. But when 𝐼𝑎 is not equal to 0 that is we are passing
currents then this field will be there as well as field due to this current distribution will be
there.

Now, the question is what will be how to sketch these field due to this current distribution?
We have discussed it in case of electrical machine 2, but I will quickly tell you how to find
that out, it is like this.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:58)

Suppose you have got say three conductors three coils say, it was on these slots of the
machine I have used the developed diagram suppose this is coil 1 and its return is here 1’
and it is carrying a cross dot current, got the point. This is coiled 2 its return is here 2’ and
these angles are 𝜋, mind you full pitch coil this is 𝜋 electrical or 180° electrical so, 2-2’,
in our case they will carry same current similarly 3-3’. This is the armature slots got the
point.

694
Suppose only for three, suppose the armature is having only three coils like this; if it is
like this then after this much a length, here once again 1 2 3 you will see because you have
developed diagram the machine. Now, the question is what will be the mmf distribution?
Consider one coil at a time for example, 1 and 1’ it will be like this, suppose I will sketch
it here and against the space angle electrical this, during this to this 1-1’, it will be let me
use a different colour so that.

So, this will be the mmf distribution due to coil 1, why I am telling like that forget about
2 3 and 2’ 3’ it is from your memory, only 1-1’ is existing. If you consider at any point a
flux path which will cross the air gap above it there are North Pole, South Pole etc this is
the thing. So, how much is the mmf include; a mmf includes by this path if it is a multi-
turn coil, 𝑁𝐼 is the total mmf acting in the circuit apply that circuital law of magnetism,
𝑁𝐼
this mmf will be dropped in the two air gaps and 2
will be the mmf in each path.

And this will forget about 2 and 3 number of coils they are suppose not there. So, it will
𝑁𝐼
be and why I have a sign positive sign because this is cross this is dot lines of force will
2
𝑁𝐼
be in the vertical direction a sign positive sign. So, it will be and then in this half what
2
𝑁𝐼
it will happen, minus is not; because 1 is here once again dot so, it will be directed
2

downwards. So, for one coil I know therefore, I will do the same thing for the second coil
and third coil so, this is for coil 1, then for coil 2 it will be like this identical coils.

Only thing is it will now exist between these two points this and 2’ it is there so, it will be
like this and so on, this is the develop diagram mind you of the circular thing developed
diagram. And similarly for the third coil it will be like this which will be here third coil
𝑁𝐼
starts here crossing same cross dot continues up to this point here, this is also , this is
2
𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝐼
also and minus and so on.
2 2

Therefore, the resultant air gap; so, for individual coils I have found out separately. So,
resultant field because of this sort of current distribution will be sum of these three
waveforms. In this zone here, in the middle you see in this space all are additive, it will be
𝑁𝐼
3 in this zone I did not intend to make a line like this.
2

695
 𝑁𝐼
So, it will be like that, then between this space 2 and 3, another positive, another
2
𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝐼
negative. So, it will be minus resultant plus plus , 𝑁𝐼 and then minus so, plus.
2 2 2 2 2

So, in this way it will be therefore, it looks like if I draw it with a red curve because space
is not here anywhere I can draw it here forget about this. So, resultant field form with a
red line if I sketch, it will be suppose you also remove this here this dotted line, so it will
be someone this is the axis.

𝑁𝐼
So, in this zone it will be 3 so, mmf distribution will be somewhat like this, it will come
2

in the middle. So, it will continue the maximum value up to this point and so, on and this
side also it will be like this, it will be stepped wave form we know that got the point.
Therefore, the resultant field waveform will be stepped and peak will occur here at the
middle point of 3 and 1 dashed.

Now, in case of DC machines of course, they there are coils all along it is uniformly
distributed almost, it is also uniformly distributed not 3 coils only, we considered 1 2 3
and 1’ 2’ 3’ for drawing that one middle-middle, but there exists other coil also and same
thing can be done.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:47)

Therefore, the for a DC machine since the b distribution, the current distributions are like
this dot like that these are all under South Pole as we have drawn earlier and then there
will be a perhaps a neutral coil, and then as many as 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10; 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

696
10 it would be like this. These are the current, this and this one coil, this and the second of
this is another coil like that.

Therefore the peak value whatever will be it will be here at the middle depending upon
𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝐼
number of turns and magnitude of the current, I can earlier it was 2 or 3 something
2 2

like that. So, it will be a waveform distribution of this fall which you can work out,
understood this is the whole idea. Mind you these, here the brush axes are there in the this
is the armature coil armature, this is the brush positions which are 180° apart brush B1-
B2.

Similarly here there will be one brush in the DC machine, it is consistent because the mmf
resultant mmf will be along this line how do I get it this side cross this side dot; so, right
hand rule thumb will indicate that direction. So, peak will lie here and it will be a step to
a form. So, armature mmf distribution armature mmf distribution is stepped.

And if there are number of coils so, that the distance between the two consecutive slots are
very less that is uniformly distributed coil this can be broken up, this can be approximated
as straight lines, why not; armature mmf I can write like this this is an approximation.

So, in a DC machine we say that with large number of conductors you forget about this
small variation and assume it to be triangular in nature this is the peak value of the armature
mmf 𝑀𝑎 . So, 𝑀𝑎 distribution along the air gap of the machine will be can be approximated
to a triangular sort of waves function.

We will continue with that and mind you this is your space angle theta therefore, I now
have stator field as well as armature mmf mind you, this is not flux armature flux. And we
will discuss in the next class how to superimpose the, how to get the armature flux and
then superimpose it with the main field flux to get the resultant field wave form.

Thank you.

697
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 72
Field Flux Density, Armature Flux Density and Resultant Field Distribution

(Refer Slide Time: 00:28)

Welcome to the next class. We are discussing about armature reaction. And in our last
class I told you that, the how to find out the armature mmf distribution along the air gap
between the brushes currents polarities are same dot and the sides suppose to cross. These
are armature conductors; they will carry current. And, then I know for a single coil how to
sketch the mmf distribution which will be rectangular plus minus.

And we found out for individual currents. And, if you sum them up you will get an mmf
distribution, which will be strictly speaking stepped. If large number of turns conductors
are used this can be approximated to a triangular waveform like this peak value of the
armature mmf will be occurring at the brush positions here.

698
(Refer Slide Time: 01:21)

So, then we come to this one this is the no load field form mind you. So, this is the no load
field form 𝐵. This is produced by whom? This field coils, where is d axis? It is here at the
middle where is q axis? It is here, from this to this it is 90° electrical. So, this is the peak
value I mean central value from that to 90°. So, this distance is 90° ok.

And then where are the brushes? Then brushes are here. This is the position of the brushes
this is one brush, there will be brush here, there will be brush here is it not? This is the
armature terminals. Now where are the armature conductors? I will show beneath the field
distribution, that is armature conductors will be here. Let us consider generator, now listen
carefully.

It is otherwise very simple that is why ultimate thing is very simple this is generator mode.
And these are armature conductors, it will move with respect to this field. This conductor
after some time will come here. If you assume the direction of rotation of the armature
conductor is this direction of rotation. It will be like this armature conductors are moving
brushes are fixed.

So, this same thing it is now translated here. Now, if this is the direction of rotation we
know the conductors under south pole that is this conductors will carry dot so these are
dots. See I am now translating one to one correspondence with this figure with this. So,
this is all dots. I will go slowly do not worry and these are all cross under south and this

699
dot cross and not only the direction of the induced voltage, but also the direction of the
current in case of generator mode.

So, this will be like this ok. And, if generated emf will be always present current may or
may not be present depending upon whether you connect load across the generator or not.
Now, let us assume that if armature current is 0; that is 𝐼𝑎 = 0, then this will be the only
field distribution this space angle mind you this is space angle this will be this. Then what
will be the moment armature carries current?

There will be armature will produce its own mmf and how it will look like? It will be like
this right middle point you identify this is this one brush. This is the say approximately
somewhere the middle point. And it will be then like this. It will be at least crossing this
one middle. And it will actually this diagram this and these are not equal they should be
that is why that thing is coming.

But you understand what I mean once again this peak will here at the brush and it will
continue like this. This is the red one is the armature mmf and this is same 𝜃. Here once
again north pole that is why it will go up. So, this is the peak value of armature mmf is
along the brushes consistent with this current distribution cross and this is one armature
terminal. So, armature mmf will be here that is also depicted here peak value ok.

So, this is mmf not flux density. The moment you know the value of 𝐻 at a given point the
flux density can be easily calculated. It will be proportional to this mmf divided by
reluctance of the path. Flux is proportional to mmf by reluctance of the path. Therefore, I
have to divide by the reluctance for example, at this point I know the mmf how much is
dropped here?

𝑁𝐼
There are two air gaps and these two air gaps the drop will be same that is why that I
2

did whatever is the mmf. That divided by the reluctance assuming the iron permeability is
very high compare to the air. I can assume all the mmf will be dropped across the air gap.
Therefore, this divided by this reluctance you do you get the flux here. But in case of DC
machine one interesting thing happens.

The air gap is more or less constant between this to this zone. But after that the air gap will
be very large; because this is the yoke portion, where the air gap is very large. Similarly
are you getting although armature mmf is acting this is the yoke of the machine. Flux will

700
continue its path like this comeback this way we discussed earlier. Therefore, air gap is
not constant.

So, armature flux or 𝐵 distribution will be proportional to mmf in this fashion. So, between
this zone and say this zone it will be in some other scale this will be same; this blue curve
I am drawing is the 𝐵 distribution it will be like this. And then the flux will decrease and
it will have a minimum value here because air gap is maximum along this line air gap is
maximum.

During this zone air gap is minimum and uniform almost. Then it will be like this then
once again it will be something like this here getting the ideas and it will be somewhat like
this got the thing. So, this blue curve is the armature flux density armature flux density this
is the thing. So, I am repeating what I have done?

This was the no load field form when 𝐼𝑎 = 0 that will be always be there individually. But
when armature current is not present; this is the only field which will be present 𝐵
distribution flux density at a different space positions in the air gap. Then when armature
is loaded armature will carry current. In the same direction as that of the induced e m f so,
this I have shown.

Then I got this red curve which gives you the armature mmf drop across the air gaps in the
two air gaps. And this red one is the armature mmf. So, what will be the flux density? It
will be proportional to armature mmf divided by the reluctance of the path etcetera. But
only thing is the air gap is not constant in the DC machine. Over this zone air gap is
constant here it is maximum.

Similarly here it is uniform here it is maximum. So, in some other scale the blue curve is
drawn it will be proportional to armature mmf during this zone, where the air gap is fairly
constant. Then it will decrease drastically I mean smoothly some curves it will follow like
this it has to it has come down how it has come down? We do not bother about equations,
but it will have some minimum flux.

And then it will continue like this similarly in the other half it will do like this. So, drawing
of red curves is very simple. I know the armature current there are so many conductors
which are almost uniformly distributed. So, the peak value where it will occur here why I

701
have put plus? Because for south pole I have put plus. So, this lines of force is also along
this line cross and dot will give this line.

So, positive you draw it and get this that is the whole thing. Therefore, what will be the
resultant field? Resultant field will be the sum of this plus this blue curve here got the idea?
This 𝐵 because of field coil and this blue curve because of the armature conductor mmf,
these are the flux density present in the air gap. So, resultant field will be this blue black
curve and this blue curve if you add point by point.

Now if you add at point by point I will sketch it I will make it clumsy it does not matter.
But you get the idea very clearly what I am doing. What I it looks like that the resultant
field I will use say green curve. And at this point middle point it will be 0; not 0 at the
middle point it has to be this much this plus 0 like that I am doing.

At this point this plus this much blue curve this ordinate plus this ordinate, I will go on
adding. Therefore, flux density will become more and more. So, it will become something
like this if you go on adding like this is not? Then after sometime you go up to this point
then after sometime this plus this plus this you do. And here it is 0; but here it is some
finite value.

So, this armature mmf resultant field will be somewhat like this got the point. There will
it will not cross 0; here it will have some positive value. On this side, similarly it will be
less this 𝐵 minus this like that. And once again it will be like this therefore, there will be
some field here existing in this. So, this will be a this one is the resultant flux distribution
resultant field.

That is this trapezoidal field plus this blue curves not the triangle that is the mmf mmf by
reluctance gives you that field. So, these two together will be this thing. I have assumed
generator mode and generator is moving in this direction. So, in this case see this one is
your A1; this one as I told you make one to one correspondence here A1 this is A2. And
you can easily see the this part is the trailing pole tip where is this portion this portion is
the trailing pole tip trailing half of the pole.

Because conductors are moving this one this is the leading pole tip this is the trailing pole
tip. So, half of this one is the leading I mean trailing pole half. And here you see 𝐵 are
high lines of force will be concentrated. And here lines of force will be 𝐵 value is less

702
means lines of force will be radified, but the same area lines of force present will be less
and here it will be more. Similarly, for this half one can continue it will come here once
again it will cross line. I mean it will be distorted and it will be something like this I will
be able to add these two points are along the same particular lines.

So, the resultant field distribution will be like this, resultant field in the air gap. Therefore,
compared to a unloaded DC machine there was no flux along this line q line, that is along
A1 this is A1.Now, I find there is a flux density present which kind of flux density present
same south pole. If the main pole is so, here exist some south pole here is that point clear.

So, this must be understood very clearly. This is the detailed flux density distribution
waveform, when the machine is loaded when armature current is carrying which is
otherwise simple. Because it tells me many things flux density direction of rotation is this.
Generator mode flux density will be concentrated on the trailing pole tip.

This is the trailing pole tip trailing and this is the leading pole tip with respect to whom?
This we have defined you are sitting on the armature you will first see here as you are
moving. Then you are living this pole tip that is why it is called trailing. So, in this case it
is moving like this. So, this is the leading pole tip and this is the trailing pole tip.

And in the trailing pole tip normally when 𝐼𝑎 = 0 it is very nice no flux. But here when
armature carries current. Here it is also consistent with this fact line of force will be
concentrated here in this half and it will be radified there. So, that electromagnetic torque
is in the opposite direction. So, 𝑇𝑒 will be acting here like this. So, everything has a one to
one correspondence between this diagram and that diagram.

Now, in my last class I told you that and that is what I am telling this increase in flux in
one half. May not see there is a loss of flux, here it is increased in this half flux per pole.
And, here it is decreased because resultant flux per pole will decide what will be the
𝑃𝑍
induced voltage that is 𝜑𝑛 that 𝜑 is the resultant flux.
𝑎

Now, the moment armature carries current resultant flux is to be considered to calculate
the induced voltage. But what I am telling, if there is no saturation taking place for some
low value of armature current. May be increase in flux in one half will be equal to the
reduced in flux in the other half that is this area and this area are same.

703
So, that flux per pole will remain same. And we can neglect armature after all carrying
current has no effect. But that is not to be because of saturation present. Because the mmf
here may cause this flux increase in one half less than the decrease in the other half. That
is why there may be a net reduction in flux per pole.

And therefore, there will maybe a voltage loss induced voltage loss that is 𝜑 no load and
𝜑 loaded condition flux per pole will be slightly lesser. It can be taken into account by
some factor may be 5% flux loss takes place for large value of armature current. And as I
told you with brushes in this position, this is the direction of armature mmf that is the peak
value armature mmf is along this line. And the flux density waveform will be only
distorted.

There is no direct component of this armature mmf or armature 𝜑 this blue colour is 𝜑 a
or b a whatever you call it this blue curve. So, that will be like this. And and it will be here
this height is same as this armature flux along the quadrature axis. So, it is only distortion
that is the main issue here. There is no direct component of armature mmf which really
negates in direct opposition to the existing stator field that is the whole idea. In my last
lecture, I told you in my qualitative part of discussion that when a conductor is this side
that is dot and it will cross this brush the quadrature axis. It will come over here but the
moment it goes there it has to carry cross current is not?

And if it has to carry cross current then that will be prevented that legacy of this dot current
in a scenario. When armature carries current still continues when the conductor reaches
here. Because it is still south pole the polarity of the induced voltages current. So, will be
this dot, but the moment it crosses it has to carry cross that is the destiny.

You cannot for these conductors the way the bindings are done. Therefore, the
commutation will be delayed. So, one way of saying this is that you try to put the brushes
in positions where the flux will be 0. But before that let us calculate this armature mmf per
pole how do I am calculating? Please listen carefully.

Armature mmf per pole let us first calculate that. Calculations are pretty simple at least for
this. So, this is the two pole representation of a let 𝑃 is equal to number of poles total
number of poles of the machines is 𝑃. a is the number of parallel paths between the
armature number of parallel paths where in a armature. And let 𝑍 is equal to total number
of conductors in the armature.

704
What is this angle? This angle is 180° electrical is not? Multipolar machine I have
represented it as a two pole machine. So, the thing is what is the current flowing through
each conductor I know current, external current in the armature is 𝐼𝑎 . But in the conductors
𝐼𝑎
how much current current in the conductors is equal to I know parallel paths will be
𝑎

there.

Then, I have to calculate what is the number of turns here? Now, you see these calculation
are. So, simple algebraic calculations but follow me carefully over 360° mechanical. There
are how I am writing is this there are 𝑍 number of conductors present over 360°
mechanical. If it is a 𝑃 polar machine 360° mechanical what is the total number of and that
is the uniformly distribute at whatever it is.

Now, I want to find out what will be how many conductors are present over 180° electrical.
So,

2
180° = 180 ×
𝑃

Mechanical angle is what?

I am just putting. So, 360° mechanical there is 𝑍 conductors. Therefore, under 180°
2
electrical; that means, 180 × 𝑃 mechanical degree, how many conductors will be present?

It will be

𝑍 180 × 2 𝑍
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 180 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = × =
360 𝑃 𝑃

Therefore armature mmf will be I am writing here. Armature mmf will be equal to

𝐼𝑎 𝑍
𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑀𝑀𝐹 = ×
𝑎 𝑃

This will be the armature mmf that is along this line, what will be the armature mmf. All
this turns I have taken. And this is this is caused by two poles in this electrical
representation. Therefore, armature mmf per pole let it be clumsy.

But let everything be on this paper armature mmf per pole should be

705
 𝐼𝑎 𝑍
𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑀𝑀𝐹 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 =
2𝑎𝑃

𝑍 𝐼𝑎 𝑍
I found out the total number of conductors this calculation is 𝑃? Therefore, armature
2𝑎𝑃

mmf per pole ampere turns ok.

We will continue with this in the next class.

706
 Electrical Machines – I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 73
Filed Patterns for Both Motor and Generators

Welcome to 73rd lecture on Electrical Machines I.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:25)

And in our last class I told you how to get the resultant mmf distribution or 𝐵 distribution
in the machine and the conclusion was that in the trailing pole tip flux density will be
concentrated which we understood from our qualitative way of discussing the things. But,
it is also corroborated if you would or the actual field distribution resultant field
distribution with this green curve lines, of force would be concentrated here
electromagnetic torque will be this way, this is generator mode ok, and then we try to
calculate the how much mmf is produced this, from this we will start once again.

707
(Refer Slide Time: 01:21)

So, this was the scenario and this is South Pole, North Pole generator mode I assumed
rotating in this direction and these are the brush axes and these are the armature conductors
and these are all dot ok, these are cross,. So, this is how we got this. Now, I told you in my
last class that all angles are electrical angle because it is 2 pole representation of a 𝑃 pole
machine, I should be just careful about that only thing.

So, what happens is this I want to calculate how much is the armature mmf per pole. It can
be done much more simply, but I will do it in this way because of reasons I will tell you
later. So, the thing is 𝑍 is the total number of conductors and that

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 360° mechanical = Z

So, I first calculate this one therefore, over 180° this conductors; how many conductors
are there? So, I will write it like this number of conductors present in 360° mechanical is
equal to Z. Then, I will calculate number of conductors present in this 180° electrical. So,
over this 180° electrical, but

2
180° electrical = (180 × ) ° mechanical
𝑃

2
So, I first calculate how many conductors are present here. So, in that is (180 × 𝑃) °

mechanical degree how many conductors will be present, which will be equal to

708
 2 𝑍
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 (180 × ) ° mechanical =
𝑃 𝑃

𝐼𝑎
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑎

𝐼𝑎 𝑍
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 =
𝑎𝑃

𝐼𝑎 𝑍
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 =
2𝑎𝑃

Now, I told you that I suppose do not want to have this distortion, because it causes
problem in commutation therefore, I will put what to nullify this. I will put some
conductors here on the pole face winding and that is called compensating winding; you
recall, compensating winding and where the conductors are placed on the pole face. These
are the compensating winding and I will make sure that the direction of the currents if it is
dot I will make it cross.

So, that their effects will be nullified we discussed last time from physical reasoning
because air gap is small in the close proximity you put this, with the hope that the effect
of this dot currents will nullify the effect of the cross current. But the point is that with the
help of compensating winding you cannot compensate for these conductors which are
outside the tips of this pole, got the point; for example, this conductors present in this zone
and in this zone cannot be compensated by this.

So, that ampere turns per pole produced by armature is this much will help me to design
the number of turns I will put here that is what the reason is. What is this length? This is
the pole pitch is not and the pole actually exists within this zone. So, this one is called pole
arc; therefore,

𝐼𝑎 𝑍 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑐
× = 𝐼𝑎 𝑁𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝
2𝑎𝑃 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ

𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑐
This ratio you calculate either in angle or in distance, it does not matter it is a
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ

number less quantity.

So, this one only can be compensated by this got the idea. So, this is the thing while
designing how many turns this compensating winding I should make it equal to 𝐼𝑎 𝑁𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝 ,

709
got the point. The armature conductors per pole, I will because compensating winding I
will connect in series with 𝐼𝑎 and therefore, I will be able to calculate what should be the
number of turns of the compensating winding that is the whole idea.

So, what I did, I calculate the armature ampere turns per pole of the armature, it covers all
the conductors between one pole pitch and I will put compensating winding, and
compensating winding can only compensate for the conductors covered under this pole
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑐
arc. Therefore, how much of this can be compensated this into this ratio and I
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ

will then say per pole you have to put how many conductors, 𝐼𝑎 𝑁𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝 ; where 𝑁𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝 is
the number of turns of this compensating coil.

Hence, 𝑁𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝 compensating turns can be calculated, it will help me to calculate that.
Therefore, a portion of this uncompensated field will still be present that is because of the
unattended armature conductors present under the influence of the poles. We will come to
this, once again after we discuss about the idea of brush shifting ok, that formula helps me
to estimate the value of the number of turns to be provided in the compensating winding
that is the thing we will discuss.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:10)

Now, it then comes that one thing is this. These are the poles main poles and this is the
armature ok, same diagram we will draw this is the field, this is north, this is south and
these are the brushes. Now, another important thing I will tell that this is the generator

710
mode, this is the direction of rotation and I have assumed you know this is South Pole let
me become consistent with this diagram this is north. And we got this one, this is the no
load field form, this is the field distribution because of these magnets; and we have seen
that I will, and this is the conductors let it be red armature conductors.

And this is the direction of rotation; conductors direction of rotation red colors and these
are the armature conductors and then I know these are dot and these are cross. And the
resultant field after getting the armature mmf added to this one will be shifted, that is what
we got it will be somewhat shifted, there will be a q-axis flux present and things like that,
and here are the brushes; this is one brush and there is another brush presented, this is the
net field and this is generator mode.

Now, what happens if it is a motor mode? So, if it is motor let me draw quickly and I will
tell you one very useful tips. So, that we need not struggle anymore this is suppose motor
mode. And motor mode if it is and suppose the direction of rotation is 𝑛 here and these are
the brushes, these are the conductors.

Now, in motor mode we pass current from supply to the armature and suppose the direction
of current is such that this is dot; mind you, this is the direction of the current no not the
polarity of the induced voltage that back mmf is not that. It is the forced current into the
armature in this direction and this way has to be cross, is not this is the direction of the
current. And the direction of the torque is in the direction of rotation, apply left hand rule
you will get that. So, this is for a motor mode.

Now, look at this diagram; this is the no load field form, this is the resultant field form
then, what I am telling now is that this the same field waveform can be attributed to motor
only thing is for motor mode direction of rotation you reverse that is show the. So this is
generator, you just write like this same diagram, write in this way reverse and right motor,
very good; I mean, absolutely no problem that is what it means. Therefore I need not
always draw for motor and generator mode separately, but only thing is important is this
one.

See in case of motor mode which one is the leading tip; motor mode this conductor coming
in you are sitting on this, you will first see. So, this is for motor mode this is the leading
pole tip; and this one is the trailing pole tip. Similarly, this one is the leading pole tip other

711
pole leading whichever pole tip first you see of a given pole that is the leading and this is
the trailing pole tip.

In case of motor mode you will see that lines of force if you go from fundamental physical
rule lines of force for this dotted line will be like this with this arrow is not dotted and lines
of force are really entering here. So, it will be concentrated here this side and it is in
opposition to this so, this will be ratified.

So, in case of motor mode you are sitting on the armature conductors you are moving this
pole start South Pole and you find lines of force are concentrated here, that is why
electromagnetic torque in this direction. Electromagnetic torque will be in this direction
from higher concentration of 𝐵 to lower concentration of 𝐵 everything is consistent. And
electromagnetic torque in whichever direction acts in the same direction armature moves,
this must be understood in one stroke you can say that.

So, for motor and generator mode if you draw for one for the other, you just show the
direction of rotation to be reversed keeping the polarity and the deduction of the current
same, you get everything in place and your conclusions about other things are ok. But only
thing in motor mode, we must not forget in motor mode, in motor mode resultant flux
density will be concentrated will be concentrated in the leading pole tip and it will be
ratified in the trailing pole tip opposite, it will be always happening.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:21)

712
If I say that somebody is saying this is the; I mean, I just to tell you in other somebody
says ok, it is acting as a motor it will be; I will now arbitrarily say suppose this is North
Pole, this is South Pole and I say this is the direction of rotation of the motor it is motor
mode, this is the direction of rotation. Therefore current in this conductor this side should
be dot left hand rule this is not I have drawn for a change, I have done like this you should
not get disturbed about this at all.

Suppose he says that it is operating as a motor it is running in this direction, then first thing
I will do is electromagnetic torque has to be in this direction therefore, I decide about the
current by applying left hand rule, that I do. Which one is the leading pole tip? This one is
the leading pole tip because these are the conductors it is moving; so, it will first see this
one this is leading pole tip and this is trailing pole tip it has nothing to do it north or south
that is what I want to emphasize trailing pole tip.

Then I will say that look here torque is in this direction has to be; that is why if the currents
are dots and lines of force will be concentrated here in this up and it will be ratified there.
Similar thing happens here which one is the leading pole tip this one lines of force will be
concentrated and it will be ratified there. So, do not get disturbed by the fact that somebody
has done like this, but it remains same. In any case one can always go to the fundamental
to see really it will be concentrated because in the North Pole it is like this, you see this
side it will be concentrated and it will be.

Therefore, this diagram is handy you draw for motor or generator mode correctly in the
field form drawing, I am telling draw it correctly then the other one you just show if it is
you have drawn for motor then for generator, it will be with reverse direction you show
everything will be correct.

𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑐
Now, therefore, compensating winding will be here and it depends upon the 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ, this

ratio will decide how much of this armature conducted mmf can be nullified by that and
this is it will be obtained like that. This will never be able to nullify this flux in the q-axis
because this will remain unattended got the point. Therefore because of this cross dot;
cross dot that there will be a flux here because this portion of the conductors has not been
nullified.

713
So, compensating winding at best can maybe 70%, if this ratio this length divided by this
length is 0.7; 70% of this armature mmf can be compensated. However, this cross this dot
will give a current here flux there, this flux will be there and it causes problem. And to
compensate for that you have to bring interpolar winding a small thin pieces of poles will
be also placed here which will be called interpoles.

What do you think, the polarity of the interpole will be if it is acting as a generator; suppose
it is acting as a generator this one and I want to because this flux is going to induce voltage
in the conductor which is undergoing commutation. What is commutation? The conductor
has to cross this zone of q-axis where it feels that there is no induced voltage no flux, but
when armature carries current there is a flux, there will be induced voltage, there will be
short circuiting current and also it has to change the current from dot to cross in a very
small interval of time.

So, it will be better if this is made 0; so, what should be the polarity of the interpole for
generator mode, it is still South Pole. So, I have to if I want to make it 0, I must put a North
Pole here for generator because South Pole is I have shown going in. So, I must here I will
connect an interpole which must be north for generator mind you, that is polarity of the
interpole should be same as the polarity of the main pole ahead that is this conductor in
this diagram, it is going to be under the care of North Pole it is leaving South Pole.

So, polarity of the interpole should be same as this fellow then only it can be brought to 0
with some number of turns I will adjust there, ok; so, that is there. Therefore, I will
conclude that polarity means, whether north or south polarity of the interpole for generator
mode should be oh, should be same as the main pole ahead as the main pole ahead. Main
pole is the main poles big poles, interpoles are very small; polarity of the interpole which
are very thin only provides you this one should be same as the main pole ahead, these are
bullet under this bullet we write.

Now, what if it is a motor that is the question. What should be the polarity of the interpole
for motor mode? Come to this diagram straight. For motor mode this is the thing direction
of rotation from right to left, you are here cross current and here is a pole here. You will
be seeing for motor mode direction of rotation is from right to left, you are coming in from
the influence of the North Pole, is not; you are coming from influence of the North Pole

714
and what should be the polarity of this interpole you want to, but this positive direction is
South Pole.

So, to nullify this you require a North Pole here which is same as been pole behind got the
point. So, for motor mode the polarity of the interpole for motor mode answer is it should
be same as main pole behind main pole behind, got the points. Therefore, if it is a motor
mode it is moving in this direction, I will say I want to have a interpole here; I want to
have an interpole here for this general problem I have changed everything north, south,
currents ok, these are cross current, dot current.

I will say this is the direction of rotation this coil is suppose moving has to pass through
this q-axis it goes there and I know there will be a field existing here, even if you use
compensating coil some flux will be there along the quadrature axis. But the question is
what should be the polarity of the interpoles? It says that it should be same as main pole
behind that is North Pole, got the point.

So, with this I stop today, but please go through this so many interesting thing you can
with very simple logic can explain in a DC machine. DC machine one of the important
thing is drawbacks or whatever you call it is because of the commutator segment and
brasses and the commutation; commutation should be as smooth as possible. Commutation
means a conductor carrying plus current will be immediately after some little bit of time
when it crosses the q-axis it has to carried the dot current. We must do it uniformly;
otherwise, what happens there will be flashover between the brasses and a thin strip of
mica insulation is there that may break.

In fact, with this last word I will in fact stop. You will here for example, induction motor
its rating could be kilovolts, in synchronous machine also of the order of kilovolts motors
are available very large voltage synchronous and induction motors are available 6.6kV
induction motor in industry is very common.

But in DC machine the voltage rating you will never hear of that level. Voltage rating of a
DC machine may be at the best 1000V that is all; voltage rating of a DC machine maybe
at best a 1000V. You will never hear a machine 3.3kV DC machine; no, out of question.
Why? Because of the fact at that high voltage this the commutation problem will be severe
you cannot do anything with this, that is why for example, Kolkata metro they use DC
motors, supply voltage is how much 750 Volt or 800 Volt maximum is not.

715
Therefore DC machine with armatured I mean voltage rating is about 800 Volts, 750 Volts,
600 Volt, but in case of induction or synchronous machines they can we have very large
voltage ratings because there is no commutator segment neither brasses. Commutator
segments as you know these are thin copper strips and separated by thinner mica insulation.

So, mica is a breakdown voltage of its own and two commutator segments side by side
with a thin layer of insulation; with large voltage means, the voltage existing between the
commutator segments will be also large and machine will fail. Anyway with this note, I
stopped today we will continue with this and next class. I will discuss that about the brush
shift that can be giving to a DC machine to improve commutation that will be in the next
class.

Thank you.

716
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 74
Demagnetising & Cross Magnetising MMF for Brush Shifted Machine

(Refer Slide Time: 00:25)

Welcome to the next lecture on Electrical Machines – I. And you if you recall, we have
been discussing about the armature reaction in general, and then how to get rid of the effect
of armature reactions in our last lecture, both for motor and generator mode of operation.

717
(Refer Slide Time: 00:37)

And this lecture was important and please try to go through it carefully and there also I
told that a coil which is undergoing commutation will get affected by the quadrature axis
flux. And therefore, for generator I can put some inter pole thin poles on the quadrature
axis that is where the brushes are placed, current changes from dot to cross.

Polarity of the pole should be same as main pole ahead, because South Pole is positive.
So, here some positive pole, you have to nullify it. And sometimes the strength of this pole
is slightly made higher not only it compensates, but gives you a negative flux like North
Pole here. In order that the conductor starts getting the feeling of what is ahead, the
generated voltage wise, so it improves commutation and these are the thinner pole.

The important point is if you have drawn it for a generator mode, all the things you do is
the same diagram can be used as a motor pole, as a motor description of different fluxes
like no load flux because of field current, armature flux simply reverse the direction of
rotation. So, for generator mode from left to right and for motor mode the speed is right to
left. And as you can see in case of generator mode the polarity of the inter pole should be
same as main pole ahead, but in case of motor mode the direction of rotation is like this
right to left. So, this is the, as if the conductor moves, the polarity of this of course the inter
pole remains same. So, it is same as main pole behind which is leaving behind this you
must understand.

718
So, in today’s class first I will tell you that sometimes what is done is that some brush shift
is given to the machines to facilitate the commutation process in a better way. For example,
what I mean to say is this so go to next new page here, like this is the page lecture 74.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:49)

For example, if you have a DC machine like this and let it operate as a generator S and this
is North Pole, I am not showing it is there. And here the brush axis is there and if the
generated direction of rotation is like this in rps, then these conductors will have be induced
voltage as well as direction of the current under the South Pole, it will be all dot, so that
electromagnetic torque becomes opposite to prime mover torque and these are cross, this
is what we have seen clear generator mode.

Now, in this case the armature mmf whatever will be acting will be along the q axis is not
this is cross dot, so field will be acting in this direction armature mmf. And in the
quadrature axis the reluctance is high, so the corresponding flux will be less that is good
thing; but armature mmf will be acting like that and this is called cross magnetization. And
I told you, this is the geometrical neutral plane was defined as the main field axis is
horizontal perpendicular to that is the geometrical neutral axis. And also the magnetic
neutral axis coincides with this in this case, when armature is not carrying any current.

Now, what is done is this to have better commutation sometimes they, and all the armature
mmf is of cross magnetization that is perpendicular to the direct field axis; so flux gets
distorted this side it will be higher, and so on. So, now what is done brush shift, a little

719
brush shift from the usual position of the brushes is sometimes given to the machine what
for, let us see. Suppose what you do the same generator it is acting as a generator, this is
the normal position of the brushes and these are the field axis, and this is suppose south
north, this is the direction of rotation 𝑛 for generator mode.

Now, the brushes instead of placing it here what is done, brushes are given a shift by some
angle 𝛽𝑒 . Mind you it is the representation of a multi-polar machine, because under two
poles same thing is going to happen. So, people prefer to always draw a two pole diagram
and showing all the angles to be electrical that should be cleared in mind. So, 𝛽𝑒 , so brush
is placed here. In case of generator brush shift is given along the direction of rotation, the
reason we will easily understand right now, so this is the thing and these are the conductors,
armature conductors.

Suppose the little brush shift is given. Now, these conductors many of the conductors here,
most of the conductors are under the influence of the South Pole that will dominate and
few conductors might have gone to the North Pole. Particularly the conductors which will
be undergoing commutation, that is I am training this conductor about what lies ahead
already so, it looks like commutation process will be easier.

So, however the currents in the conductors they are all in series, so up to this point it will
be dot; I am not telling the induced voltage here is once again dot, in this portion I am
confident dot. But the current is delivered by the machine and few turns which has going
to under North Pole influence, they has to carry same current. Similarly currents here will
be cross up to this point cross and here is the conductor which passes this magnetic neutral
axis, it will be the quadrature axis now this is the quadrature axis it is now shifted here, so
you give some brush shift.

Under this condition why brush shift I have given, because the conductors induced voltage
under South Pole is of dot polarity, but I am and this conductor is going commutation its
current will switch over from +𝐼 to −𝐼, as it crosses this brush position. Therefore, I will
say that this conductor is started inducing voltage which will be dictated by this North Pole
a little earlier, when it crosses the brasses. These conductors are under the influence of
North Pole; these are under South Pole like that. And this conductor is under no poles that
is fine, but the current will be here perhaps the induced voltage is 0, but these are all series,
current has to be same no doubt, so it will be like this.

720
Now, under this situation you find that the armature mmf will be not along vertical, but
along this line, this will be armature mmf. And we can easily see this armature mmf will
have two components, one is along the d axis another is along the quadrature axis, it will
be like this. Now, lines of force here South Pole it is like this therefore, we find the there
will be a direct demagnetisation now taking place. There is a component which will
directly try to oppose the stator pole, pole strength, which was not the case here, there was
all quadrature component, here the components were quadrature; it distorted the flux no
doubt, quadrature component only.

But here it is having both direct and quadrature component, this armature mmf. Therefore,
there will be a direct reduction in flux per pole not because of saturation this that a little
drop in flux per pole not like that the moment you shift the brush to have better
commutation. The moment you do it, I will say oh there will be now some component of
armature mmf acting in opposite direction of the field flux, because armature mmf flux
will be like this which is directly opposing this lines of force and there will be a quadrature
component, these two components should be there.

Now, what people do is this how to estimate how much is demagnetization and how much
is cross magnetization. What do you do, you draw another line here such that you imagine
this line such that it is also 𝛽𝑒 , you imagine another line, this is 𝛽𝑒 same as the 𝛽𝑒 here, so
that this angle will become 2𝛽𝑒 . And people then say that the conductors in this 2𝛽𝑒 and
in this 2𝛽𝑒 will give you the direct axis ampere turns produced by armature. This forget
about this one, these conductors and this conductors cross cross cross dot dot dot, spanning
over 2𝛽𝑒 here, 2𝛽𝑒 here what is the direction of the flux, horizontal. So, by considering
this group of conductors here from that I will be able to calculate how much is the
demagnetising ampere turns, so it is called 𝐴𝑇𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 .

Similarly, the conductors in this and in this portion this cross and this dot will produce
mmf as if in the quadrature axis, and that will fairly give you the idea about the quadrature
component of the armature flux. In this case what was there all was quadrature, how did I
𝐼𝑎 𝑍
calculate armature mmf, like this is not, there was no direct confrontation with the
2𝑎𝑃

stator flux it was not doing that, but it was only deforming the armature mmf. But here
when some brush shift is given in case of generator in the same direction of rotation, 𝛽𝑒 is

721
the angle I know from the normal position of the brushes I have given a shift 𝛽𝑒 electrical
degree.

Then I will draw a line another 𝛽𝑒 here, then I see that this is dot this is cross. And this
mmf which are lying in this 4𝛽𝑒 angle will be along this direction, directly in opposition
with the direct axis flux. And it is this conductors which will be responsible for computing
how much is the demagnetizing ampere turns per pole, per pole we will calculate. Similarly
this conductor cross and this conductor dot will give you the quadrature axis like this, this
is how the computation is to be carried out.

Now, the calculations are pretty simple, 𝑍 is the total number of conductors, so I will write
straight away, because we have some idea how to write. Over 360° mechanical degree,
number of conductors present is 𝑍, no doubt about that total number of armature
conductors. Then I have to calculate how many conductors are present in this 4𝛽𝑒 angles.
2
So, 4𝛽𝑒 convert it to mechanical into (4𝛽𝑒 × ), how 4𝛽𝑒 comes in how many conductors,
𝑃

which will produce demagnetizing ampere turns per pole and my goal is to calculate that
𝑍
it will be then ° this is also in degree.
360

So, 𝛽𝑒 let me write, beta e is the brush shift angle in electrical degree, because all angles I
will show here electrical, you must understand. So, how many mechanical angles it means,
2
it means 𝑃, 𝑃 is the number of poles of the machine; so

2 𝑍 8𝛽𝑒 2𝑍𝛽𝑒
(4𝛽𝑒 × ) → × =
𝑃 360 𝑃 90𝑃

So, this is conductors placed in this angle how many turns, you divide it by 2, this will
make 1 turn, this will make 1 turn. So, turns present over this angle is

𝑍𝛽𝑒
𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 →
90𝑃

𝐼𝑎
Therefore, ampere turns demagnetizing will be current flowing through the turns that is 𝑎

into this one

𝐼𝑎 𝑍𝛽𝑒
𝐴𝑇𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑔 =
𝑎 90𝑃

722
And this ampere turns will be in these two air gaps it will be dropped. So, per pole it will
be half of this. So, this will be

1 𝐼𝑎 𝑍𝛽𝑒 𝐼𝑎 𝑍𝛽𝑒
𝐴𝑇
⏟ 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑔 = 2 𝑎 90𝑃 = 180𝑎𝑃
𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒

If 𝛽𝑒 = 0, no demagnetizing mmf that is here 𝛽𝑒 = 0, I have not shifted the brushes here
you get the same 𝛽𝑒 = 0. How much will be the cross magnetization, that will calculate
𝑎 𝑒 𝐼 𝑍𝛽
also from this. So, this is ampere turns demagnetizing ampere turns per pole 180𝑎𝑃 , while

using this formula remember 𝛽𝑒 is the brush shift given in electrical degrees, whatever is
suppose 2°, a small brush shift is given, ok.

Now, the question is how much will be then the cross magnetizing per pole. Now, I will
not once again calculate like these, because this is for so the conductors are spanning over
2𝛽𝑒 + 2𝛽𝑒 = 4𝛽𝑒 angle. So, what should be done is this one cross magnetizing mmf will
be calculated because of these conductors, this red marks I am doing now because of these
conductors and because of this conductors, because it is indeed it looks like this is the cross
magnetization; only this red cross dot conductors will be responsible for that.

So, here the thing is it is like this I will separately draw here, so that this figure does not
become very clumsy what I am trying to tell is suppose this is your some circle here ok,
this was this and we have this sort of thing, this is 2𝛽𝑒 electrical degree, this is also 2𝛽𝑒 ,
this is 𝛽𝑒 this is 𝛽𝑒 . So, this angle is 180 − 2𝛽𝑒 . So, this I write it as this angle is 180 −
2𝛽𝑒 all angles electrical. Therefore, and here at the conductors; here at the conductors for
which I have to calculate and these are all dot, and while calculating cross magnetizing I
do not have to consider this. This I have already considered for demagnetization, so these
are cross oh, these are all cross here. I am sorry; this will I will not consider is not this is
the thing.

Now, in the formula 𝛽𝑒 comes should I derive another new formula no for this angle if you
know, over which the conductors are sprayed you just substitute there. So, in this case this
(180−2𝛽𝑒 )
angle will be half of that is not, that is this angle will be [ ] = (90 − 𝛽𝑒 ). So,
2

ampere turns demagnetizing per pole is this one. So, I now write the different color is that
ampere turns cross magnetizing per pole, I have to calculate per pole will be simply replace

723
 (180−2𝛽𝑒 )
beta e by (90 − 𝛽𝑒 ) this calculations are now, , because this angle is this half of
2

this angle.

So, it will be then equal to

1 𝐼𝑎 𝑍𝛽𝑒 𝐼𝑎 𝑍(90 − 𝛽𝑒 )
𝐴𝑇
⏟ 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑔 = =
2 𝑎 90𝑃 180𝑎𝑃
𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒

This will be the cross magnetizing ampere turns, is that clear. If you add these two; if you
add these two, so ampere conductors if you add these two, then total AT per pole will be
how much this plus this. If you add these two, it will be equal to

𝐼𝑎 𝑍𝛽𝑒 𝐼𝑎 𝑍(90 − 𝛽𝑒 ) 𝐼𝑎 𝑍 𝐼𝑎 𝑍
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 = + = 90 =
180𝑎𝑃 180𝑎𝑃 180𝑎𝑃 2𝑎𝑃

Therefore, total ampere turns per pole is known how much of it is demagnetizing is this
one, and how much of it is cross magnetizing is this one is not I will be able to calculate
that. And what should I do if brush shift machine is being used, then demagnetizing portion
of the ampere turns, I will try to get rid of using some coils which will produce flux along
this line. And the quadrature axis component of the flux by interpole is not, I will cross
magnetizing ampere turns I will calculate, cross magnetizing is this. If I want to nullify
that mmf, I will put some interpole there also.

Similarly, the demagnetizing ampere turns this way if I want to reduce its effect; I have to
perhaps what should I do, compensating winding. So, compensating winding may be used
or in some machines you know compound machines where there will be apart from series
field, some field there will be an additional field and that will also try to nullify that. We
will come to the compound machine later, but what I am telling we have learnt, how to
calculate, how much with a brush shift here, how much is the cross magnetizing ampere
turns per pole and how much is the demagnetizing ampere turns pole for a small brush
shift angle; do not give brush shift to a large amount.

And also note that this brush shift angle for generator is to be given along the direction of
rotation. What if somebody generator mode if somebody gives here, the brushes he puts it
here what is going to happen, the opposite thing is going to happen that is this conductor
which is undergoing commutation will be still under South Pole is not direction of rotation

724
is in. So, one should be very careful while giving a brush shift for generator it should be
like this. And obviously, this everything remains same for generator the direction of
rotation is this, for motor mode just show the direction of rotation there, dot cross
everything will remain intact.

And you see for generator mode brush shift is to be given opposite to the direction of
rotation. We have shown that now, in case of once you have shown the current direction,
field poles, polarities for a generator with a assume direction of rotation. The same diagram
can be used to tell you things about motor mode, only thing then you it is this direction of
rotation show this to be the direction of rotation right is motor that is what I am telling
same diagram. These for generator mode direction of rotation, this is for motor mode
direction of rotation.

I think you have got this idea. So, this is here I will stop talking about armature reaction
and things like that for the time being. And now, I will take up some as some problems
can be solved from Parker Smiths book that is for a given DC machine, what should be
the ampere turns per interpole or how much is the cross magnetizing ampere turns needed
in this case, you kindly try to solve this problem; which I will also put in the problem sheet
there.

But here the important point is that the segregation of this conductor is done rather
arbitrarily. Arbitrarily in the sense by looking visually to it, I just attribute it 𝛽𝑒 , 𝛽𝑒 , then
2𝛽𝑒 here, 2𝛽𝑒 here gives you the demagnetizing component. And this 90°, (180 − 2𝛽𝑒 )
and (180 − 2𝛽𝑒 ) here, will give you cross magnetizing ampere turns pole. Henceforth, we
will take some regular and rather usual stuff that is I will discuss about now motors and
how to calculate torque, power about speed control, breaking those are very interesting
stuff.

Thank you.

725
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 75
Calculation of Compensating Interpole and Series Field Turns

(Refer Slide Time: 00:19)

So, we have seen that in the context of DC machine we have generally armature and field
winding it is there, but we know that when the DC machine will be loaded there will be
armature current, for example, generator mode we have seen This side will be dot current
and this side will be cross current etc this we have seen and provided it is running in this
direction generator mode, this is south pole ok.

And, so, there is field winding here and field winding current only one pole I am showing,
it is like this. Now, the point is then I have used several terms like several other windings
apart from armature. So, there is armature coil or armature winding, there is field coil and
then I use the term compensating coil and then interpole winding ok.

I derived several formulas and then I used brush shift. Let us understand this sequence in
which these terms have been used earlier. Now, let us first consider only armature coil and
field coil nothing else. In this case there will be only ampere turns which will be cross
magnetizing because the flux will be armature ampere turns cross magnetizing field and
we have seen it is equal to

726
 𝐼𝑎 𝑍
𝐴𝑇𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 =
2𝑎𝑃

𝐴𝑇𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 0

So, which case I am considering? Only armature and field winding is present, nothing else.
This is the situation. What happens, the field flux is deformed because cross magnetizing
field will be along q-axis, there will be no demagnetizing component because of this
current.

Now, how to and suppose I want to avoid this deformation in the flux the consequence
will be there may be a little reduction in flux per pole for large machine if it is high we
will try to see how it can be done. For example, 𝐴𝑇𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 is this much now suppose I say
that I will use compensating winding. And, compensating winding are put on the pole faces
as we have discussed earlier. So, there will be coils here and this is the armature coil.

And, follow me carefully. What I am telling there must be logic somewhere on basis of
which these things are to be put. So, this same generator running here and I decide I will
put compensating coil. Why compensating because compensating coil too will produce
flux in the q axis. So, this is cross if it is I must connect this coil such that this becomes
cross. So, this field the armature field is in this direction and armature field and
compensating field you see it is in the opposite direction, is it not? compensating field 𝑀𝑐 .

And, I want to make this 𝑀𝑎 vanish, but as I told you this coils compensating coils cannot
completely compensate for all the dot currents here or cross current here. I told you there
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑐
may be 70% of the armature mmf that can be compensated based on the ratio.
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑐
Suppose, this ratio is = 0.7 then I will say the total of this cross magnetizing
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ

ampere turns per pole 70% of that can be compensated by compensating coil because these
are the in the vicinity of this dot currents will be there.

And, this conducting current, this group of coils which are outside the purview of this 0.7,
they will not be compensated, is it not that is the idea. Let us for example, with some
numbers let me tell it. For a for example, suppose for a given machine this 𝐴𝑇𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 you
calculate from this formula and I am now using this formula and what is their that suppose
it is equal to

727
 𝐼𝑎 𝑍
𝐴𝑇𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 = = 1000
2𝑎𝑃

Then, what I am telling, this compensating coil will be able to compensate able to
compensate for 0.7 × 1000𝐴𝑇 = 700𝐴𝑇 because they are in this vicinity close by. So,
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑐
about 70% of this it depends upon this 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ ratio 700 AT will be there.

Then, if I know the armature current and compensating coil I will connect in series with
𝐼𝑎
the armature therefore, by dividing this AT with the total armature current not because
𝑍

this compensating coil will be connected in series with the armature. So, I can fix up the
number of turns needed for the compensating coil that is over. Now, the remaining 30%
what about remaining AT? That is it was (1000 − 700) = 300𝐴𝑇, what do I do with that?

See, both these the axis of the compensating mmf is along q-axis armature mmf along q-
axis see it must be then only we can compensate and then this remaining portion mind you
here is no brush shift nothing I have used. This fellow, this cross dot will also produce
mmf here and these I will compensate by the compensating interpole coil that is this 300AT
may be compensated by interpole.

Therefore, there will be a compensating coil which will compensate for about 70% of the
total cross magnetizing ampere turns per pole of the armature. And, remaining 30% will
be compensated by the compensating interpole winding; here I will connect interpole.
Interpole is to be also connected in series with the armature. So, if I know the total armature
current, then per pole how many turns I have to put I simply divided this 300 by that
armature current and get the number of turns.

Therefore, I am repeating what I have done here in this slide that there is no brush shift
there is the machine is here field coil, armature coil; then, I know there is 𝐴𝑇𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒
total and it deforms the field form and if at rated current large machine we know flux per
pole effectively will be slightly reduced and so on.

Therefore, out of this total AT how much of it can be compensated by compensating coil?
Maybe about 70% to be very precise, it should be depend it will depend upon this ratio
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑐
that is this is suppose pole, this is another pole; pole pitch is this one and pole arc
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ

is only this much like that anyway.

728
So, 70% then compensating coil it has to compensate for all the armature current.
Therefore, it must be connected in series with the armature and how much mmf per pole
it has to provide I can then calculate 70%. Suppose, this number becomes 1000 suppose
this number then 70% whatever number it come then 70% of that and remaining 30% what
should I do? If you want to make a very good DC machines, so that there will be no
deformation of armature field at all then also compensate this by using an another interpole
coil and get it like this is one aspect.

So, second aspect is so, I think you have understood second aspect is that then what
happens when you demagnetize the armature?

(Refer Slide Time: 13:00)

Demagnetization as such will not happen for normal machines this is your field coils. Two
pole I will draw electrical degree 360°. So, this is suppose two poles, by simple arguments
you can say that is the idea and this is the thing. Now, I am telling you that I know the
increase of flux no brush shift, no compensating, no this that thing, but another solution to
this whole problem perhaps could be because what happens is this when the machine will
be loaded there will be armature current.

There will be a reduction in one half of the pole of flux and increase in other half, but the
increase in other half is less than the decrease in the other half. So, effectively there is a
net reduction in flux per pole. Suppose, it is acting as a generator therefore, the no load
𝑃𝑍
voltage generated 𝜑𝑛 that will get reduced. So, what people do is this is your shunt field
𝑎

729
winding this point you listen suppose this is your shunt field coil which has lot of number
of turns here this you want to make south pole. So, current must be like this then. This is
a south pole original.

So, what people do they say compensating coil interpole coil they are costly thing for large
machine you might have to do it, but you can also do another thing. On the same field pole
you connect another set of coil separate coil of few turns thick coil, this is thick and say
that this coil I will connect in series with the armature. Field coil in parallel if it is shunt
machine, but this coil I will connect in series with the armature, so that when armature
current is 0 this current will be 0 therefore, total flux produced by the pole will be solely
decided by this coil. This is called shunt field coil and this is called series field coil.

I can connect it like this and these are my field coils original field coils F1, F2 and this will
be marked as Se1, Se2 of course, on the other poles also it will be like this I should not
write these are terminals of the field of the machine series then the two terminals ok. These
are the field coil terminals.

Now, when you connect it in this way then it looks like that when the machine will be
loaded if there is a net reduction in flux per pole, then this series field coil will provide you
automatically additional ampere turns per pole perhaps to keep the flux per pole remaining
same. That is why people talk about compound machines that is a generator might have a
shunt field winding as well as a series field winding and it may be connected like this for
example. So, I am now using another term called series field winding.

So, a DC machine could have then this is the original field coil and this series field coil I
am drawing it like this, few number of turns thicker coil, but their positions are on the
same poles; on every pole it is like this. So, these two are field terminals and these two are
series field terminals and then it is called a compound machine and these are the armature
terminals without any interpole and compensating coil it is like that.

One of the easiest way to somehow make up for the loss in voltage is to have a series field
winding and these two then connect if it is a separately excited machine excite it from a
separate source separately excited machine and the armature winding you connect it like
this. This is A1 A2 if it is generated then connect to your load. So, if load current is not
there this coil that is the red coil is not carrying any current, all the flux like this and when
it is connected in this way it will compensate for this flux per pole. But, distortion of flux

730
will still be there and on the q-axis there will be some voltage induced. I think you have
got the point.

Therefore, I can say that when the machine is having only this one series field, no
compensating and interpole, then this interpole flux really cannot be compensated only
thing it will maintain flux per pole same. So, this is one aspect, then the next aspect is
which I have discussed at length that sometimes the brushes are shifted, for what? For
improving commutation, is not? When the now brush shift I am telling. When you do brush
shift brush shift is done because of what because to improve commutation.

For example, in case of generator brush shift is given a forward brush shift along the
direction of rotation. This we have discussed and brush shift angle from the original that
is geometrical neutral plane, this angle is measured to be 𝛽𝑒 . The moment you do it, then
the current distribution of the armature if you look at this all becomes dot. I am always
talking in terms of this is south pole and this dot will continue up to this and these are cross
up to this.

So, I have given a shift in brush and 𝛽𝑒 means in electrical degree I have given. Then, I
see this armature has both demagnetizing ampere turns as well as cross magnetizing
ampere turns that is what I did. If you give a brush shift the demagnetizing ampere turns
straight away comes and this formula we have derived it as

𝐼𝑎 𝑍𝛽𝑒
𝐴𝑇𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 =
180𝑎𝑃

where 𝛽𝑒 is in electrical degree mind you that is what and it will be demagnetizing ampere
turns is accounted by these conductors over this 2𝛽𝑒 and this 2𝛽𝑒 because it is in direct
opposition with this main pole.

And, the cross magnetizing ampere turns this cross this is dot it will produce flux along
the q axis that is the cross magnetizing ampere turns per pole and this formula also I have
got to be is equal to how much cross magnetizing ampere turns I got it

𝐼𝑎 𝑍(90 − 𝛽𝑒 )
𝐴𝑇𝑐 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 =
180𝑎𝑃

731
Now, let us come to this problem then there is a direct demagnetization per pole. So, to
compensate for that, compensating coil can only compensate for cross magnetizing ampere
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑐
turns per pole, is it not; and 70% of that depending upon the 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ ratio.

So, I will use compensating coil. So, I will calculate this 𝐴𝑇𝑐 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 I will calculate,
then I will say 70% of that is to be compensated by compensating coil. In the same way I
will calculate the number of turns that will be the cross magnetization and demagnetization
I will calculate based on this 𝐴𝑇𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 comes here and how it is to be compensated
for? This coil cannot compensate for demagnetization is horizontal.

So, how this can be compensated, by may be series field, but the point is if I have the
knowledge of this 𝐴𝑇𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 and 𝐴𝑇𝑐 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 if I can calculate that then I can decide
should I go for somebody says that I we will not connect compensating coil. Then, I will
say the cross magnetization suppose, somebody says suppose somebody says that I will
not use compensating coil. Brush shift you have given and this is the thing you have opted,
then this cross magnetization which is not the total thing as previously perhaps can be
compensated by the interpole, got the point? 𝐴𝑇𝑐 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒, it can be compensated by
interpole; alone.

I will compensate because it is not the full thing that this will be leftover. Earlier, I was
telling 70% now that 70% is taken care of by this I have not taken care of from this to this.
All the conductors cross magnetization only up to this and only this conductors are
relevant, that is fine. So, I will calculate the number of turns of the interpole dividing this
thing by the armature current I will do and the demagnetizing fellow I will compensate by
connecting series field winding because demagnetizing this portion will produce flux
along this direct axis. So, that I will connect series winding and do the compensation.

So, 𝐴𝑇𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 if you divide by the armature current you will get a number of series
field turns. 𝐴𝑇𝑐 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒; here you mind, 0.7 I am not considering why because I have
already given brush shift. So, it is not the full thing. So, it is a this fellow can compensate
for this one. So, I may use simply interpole to compensate for 𝐴𝑇𝑐 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒. So,
𝐴𝑇𝑐 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 can be compensated, by connecting say interpole only and you decide about
the number of turns.

732
And, if you want to be completely free of any effect of magnetising current then you say,
I will use interpole as well as compensating winding, then out of this a little portion should
be compensated by compensating coil and the remaining portion if any should be
compensated by interpoles. I think you have got the idea, but what I will request you and
these are very simple problems algebraic manipulation, but this why this formulas are
important you now know that is if a machine is having brush shift, then at least we
understand the problem.

There will be demagnetizing ampere turns per pole not simply because of distortion some
little reduction in flux direct opposition and brush shift I have done to improve
commutation for large machines. If I have done that and this 𝐴𝑇𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 is to be
compensated, this can be compensated by series field coil and see that is why series filed
coil I have drawn like this, interpole coil I will draw like this – its axis is this; 𝐴𝑇𝑐 always
vertically, 𝐴𝑇𝑑 always horizontally at demagnetizing.

So, I will request you to consult to try to solve this problem at least these three problem
from Parker Smith’s book which is I am having a copy of 9th edition and page number
251, 16, 17 and 18. Somebody even says like this that to instead of connecting series field
you make an arrangement of extra shunt field turns when the machine will be loaded you
increase the mmf of this or by increasing field current.

So, these three problems you try to solve and I hope you will be able to solve it nothing
that is fewer calculations, but always remember this 𝛽𝑒 is in electrical degree. If it is
mechanical degree you have to convert it with a pair of pole turns to convert it to electrical,
apply it, solve the problems straight ok. So, with that we will complete this.

Thank you.

733
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 76
Estimating Armature and Field Resistance from its Rating

Welcome to next lecture. And in today’s lecture what I will do is this I will rather go to
motor operations, generator operation we have seen is it not that is load characteristics of
separately and shunt generator. It must be told that the rating of DC machines, voltage
rating particularly is very much limited because of commutator segment and mica
insulations. You cannot have a DC machine, whose rating is 5 kV, 6.67V no out of
question it may be at best 1 kV or so, because of its limitations and the commutator
segment, and brushes there will be flash over ok.

So, DC machines as generator nowadays is almost obsolete. Let us be very clear about this
point. If you want to get DC ok, AC supply is there convert it with a solid state rectifier,
even you can get variable output DC voltage by using controlled rectifier, silicon
controlled rectifier SCRs, or convert it to DC, then use some DC-DC, there are so many
good options are there.

So, nobody really generates DC power in bulk hundreds of mega volts and tries to transfer
it, no, because the voltage is the limitation, you cannot transmit bulk amount of power over
a long distance with a little voltage of 1000 V generated in the terminals. Because if it is
DC, you cannot step it up, in case of synchronous machine also the voltage generated is of
the order of only 11 KV, but you have transformers ac step it up then transmit ok.

Therefore, DC generators are nowadays not used practically so, but still DC motors are in
use. And we will first tell you how to calculate the performance of a DC machine in terms
of how to calculate efficiency, how to calculate torque this that.

734
(Refer Slide Time: 03:05)

And about DC motor, I will tell that there are two kinds one is shut motors or separately
excited motors, shut motor and another interesting motor that is called and we will try to
understand each one of them. There are compound motors also about compound things I
will make general statement at the end the computations are similar ok. There are the
compound generators and compound motors also.

In case of separately excited motor, what is done is this. The field winding is this one, this
is your armature winding. And here the field circuit is given supply from a separate DC
source 𝑉𝑓 DC source fixed DC voltage, then you have a field resistance, this is your field
coil. And if you switch on supply, there will be some field current 𝐼𝑓 . And it will produce
flex per pole 𝜑 ok.

Now, if you simply energise this machine with field excitation nothing is going to happen,
because there is no prime over in case of motor mechanical load may be present. So, you
have to apply a voltage, supply voltage which I will call it armature supply voltage, which
is also DC of course, it is there. Now, if you apply the rated voltage, machine is suppose
stationary, if you apply the rated voltage suppose the machine rated voltage armature rated
voltage is 220 V, armature voltage is suppose 220 V DC rated. Field circuit voltage rated
will be also 220 V.

I have just indicated in this 𝑉𝑓 and 𝑉𝑎 way, because I may vary them in future, separately
excited so maybe I will have some control. So, apply some 220 volt DC. Now when you

735
switch on this machine without doing anything etcetera, at the moment you close these
switches how much will be the current because machine was stationary, machine has got
some inertia.

So, at 𝑡 = 0 + plus immediately after you have closed this circuit, the current drawn from
the supply is called the starting current. And the at starting at starting condition, I am sorry
this is the armature can be modelled as some armature resistance 𝑟𝑎 , and the supply 𝑉𝑎
nothing else, because machine has not yet started moving. Therefore, there is no generated
voltage by the machine which is called back emf in this case.

So, starting current will be pretty large

𝑉𝑎
𝐼𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝑟𝑎

𝑟𝑎 being very small starting current will be very large, will be high, may be there will be
problems in the machine. Now, first of all just merely saying that armature resistance is
small does not make any sense, is it minimum, is it 1Ω, is it I mean high low is a very
selective term. I will first tell about that a little bit, we know that in a DC machine or for
that matter any rotating machine, let us assume the machine has been well designed ok;
whoever has designed the machine has designed it well.

Then the efficiency of a well designed machine a rotating machine, may be 80% or 85%
very well designed machine, but certainly not 90% and above like transformer, transformer
99% very good there is no rotating part. But in case of DC machines or say induction
machines whatever it is, the order of efficiency may be 85% or 80% like that ok. So, you
just see globally that suppose you have a 10KW 220V DC machine or I will take for simple
calculation 200V, so that I can compute easily.

Suppose there is a 10KW or 5KW let us take a 5KW, 200V DC machine. What does this
mean? It means that your rated voltage you can apply to the armature is 200V, rated voltage
you can apply to the field is 200V. And when the machine will be fully loaded, it will give
you an output of 5KW that is the whole idea. Now, let us assume to understand how to
estimate the value of 𝑟𝑎 . Suppose, we have purchased a machine this one it is delivered.
Now, I will say that let this I am choosing I may be wrong little bit here and there, but as
a practicing engineer it is very useful.

736
Suppose let efficiency of the machine is 80%, then I and this is the output power mind
you. Whatever will be written on the motor, in case of induction motor also we have seen,
this is the net mechanical power output, net mechanical power output ok. So, when the
machine will be operating at full load condition the input total input must be

5000
= 6250𝑊 = 6.25𝐾𝑊
0.8

It gives you 5KW this is the input. Now, where this remaining power goes, remaining
power will be the total losses in the machine. Assuming it is a well designed machine, this
thing I assumed I have not yet tested the machine I assumed ok, total input will be of this
order. So, total loss will be this

(6250 − 5000)𝑊 = 1250𝑊

Now, let us have some idea this is the total loss, total loss comprises of what, there will be
some copper loss 𝐼𝑎2 𝑟𝑎 , because armature has got resistance. There will be some field
copper loss 𝐼𝑓2 𝑅𝑓 , all things considered efficiency is to be calculated. We will tell you about
that in much detail, but as a common user there will an armature copper loss here, field
copper loss here. And not only that there will be another called rotational loss, three losses
takes place primarily that is the armature copper loss, field copper loss; so this will be
equal to armature copper loss plus field copper loss plus rotational loss.

Frictional and some eddy current loss takes place in the armature we will come to that, but
this is these three losses are the primary losses. Now, we do not have any idea of how this
1250W will get will be distributed in this three points, ok. I do not have any data; let us
assume equal weightage. So, assume all the losses are equal losses equal and say armature
copper loss will be one-third of that how much it is?

1250
= 417𝑊
3

Field copper loss also say 417W that is what I have assumed is it not. Tell me what will
be the rated armature current from this data, input is this much input power that minus the
field copper loss will be the power coming from the armature is not, this input power will
be.

737
So, 6250W minus the field copper loss which one-third of this, how much it is? 6250 minus
417 divided by 200.

6250 − 417 5833

𝐼𝑎 = = = 29𝐴𝑚𝑝
200 200

29Amp, say 30Amp will be the armature current ok. Then I will say that this armature
current

𝐼𝑎2 𝑟𝑎 = 417𝑊

𝑟𝑎 = 0.46Ω

See try to understand what I am doing here, I am telling a DC machine is given, we say
armature resistance is small, it does not make any sense; small means what, mΩ, µΩ or
1Ω whatever it is. You can easily see, see rated current of the machine I have estimated
30Amp. If somebody says this machine is having 2Ω resistance armature, you calculate
what will be the copper loss when rated current will be flowing; it will be very high,
efficiency will be very poor, 2Ω is also small what is.

Similarly can I estimate, what is the value of field resistance how much? So, this is this is
an important thing I am telling, which you will not be discussed in general books how
much. I am just estimating machine is there, how much is the order of armature resistance
of this machine about 0.46Ω. When you will measure that it will not be 0.46 will be nearby,
may be 0.5Ω, may be 0.6Ω also I am not sure I do not care, but I have got some idea of
the order of the armature resistance that is important. How much it?

𝑉𝑓2 𝑅𝑓 = 417

𝑅𝑓 = 96Ω

96Ω, say 100Ω, may be 120Ω. So, what for a well designed DC machine, armature
resistance for this DC machine will be of the order of 0.46Ω or 0.5Ω or 0.6Ω. And field
circuit resistance will be of the order 100s of ohm, I mean may be 120Ω, these are not at
all the measured value at all.

738
(Refer Slide Time: 21:14)

Therefore, if I now come to the starting problem of the DC machine whose rating is 5 KW,
200 V, dc motor somebody writes, say separately excited it will. Separately excited
machine can be connected as shunt machine, like generator separately excited motor.
Estimated values of 𝑟𝑎 = 0.5Ω that is what we have found out. Field coil resistance mind
you it is not external resistance; field coil resistance; field coil resistance is of the order of
the 100Ω like that, that is what we have got.

Now, if this machine and its rated current we have already got 𝐼𝑎 rated is how much?
Approximately 30Amp. Now, in such a machine what I am trying to tell if field is given
full voltage, no external resistance 200V you give, it develops rated flux 𝜑 and then you
apply full voltage 200V here and the order of armature resistance is at starting there is no
back emf coming in at starting, this is 0.5Ω.

The current drawn will be 𝐼𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 400𝐴𝑚𝑝, rated current is 30Amp. So, many times
400
the rated current will be flowing if you do about 14 times the rated current will be
30

flowing. This may cause problem armature may burn this that, but depends on because
machine will not such a large current will flow, but machine will also start running. The
moment it starts running, the equivalent circuit changes 200V, it is at the time of closing
the switch 400Amp. Then machine starts picking up speed, this voltage appears which will
oppose the supply voltage and this current will fall.

739
Now, the question is if the inertia of the machine is large, this level of starting current will
persist for a longer time if machine picks up speed very slowly because of high inertia.
This level of current will be there for longer time and then it is really a problem, but if the
same machine is having very low inertia, then 400 Amp, but quickly picks up speed that
may not be that alarming, it depends upon so many things.

But the point is we will always try to avoid such a scenario that give full voltage at the
time of starting a DC motor. In absence of any back emf, it is only the armature resistance
which will limit this current. Field current is no concern, because it is R-L circuit that
initial transient, but it will steadily go to 2 Amp. What is the rated field current, it will have
200
𝑅𝑓 ≈ 100Ω, so 𝐼𝑓 = 100 = 2𝐴𝑚𝑝 there is no problem in the field circuit it will settle down,

but in the armature circuit it is.

And always remember that field never participates in energy conversion, you apply voltage
it will develop. Therefore, the application of the voltage the current will be armature
current if you plot, it will be something like this 𝐼𝑎 . Apply the full voltage here; it goes to
400Amp. After that with time it will decay down to some finally, to some steady value ok.

So, what I have discussed in today’s class is that given a DC machine if you know the
rating of a DC machine, which is a separately excited DC machine. And I will only assume
that machine has been well designed, therefore I want to guess what will be the order of
armature resistance, what should be the order of field circuit resistance. How did I do it,
assumed efficiency some realistic figure ok, very well designed machine 80% or things
like that kilo watt rating was known, I calculated input power total input power. Difference
of these two must be the total losses at the rated condition; this is output mind you for a
motor, mechanical output power. So, difference will give me the losses.

Whereas the primary losses takes place, some losses will be in the armature circuit, some
losses in the field circuit and also some losses which will be rotational loss. And I do not
have any idea about them how they are really divided ok, let us assume one- third, one-
third, one-third from that I will get how much will be the power loss in the armature circuit.
I can estimate always the rated current for this machine, even rough estimation is 5 KW
divided by 200 V, so it is about 30 Amp; from that I could guess the value of 𝑟𝑎 to be some
0.46Ω or things like that that is absolutely I am not claiming that will be the correct thing,
exact value that is what you will, but you will be expecting close by.

740
It is not that I will not be struggling with the fact, is it not mΩ or is it not 5Ω no, it is of
𝑉𝑓2
the order of 0.5Ω, may be 0.7Ω also fine. Similarly the field circuit resistance, is the
𝑅𝑓

field copper loss. Therefore, from that if I know the voltage rating of the field circuit, I
will be able to estimate 𝑅𝑓 value; 𝑅𝑓 value will be of the order of 100Ω so. Anyway today
I stop here, we will continue our discussion on DC machine operations in my next class.

Thank you.

741
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 77
Power Flow Diagram, Rotational loss

Welcome to next lecture. And in our last lecture, I told you we were discussing motor
operations.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:27)

And suppose I took a DC machine name plate rating as 5kW 200V, I have taken it will be
220 Volt may be for easy calculations. DC separately excited motor. We were took this
motor to explain the things.

And then we estimated the order of armature resistance, value of armature resistance (𝑟𝑎 ),
value of field coil resistance. Mind you it does not include external resistance, field coil
resistance that is 𝑅𝑓 coil. These two things we estimated, these are very useful information,
ok.

Based on based on what assuming a reasonable value of efficiency, value of efficiency of

the machine, say 80% we assumed like that. So, it gives me a fair idea of the order of the
resistance, order of the armature resistance will be; now we are sure what is low if it is 5
KW machine its order I am sure it will be 0.5Ω or thing like that. Field coil resistance will

742
be of the order of 100s of Ω and so on for 5 kW machine. You can repeat this exercise for
a 10 kW machine. You will find 𝑟𝑎 has to be still further low for higher rating. As an
exercise I leave you.

Now, today first what I will do is this I will draw the first the power flow diagram of a DC
machine, power flow diagram of DC motor. So, here is the input power, 𝑃𝑖𝑛 . 𝑃𝑖𝑛 will
comprise of electrical power input

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑓 𝐼𝑓 + 𝑉𝑎 𝐼𝑎

Mind you this is the circuit diagram. This is 𝑉𝑎 and this is 𝑉𝑓 and this is 𝐼𝑓 . This is the total
electrical input in the system.

From this a portion will be lost in the field circuit, field copper loss which will be equal to

𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼𝑓2 𝑅𝑓

𝑅𝑓 total if you have connected an external resistance then it is to be taken into account. So,
and that is also equal to

𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼𝑓2 𝑅𝑓 = 𝑉𝑓 𝐼𝑓

So, 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑓 𝐼𝑓 + 𝑉𝑎 𝐼𝑎 . So, here the power will be

𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑉𝑎 𝐼𝑎

Here this power out of this total power input a portion will be lost in what is called armature
copper loss.

𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼𝑎2 𝑟𝑎

Then if this power is subtracted then I will get here gross mechanical power developed;
from which if you subtract the rotational loss you will get the net mechanical power output
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 .

Efficiency of the machine is

𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝜂=
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

743
That is what I assumed with it 80%, difference of these two is the loss and so on, anyway.
So, this is, now the question is I will tell a few words about this rotational loss. What
happens is this when a DC machine will be rotating there will be friction and windage loss,
ok. Rotational loss comprises of friction plus windage against air it is running and there
will be mechanical friction on the shaft and bearing that thing plus the eddy current loss in
the armature.

See, in case of DC machine all currents are DC, is not, and that is why the field poles and
the yoke structure are made of solid iron. I am sorry, solid iron it is made of. Generally, it
is made of small machines it is just solid structure. This is yoke, these are the pole side,
this is stator part, this is made of solid and here is the armature.

Now, there will be eddy current loss taking place in the iron of the armature. Why?
Because if you see the rotor if it is suppose solid iron where slots are there you have put
conductors to make armature conductor etcetera, but look at the iron body of the armature.

It is moving in a steady field here therefore, in the iron body you pick up any closed path,
it will sometimes see maximum flux linked by this assumed closed path, sometimes zero
flux there will be there induced voltage, Faraday’s law AC Voltage, there is no commutator
and rectifier here, I know what is the purpose. So, there will be eddy current paths available
on the body of the iron and iron will become also hot. That is why the rotor or the armature
of the DC machine you cannot use the solid iron. You have to use stampings, circular
stampings in this case.

744
(Refer Slide Time: 10:01)

For example, it will be like this, suppose thin plate and stampings will be, will look like
slot teeth like that it goes on. I think you got, getting behind here it will be like this, all
over the periphery. This is one plate and its thickness is few millimetres. And then you
give a varnish coating to this plate, and then you stack many plates one above the other
and you will get the height that becomes the length of the machine and this fellow will be
rotating in the your steady field; field is steady therefore, eddy current loss will take place.

But this time it will be less. Why? Just like transformer you have reduced the path of the
eddy path. So, they it will look like a plate here, this is one plate, this is the next plate
aligned, so that slot aligned like that you get the length of the machine. These are the
stampings. Are you getting? Iron stampings. Circular plates.

I think you have got the idea and several plates stacked together. And each plate of course,
must be electrically insulated from the neighbouring plates. So, that you know each plate
has its own electrical identity, and eddy current pass will now be reduced, these are few
millimetres. So, there will be eddy current loss taking place in the armature.

If it is a separately excited machine and you are not changing the field current, strength of
the eddy current I know it depends upon the frequency of the induced voltage frequency
𝑃𝑛
of the ac induced voltage in the armature body will be like that. So, it will be
2
2
proportional to frequency squared, it will be proportional to the 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 those things are still
valid here because after all AC voltage part only we are seeing. Therefore, to reduce eddy

745
current loss. It directly depends upon the flux per pole because from that I can calculate
𝐵. If I do Fourier analysis I can calculate 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 and so on.

But nonetheless, for a given field current if you are not touching the field current and
suppose the speed of the machine is constant then the eddy current loss will practically
remain constant. So, also frictional loss. Therefore, this part rotational loss consists of
friction windage, not winding I am so sorry, it is windage, it is called windage loss. This
is the scenario of the machine.

So, now, this understanding we will you have this information, so that we now understand
motor operation in a better way. Therefore, suppose I now consider a separately excited
motor. So, this is a thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:15)

This is shaft, these are the brushes, armature and this is the field. Here is your 𝑉𝑓 , here is
your 𝑉𝑎 , normally 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑎 , that is normal case. But since separately excited motor, what
happens? You would like to vary the armature voltage separately that will come later.
Now, as I told when you switch on the supply there is no back emf. So, some starting
arrangement has to be made. We will discuss later. External resistance you connect to limit
the current to it is rated value as the machine picks up speed, cut that resistance out.

Now, starting current is large, but the as the machine picks up speed because armature
circuit is like this, this is back emf, this is supply, this is your 𝐼𝑎 . This armature current

746
will shoot up to a large value then it will gradually decay. Now, the question is finally,
where it will decay down and settle.

The answer to this is very simple the machine will finally, settle down to such a speed such
that enough current will be drawn from the armature supply which will make

𝑃𝑍
𝜑𝐼 = 𝑇𝑙
2𝜋𝑎 𝑎

If machine starts rotating this way, mechanical load torque will be this way, and
electromagnetic torque is this way. This is the expression of the electromagnetic torque.

Machine will finally, run to such a speed at such a speed that the electromagnetic torque
is equal to load torque steady state operation.

𝑃𝑍
𝑇𝑒 = 𝜑𝐼 = 𝑇𝑙
2𝜋𝑎 𝑎

Let us consider this steady state operation only, that is if 𝑇𝑙 = 0, 𝐼𝑎 = 0 finally, because
current we have seen it will shoot up, then it will decay, if absolutely machine is under no
load even there is no eddy current and frictional losses then the final armature current will
be zero and it will run at a constant speed without drawing any current; that means, as
speed was increasing 𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 , so that no current is drawn. Anyway, but that is an idealistic
situation. So, 𝐸𝑏 = 𝐾𝜑𝑛 mind you and it will settle down to this speed. So, this is the
thing.

Now, I will also I told you about the power flow diagram this one, is not. This is the gross
mechanical power developed, we found out the expression of the torque from considering
𝐵𝑖𝑙 in our earlier lectures. Now, I can also get that from simply arguing that in the armature
circuit, I will write this was the next page. In the armature circuit this is 𝐼𝑎 , suppose steady
state current drawn is 𝐼𝑎 , back emf is 𝐸𝑏 in the armature circuit. The KVL equation is

𝑉𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎

Neglect brush drop etcetera, ok.

Now, multiply both sides by 𝐼𝑎 . What is this?

𝑉𝑎 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑟𝑎

747
𝑉𝑎 𝐼𝑎 This is what? Power input to the armature. It tells you that total power inputted to the
armature, armature draws this total power. A portion is lost as copper loss and this 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎
must be then equal to the gross power developed, gross mechanical power developed.

So, we say that therefore, I say

𝑃𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎

Then, the gross torque developed t gross

𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎
𝑇𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 =
2𝜋𝑛

If 𝑛 is in rps, power by angular speed gives you torque. Now, you see this

𝑃𝑍 𝐼𝑎 𝑃𝑍
𝑇𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝜑𝑛 = 𝜑𝐼
𝑎 2𝜋𝑛 2𝜋𝑎 𝑎

This is the electromagnetic torque developed by the machine which I got it earlier in
𝐼𝑎
directly calculating the torque. Considered each conductor, they are carrying current ,
𝑎

𝐵𝑖𝑙, all sigma are integrated. So, this is a thing. So, to calculate the gross torque developed,
𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎
you can use this formula as well. So, torque is basically , but do not make mistake 𝑛
2𝜋𝑛

should be in rps that is the thing.

So, we now know that in a DC machine if you a steadily if it is operating it is it will be

like this clear. And then the net mechanical power of course, we have to subtract from this
is the rotational loss. So,

𝑃𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 − 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠

This is how we have to calculate. Now, I will tell you some simplified way of calculating
the operating point of a DC machine. Now, the if I want to sketch the this is the, this circuit
diagram is always necessary. This is the thing.

748
(Refer Slide Time: 25:09)

Suppose, the machine is running steadily with this armature speed there is load torque also
acting in the opposite direction is present and the conductors are carrying the current, and
the current you always show in this way armature circuit, ok. Now, inside the armature it
is 𝑟𝑎 and back emf which is 𝐾𝜑𝑛, and you can solve a host of problems without any
difficulty provided you know the order of 𝑟𝑎 and things like that, but I want to tell you one
thing.

This back emf; next lecture I will draw this speed torque characteristics etc, but today at
least whatever time is left. I will tell that

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎

That is what we have seen. And we know 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 drop is much much smaller than your supply
Voltage. Why? That also we have seen.

Suppose for example, in the earlier machine supply voltage was 200V, rated current was
30Amp and 𝑟𝑎 = 0.5Ω. So, what will be the voltage drop 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 drop? It is only 15V is not
and your supply voltage is 200V. Sometimes to get quick results we also neglect this 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎
because

𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 ≪ 𝑉𝑎

749
For example, if I say this you listen carefully suppose you apply 200 Volt and you find the
machine is running at say 1000 rpm, I have written rpm, clear. What I am telling if 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎
drop is neglected, so that quickly I get the results. Then I will say that then you get several
interesting simplification, then back emf that is 𝐸𝑏 will be always equal to supply voltage
as if back emf is fixed by supply Voltage. Are you getting this point? So, suppose 200 Volt
is the supply machine is running at 1000 rpm and suppose the machine is drawing a current
this is 𝑛1 , this is 𝑉𝑎1 ; 𝑛1 = 1000𝑟𝑝𝑚 and 𝐼𝑎1 = 15𝐴𝑚𝑝 that means, machine is loaded,
ok. Then what is 𝐸𝑏1 with 𝑟𝑎 drop neglected? 𝐸𝑏1 = 200𝑉.

Now, suppose I say that if armature Voltage, this is 𝐸𝑏1 armature voltage is reduced by
half, reduced to half that is 𝑉𝑎2 = 100𝑉, suppose I say. Then what will be the new speed
and what should be the new armature current? And I say that load torque constant. Then
what I will say 𝐸𝑏1 = 200𝑉 I know. What is 𝐸𝑏2 ? It has to be 𝐸𝑏2 = 100𝑉 because 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎
drop neglected 100V. Initially, machine was running steadily. What was the
electromagnetic torque? It was equal to 𝐾𝜑15 and that was equal to the load torque,
steadily it was running.

In the second case the electromagnetic torque developed by the machine will be 𝐾𝜑15, I
have not changed field current, whatever is there I have not changed that. Only thing
armature voltage I have reduced from 200V to 100V then I will say electromagnetic torque
now developed armature current I do not know. And that is equal to 𝑇𝐿2 , but I am telling
load torque is constant is not

𝑇𝐿1 = 𝑇𝐿2

𝑇𝑒1 = 𝐾𝜑 × 𝐼𝑎1 = 𝑇𝐿1

𝑇𝑒2 = 𝐾𝜑 × 𝐼𝑎2 = 𝑇𝐿2

𝐼𝑎1 = 𝐼𝑎2

Then what you should do is this. you should write down these two equations, one is torque
equation and one is the back emf equation, and take their ratios that is what all you have
to do while solving the DC machine problems. So, motor problems,

𝐸𝑏1 𝐾𝜑𝑛1 𝑛1
= =
𝐸𝑏2 𝐾𝜑𝑛2 𝑛2

750
 𝐸𝑏1 200
=
𝐸𝑏2 100

𝑛2 = 500𝑟𝑝𝑚

𝐼𝑎2 = 15𝐴𝑚𝑝

Therefore, you see 𝐼𝑎2 will remain same as 15Amp, but speed will be half.

In other words what I am saying sometimes if you are told that neglect that small armature
resistance drop then the problem becomes very easy back emf is decided by supply in
Voltage. That is the one thing. So, there will be two cases initial operating point, at some
speed it is running, some armature current it is drawing and some back emfs. Here we take
the ratios. Similarly, another equation, torque equation you write for steady operation of
the machine in the two cases. Take the ratios of this back emf equations and the torque
equations. And there will be unknowns which can be easily computed.

So, I stop here today and we will continue with this; considering r a also in our next lecture.
So, I indicated simply that if 𝑟𝑎 can be assumed to be neglected 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 drop, then calculations
are much simpler.

Thank you.

751
 Electrical Machines – I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 78
Shunt Motor Basic Equation

Welcome to lecture number 78 and we have been discussing about DC motor. Now, all
said and done that a machine can have series winding, compensating winding, interpole
winding, now, we will first consider simple machines and although those series field and
interpole can be incorporated some problems if you solve it will be clear how to handle
that.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:44)

But, in my last lecture, I told you that if it is a separately excited DC motor how to work
out the problem and I assumed that armature resistance drop if it is neglected then it will
be very elementary calculation.

752
(Refer Slide Time: 01:04)

Now, today what I will do is this suppose armature resistance is there, separately excited
DC machine how to handle the problem separately excited; DC motor we are discussing.
As I told you generators are nowadays not. So, popular at all with DC, but motors are still
in use and this is the diagram and this is the field winding. Let us try to understand what I
am telling.

Suppose, it is motor and it is running in this direction 𝑛 and this motor is to be supplied
from it is rated armature voltage and this is the field voltage, separately excited, this is the
field current ok. Now, suppose I say we find and the in which direction electromagnetic
torque is operating in case of motor electromagnetic torque is this. In which direction load
torque? This load torque is a mechanical torque suppose it is running a pump you must
understand that the load on the shaft of the machine either it is cutting something or it is
raising water to a high rise building.

So, load torque against this load torque it has to run; let initial steady state operating point
this is. Let initial steady state operating point is this one that is the machine draws armature
current is 𝐼𝑎1 and speed is equal to 𝑛1 and load torque is equal to 𝑇𝐿1 and field current is
𝐼𝑓1 . Let me make it general and this armature voltage applied is 𝑉𝑎1 , got the point?

So, suppose the machine is found to operate steadily with these things and electromagnetic
torque generated is 𝑇𝑒1. Therefore, 𝑇𝑒1 and 𝑇𝐿1 must be same (𝑇𝑒1 = 𝑇𝐿1), that is why it is

753
running steadily at this rpm. Then what you have to do is this suppose these are the
observed things then I will write two equations armature resistance is suppose 𝑟𝑎 .

Then I will say that 𝐸𝑏1 back emf will be equal to applied voltage is

𝐸𝑏1 = 𝑉𝑎1 − 𝐼𝑎1 𝑟𝑎

𝑇𝑒1 = 𝐾𝑇 𝐼𝑓1 𝐼𝑎1

Electromagnetic torque developed will be equal to some torque constant into flux into
armature current; flux is proportional to field current 𝐼𝑓1 . This will be the two fundamental
equation straight away write down. This is equation 1 and this is equation 2, got the point?
Initially this thing is happening and also note that this

𝐸𝑏1 = 𝑉𝑎1 − 𝐼𝑎1 𝑟𝑎 = 𝐾𝐺 𝐼𝑓1 𝑛1

𝑇𝑒1 = 𝐾𝑇 𝐼𝑓1 𝐼𝑎1 = 𝑇𝐿1

This is one thing. Now, suppose I change some applied voltage across the armature or field
voltage or field current or load torque all things I have changed, perturbation I have done.
Then the second operating at second steady state operating point suppose this quantities
becomes suppose I find next time it is drawing armature current 𝐼𝑎2 , machine is running at
a speed 𝑛2 , load torque is suppose 𝑇𝐿2 , electromagnetic is 𝑇𝑒2 and field current is 𝐼𝑓2 and
applied voltage across the armature is 𝑉𝑎2 ok.

𝐸𝑏2 = 𝑉𝑎2 − 𝐼𝑎2 𝑟𝑎 = 𝐾𝐺 𝐼𝑓2 𝑛2

𝑇𝑒2 = 𝐾𝑇 𝐼𝑓2 𝐼𝑎2 = 𝑇𝐿2

Suppose, I have not changed armature resistance also that I could include here earlier
because I could always connect external resistance in the armature anyway let us not
complicate this too much.

This is 3 and this is 4. So, what I am telling separately excited motor if this is the generator
condition applied voltage 𝑉𝑎 , 𝐼𝑓 , this one?

Suppose, I observe that the motor is running at a steady condition drawing an armature
current 𝐼𝑎1 , running at a speed 𝑛1 , load torque is 𝑇𝐿1 and it must have developed same

754
electromagnetic torque 𝑇𝑒1 and 𝑇𝐿1 are same, that is why it is running at a constant speed
𝐼𝑓1 and 𝑉𝑎1 at the corresponding field current and armature voltage.

The moment I know these things these two equations can be written, what is the back emf,
what is the torque. Suppose, I have played with the field current and this armature voltage
changed them and new condition is I find it is running once again steady state condition at
rpm 𝑛2 , 𝐼𝑎2 , 𝑇𝐿2 , 𝐼𝑓2 , 𝑉𝑎2 . Once again write down these two equations – back emf and this
then what will be your next step is to calculate take the ratio of this I will write it here next
page.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:55)

𝐸
So, take the ratio of 𝐸𝑏1 , invariably you do this.
𝑏2

𝐸𝑏1 𝑉𝑎1 − 𝐼𝑎1 𝑟𝑎 𝐾𝐺 𝐼𝑓1 𝑛1

= =
𝐸𝑏2 𝑉𝑎2 − 𝐼𝑎2 𝑟𝑎 𝐾𝐺 𝐼𝑓2 𝑛2

And, obviously, I have neglected saturation; neglected saturation that is I have assumed

𝜑 ∝ 𝐼𝑓

Then only you can do that otherwise. If 𝜑𝑛 is the voltage so, 𝜑 can be replaced by some
other constant into 𝐼𝑓 . So, this is this you get by dividing 1 with 3 of the previous equation.
Then divide equation 2 with 4.

755
If you do this you will get

𝑇𝑒1 𝐾𝑇 𝐼𝑓1 𝐼𝑎1 𝑇𝐿1

= =
𝑇𝑒2 𝐾𝑇 𝐼𝑓2 𝐼𝑎2 𝑇𝐿2

𝜑 ∝ 𝐼𝑓

Load torque mechanical torque present on the shaft of the machine may also depend on
speed I do not know. If I say that it is a constant opposing load torque then 𝑇𝐿1 and 𝑇𝐿2
will be same if I say load torque is proportional to 𝑛2 .

𝑇𝐿1 𝑛12
=
𝑇𝐿2 𝑛22

If suppose load torque remains constant then I will say

𝑇𝐿1 = 𝑇𝐿2

So, this thing is known therefore, with this two sets of equation if I know the first operating
point completely and if I say that I have changed the armature voltage as well as field
current of the shunt machine what will be the new armature current drawn?

If it is like this I can it can be easily solved by using these two equation. These two are the
most fundamental equations we have to solve in case of DC machine and take the ratios
that is back emf equation and the electromagnetic torque equation and we can solve
problem. So, with this in mind, I will now tell you so, this in fact, you can start solving
several problems in DC machines by using these two equations provided 𝜑 ∝ 𝐼𝑓 .

Only one point of question, if somebody says that 𝜑 is not proportional to 𝐼𝑓 , then one has
to you must understand this that the equation of the generated voltage 𝐸𝐺 is something like
this it is not straight and this is your 𝐼𝑓 . If it is not directly proportional to 𝐼𝑓 , then I must
have this information to get the ratio of back emf at this rpm this was the field current then
those 𝐸𝑏1 and 𝐸𝑏2 are to be used because 𝐸𝑏1 and 𝐸𝑏2 are nothing, but the generated
voltage.

Suppose, this OCC so, I will refer to it is at a given rpm 𝑛 then for any value of field
current I will be able to tell what is the induced voltage. If it is 𝐼𝑓1 and if it is running at 𝑛1

756
rpm from this OCC only I will be able to tell that we discussed this earlier. Therefore, in
that case this open circuit characteristic is to be used to correctly predict this one, but
otherwise in general you can assume that 𝜑 ∝ 𝐼𝑓 in the linear zone is machine is operating.

Then, these are the two equations back emf and the torque equation because in steady state
electromagnetic torque and load torque must be same in case of motor. If this is the
direction of rotation, this is the direction of electromagnetic torque and this is the direction
of the load torque. Steady state 𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝐿 , so that it runs at a constant rpm 𝑛 that is the thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:37)

Now, what I am going to tell you that I do not care whether the machine is connected as a
separately excited motor or a shunt motor, those fundamental equations will be equally
true. For example, a shunt motor, what is the connection? This is the armature, this is the
field current field, these two are connected in parallel and here you give supply voltage.
Here no point in distinguishing between the voltage applied across the armature and the
field. They are in parallel, so, this is 𝑉.

Shunt generator to generate voltage there are several steps I told you in case of shunt motor
do not care because we are injecting current. Here this voltage is well defined; there will
be some field current flowing here. There will be some armature current flowing here and
suppose the machine is running steadily at this rpm. Then there this current drawn from
the supply is called the line current and this will be divided into two halves 𝐼𝑎 and 𝐼𝑓 . So,
𝐼𝐿 line current is equal to is equal to

757
 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑓

This will be the load current and what is there here 𝑟𝑎 and back emf.

So, all the equations where there I wrote is valid what will be back emf here 𝐸𝑏 . It should
be equal to

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 = 𝐾𝐺 𝐼𝑓 𝑛

𝑇𝑒 = 𝐾𝑇 𝐼𝑓 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑇𝐿

𝜑 ∝ 𝐼𝑓 if it is linear into the field current. I do not write 1, 2. Now, I know what it is Now,
no point in elaborating this same steps if it is at some applied voltage, this that, armature
current was one you replace it by 1, 2 etcetera take ratios.

So, the point I want to make is those two relations irrespective of the connections series,
shunt whatever it is these two basic equations must be satisfied and that will be the starting
point for solving any of the problem. If you are following me correctly suppose, I say that
this DC machine 𝑟𝑎 is vanishingly small suppose I say I am just asking one simple question
𝑟𝑎 ≈ 0 vanishingly small you neglect the 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 drop compared to the applied voltage.

Suppose applied voltage is 200V, then what will be the back emf of the machine? Then
back emf of the machine will be 200V only and when I say 200V only no matter at what
speed and what armature current it is drawing because 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 drop is negligibly small.
Suppose, I have used very good conducting material for armature that resistance is very
small then you must understand that the back emf is going to be 𝑉. Perhaps I am changing
playing with field current, but I will stay I will always state that back emf it is fixed.

If back emf is fixed and suppose initially you have applied 200V, now let me the problem
let me ask you now that 𝑉1 I have applied is 200V, field current initially is some 𝐼𝑓1 and
initial speed of the machine is suppose 1000 rpm. Now, I say that I will make the machine
is found to run steadily at this rpm, 𝐼𝑓1 has got some value. Suppose, I say that I make the
applied voltage that is this voltage 𝑉2 to 50 V and ask you what is the speed at which the
machine is going to run.

758
In this case 𝐸𝑏1 is equal to 200 V only because 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 drop is neglected 200 V. In the second
case what is 𝐸𝑏2 ? 𝐸𝑏2 will be how much? Once again 50 volt. I have reduced the voltage
by this amount. Therefore,

𝐸𝑏2 50 𝐾𝐺 𝐼𝑓2 𝑛2
= =
𝐸𝑏1 200 𝐾𝐺 𝐼𝑓1 𝑛1

This will be the thing. Now, if this current was 𝐼𝑓1 what is the field current here 𝐼𝑓2 ? See,
this is the beauty of shunt field current; how much will be the field current? You have
reduced the voltage by 4 times. So, your 𝐼𝑓2 has to become equal to because field resistance
I have not varied. So,

𝐼𝑓1
𝐼𝑓2 =
4

What is the speed 𝑛2 I am looking for? Initial speed is 𝑛1 = 1000𝑟𝑝𝑚, is it not?.

𝑛1 = 𝑛2 = 1000𝑟𝑝𝑚

Therefore, this speed at which the machine will run is also 1000 rpm, speed will not
change. It is no surprise because the field current is also reduced by factor of 4. Therefore,
you see whether the machine is connected in shunt or separately, excited to motor only a
thing you draw the circuit correctly and write down these two equations back emf and
armature equations.

And, from this load torque; see here load torque does not come into picture provided 𝐼𝑎 =
0, but it will come into definitely and I have to take the equation of torque; there I do not
have to write the torque equation I am getting the thing as it is. So, (𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 ); so, often
to get the quick results you neglect 𝑟𝑎 and quickly calculate and back emf will remain
same, got the point? So, this is how the calculation will go on in series and shunt machine.

Why I have told calculations first before discussing the speed control, various methods of
speed control of DC motors as well as starting phenomena is and breaking is that the
calculations in DC machine are very simple. I have assumed it is running at steady state,
how it reaches steady state that also I will discuss, but first thing is this one steady state
this is the thing and you can carry on calculation. So, several problems once again you can

759
solve on your own and solve it and enjoy reading analysing DC motors. We will continue
with that.

760
 Electrical Machines – I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 79
Starting of D.C Motor - 3- Point Starter

Welcome to lecture number 79 and we got ideas if a DC machine is connected say either
in shunt or series fashion. And, if it is drawing some current running at some steady speed,
then what all you have to do is you have to write down two equations; one is the back EMF
equations from the circuit point of view it is 𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 and another is the torque
equation 𝐼𝑓 × 𝐼𝑎 neglecting saturation.

And then if you change some quantities in the circuit for example, you might only change
the armature voltage applied for a separately excited machine. So, machine will then
operate another under another steady state conditions, then once again write down those
two basic equations and take ratios and you will get a new quantities, ok. So, that was the
basic thing we must know before we further proceed.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:43)

Now, for any motor operation three things are important motor, be it AC motor or DC
motor it does not matter. If it is these three things is are that its starting then its speed
control, how speed can be controlled speed control and another is called braking electrical

761
braking, that is if you want to bring the machine to stop very quickly electrically what you
should do these are the three things one must know about the motor. So, DC motor is also
no exception to this; so, first we discuss about starting of DC motor.

And suppose a shunt motor, shunt or separately excited motor shunt motor let us take
general shunt motor starting, and we know the starting phenomena that is if you have this
armature and this is the field, they are connected in parallel and then here you will give
supply rated voltage.

Now, we discussed about this problem starting from rest that is machine was stationary,
but the order of the armature resistance is small, how small it is we also discussed about
that. And if you apply full rated voltage at the time of starting, at the time of starting there
is no back EMF therefore, current drawn from the armature will be very large about field
𝑉
circuit no problem, field circuit is the current steady state current.
𝑅𝑓

Therefore, here the problem is armature current may be many times larger and if it is a
large DC motor inertia may be large; therefore, back EMF we will slowly build up 𝜑 has
build up, but 𝑛 will increase slowly if its inertia is high. Then, the level of that large starting
current run by the armature will also persist for a longer time and your machine may be
damaged particularly armature winding. And if armature winding is damaged it is very
difficult once again to repair cost is affected therefore, some protection is to be taken at
the time of starting.

Now, in today’s context to start such a machine you can have a variable DC supply voltage;
suppose, 220 Volt is the machine rating then you do not apply 220 Volt across the armature
of the machine. You have a variable DC supply voltage with a power electronics converter
slowly increase the applied voltage starting from zero, then there will be absolutely no
problem.

Applied voltage is small, current drawn will be small as the machine picks up speed go on
increasing the voltage and then finally, set it at the rated voltage no problem that is not a
very big issue perhaps in today’s cons context. But nonetheless in earlier days and it is
also some places it is still used at least one starter I will tell you about that is called 3-point
starter which is an electromechanical device to start a DC shunt motor, ok.

762
So, what is a basic idea is this that at the time of starting this voltage is rated. So, I am not
talking about variable DC voltage and that would have been nice, but rated voltage supply
is available and I want to start the DC shunt motor and I know armature resistance is small.
𝑉
So, at the time of starting speed is 0, starting current is , which may be many times larger
𝑟
𝑎

than the rated current that I want to avoid.

So, one solution is; obviously, connect some external resistance in the armature circuit;
connect 𝑅𝑎 external with capital letters this I will indicate 𝑅𝑎 in the armature. So, that the
𝑉 𝑉
starting current then earlier it was 𝑟 was the starting current now it will be 𝑟 . This will
𝑎 𝑎 +𝑅𝑎

be the starting current therefore, you can reduce the starting current substantially by
incorporating at a distance in the armature circuit.

And, as the machine picks up speed then you gradually cut out the armature resistance to
0 this 𝑅𝑎 back to 0. So, that machine will operate at full rated voltage within a rated
armature resistance in the circuit that is the idea.

Now, therefore, I have to connect a connect 𝑅𝑎 and initially at the time of starting and as
motor picks up speed; gradually cut this resistance this 𝑅𝑎 to 0 sort of variable resistance
you connect. So, that is the idea you connect an 𝑅𝑎 initially maximum then gradually cut
it back to 0.So, finally, it will be only small 𝑟𝑎 present in the armature circuit and you can
reduce the armature current drawn from the supply to whatever extent you want you can
do it.

𝑉
Mind you, the field current is that is no problem total field circuit resistance, but the
𝑅𝑓

only problem maybe you cannot reduce it to any number you like because the starting
torque is proportional to product of field current and armature current. If you reduce this
armature current to a very small value then the electromagnetic torque developed by the
machine will not be able to make it start.

If the motor has to start against an opposing load torque that you must see that ok, it is
reduced maybe I will say that whatever is the rated current of the armature I have a
knowledge; suppose, the rated current of the armature is 30 amperes. At least safely it can
take 30 ampere, armature resistance is suppose 0.5Ω and 𝐼𝑎 rated is equal to 30 ampere
say or 20 ampere say just for calculation sake.

763
Then I will say I will and suppose the supply rated voltage is 200 Volt, then I will say that
I want to make the starting current

200
𝐼𝑎 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = 20𝐴𝑚𝑝
0.5 + 𝑅𝑎

Based on that I will be able to calculate 𝑅𝑎 . So, rated current I will pass. So, that the torque
developed by the machine remains high, starting torque should be high; so, from that I can
calculate 𝑅𝑎 . In fact, this 0.5 is so small, so 𝑅𝑎 has to be 10Ω approximately, you connect
and get this done.

Now therefore, the solution is connect an external resistance in the armature circuit then
parallel to its field then give predicted voltage that is the idea, but the problem is not
problem ok, motor is running. Now suppose, the supply goes off because of some problem
on the supply side, supply becomes 0 load shedding then what happens is this machine
will come to a stop; both armature current and field current will become eventually 0. If
supply is switched off and machine will come to a stop and suppose supply comes back it
comes to stop, but before you notice it supply comes back to this circuit with the switch
on, then what will happen? Once again this 𝑅𝑎 external I have made it 0.

𝑉𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
So, once again the current flowing through the armature will be and that is a
𝑟𝑎

dangerous thing. Therefore, if the motor is working in an industry therefore, there must be
always one man present there in such a situation because you do not know anything can
happen supply voltage may just go off. Then after noticing that he will once again bring
this 𝑅𝑎 back to its normal value immediately, because you do not know when supply will
come back. So, that once again things can go, even human intervention is necessary and
human may make mistake he can forget and problems are there.

So, there must be some automatic features not just an array you connect which will not
only allow you to start the motor keeping the armature current at a low value, but at the
same time also protect the machine when the supply goes up. So, one starter which has
been extensively used and also now it is used by some old industries you will find that.
So, that thing I will discuss at least one starter you must understand how people started
DC motor.

764
(Refer Slide Time: 14:31)

So, the circuit is like this what happens is this. These 3-points starter have in a black box
if I put it, this is 3-point starter it is called, interesting its functioning 3-point starter. It will
have three-terminals what is inside this we will see that, but before that I am just trying to
tell. One terminal is marked as A, another terminal is marked as a L, another terminal is
marked as F that is how it will be there.

Now, your DC machine will be like this, it has got armature terminals A 1 A 2 and suppose
its field winding has got terminals F 1 F 2 and you would like to connect some resistance
in the field circuit which you will be able to control. If you want to control speed which I
have not discussed yet, but generally an external resistance is connected in the field circuit,
and you have to connect it as a shunt machine so, these two can be shorted, ok.

Now, this I will parallel it here, now in this starter I will connect it like this. This A I will
connected to one of the armature terminals, this F means field terminal it should be
connected here and this L will go to supply line and this of course, is to be connected to
negative supply like that it is to be connected L F A, understood.

Then what happens is this in this starter here physically it will be like this, it is a black box
only, but here you will find there will be an handle provided where it will be written off,
where it will be written on sometimes here. So, what the operator has to do is this he has
to when it is off it is disconnected he will move this point gradually like this and ultimately
come to this point.

765
There will be several studs here, it will come to on and he releases his hand, removes his
hand machine will continue to run and if supply goes off. He has to do nothing what will
be automatically achieve is this, this handle it will come back to this position immediately
when supply goes off that is the protective feature it takes into account. Now, the big
question is, what is there inside this box? It is like this very interesting in no doubt.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:13)

And suppose this is your armature ok and this is your field winding and these two as I told
you then there may be a field resistance connected then this is on a fixed terminal; this is
your F 1 this is your F 2 and this is A 1 this is A 2 and here are the supply terminals will
be here suppose plus minus.

Now, what is done is this, there are several resistances like this, and from the junctions of
these resistances there are some copper strips comes out; these are copper strips thick
copper strips these bullets are copper strips. So, several resistances are there and it comes
like that. And from this whatever comes out is your that terminal A from the starter, from
the starter three-terminal will come out A, F and L as I indicated earlier. So, it is this A
coming from the starter, I am drawing that box inside what is there. So, this is the armature
thing.

Now, what is done is this, there is a handle here which is insulated from all the electrical
connection because some operator has to move in as I indicated. Now, what is done is this,

766
this part is very interesting here there is a small electromagnet purpose of this will be very
clear like this, ok.

Now, this supply is here suppose plus and from this I will draw this with blue wire this
wire and this is marked as L of the starter, it goes to supply I told you and this
electromagnet a small electromagnetic is present there, it will go there and or very little
turn it comes like this and then this wire is this electrical wire is taken through this handle
inside got the point black one you will touch externally. So, this electrical wire is taking
here and it will be terminated on a copper strip. So, bullets are all copper strips thick copper
strips this is the thing you bring it here.

There will be another copper strip slightly below it and you have a thick copper strip here,
this is also copper strip continuous in the form of an arc. You can easily see when I put the
handle move the handle maybe moved like this way, if you move it this way it can be
moved. If you move it this point will touch this and this point will make this strip life and
this position is the off position of the starter, it will make it life it will make it life. Now,
this from this copper strip comes out your field terminals. In fact, it is there is another
electromagnet here which is I will be showing it like this, ok.

So, it will be it is inside this starter and this wire, this wire comes out like this, it comes
out and this terminal is your F terminal here. So, where are the three terminals A L F; A is
here, L is here and F is here. Now, so field coil is to be connected there in the field that is
what I told, F 1 is to be connected to F, A 1 to A and this goes to supply ok. So, this is
your F and this A 1 is to be connected to A and these two points of course, you have to
connect to the negative supply negative of supply voltage, this is the arrangement.

Now, the interesting part is this one; so, this is the handle blue one is the wire. Since, these
are electromagnets it does something what for we have connected, there is small iron
connected below it. So, that when sufficient current close it will be pulled up, it cannot
remain in just like that whenever there is an electromagnet there will be spring. So that,
when no current it occupies a particular position bull stone, similarly here this
electromagnet, there is a piece of soft iron attached to this soft iron piece, this is also soft
iron; therefore, when this becomes electromagnet it will be pulled up ok, it is like this.

Now, let us see how the things will; forget about this electromagnet first I will tell you,
but now suppose these are the position of the start 1 2 3 4 5 6. What the operator will do,

767
he will start moving this one from left to right. The moment he comes here your armature
gets supply with this external resistance connected in series with the armature; similarly,
your field also will get supply this is live. So, both 𝐼𝑎 and 𝐼𝑓 is present. So, so
electromagnetic torque will be developed, machine will start running.

Now, the operator what he will do he has to cut out the resistance, he will move from stud
number 1 to stud number 2, then to 3 as machine picks up speed, then to 4 5 6 finally, it is
here. And, when it will be here this soft iron piece we will get engaged with this therefore,
this electromagnet will attract this fellow and; obviously, there will be a spring here. So,
the force of this electromagnet and this spring force this spring will be stretched, they will
keep it in that position it cannot be without any spring these are spring no inductor spring,
understood.

So, it goes there it will get engaged your motor will run there. So, in position 6 it is on
position gradually, you go all external resistance now disconnected only 𝑅𝑎 will limit the
current and machine has gained enough speed. So, that you do not worry about the starting
current. Now, the value some of these resistances then can be selected from as I told you
the rated current I would like to pass through the armature at the time of starting and things
like that.

So, when the motor will be running this handle will be in this position and this soft iron
piece is here like that and everything is fine. Now, the purpose of this electromagnet will
be immediately clear, suppose the supply goes off this becomes 0. If the supply goes off,
this field current will also vanish and if this field current vanishes spring will bring back
this handle from this position to this position immediately I mean no time lag, that is why
this coiled is open called NVRC.

NVRC means no volt release coil; no volt no supply voltage no volt release coil it will
release the handle to come back to off position. Therefore, there is nothing left for chances
that once again it must come back to off position that is what I want because then when
supply once again comes in there is a for few seconds supply goes off then it will come
back by that time. So, one knows pretty well one has to go through the same process to
start this. So, this is called NVRC.

Now, what is this fellow doing, this electromagnet what is the purpose? This electromagnet
is like this it its name is OLRC; OLRC called the Over Load Release Coil; Over Load

768
Release Coil. What is it every starter for any motor induction motor or DC motor apart
from limiting the starting current it will have some protective features. For example, one
protective feature in case of DC motor is; obviously, must be there supply may go off
anytime you do not know. So, NVRC takes care of that; it protects the motor from
restarting with full voltage, ok.

Overload release coil it is also an electromagnet and this you know is essentially the sum
of the armature and the field current this current in a shunt motor. This current is what?
Line current. Line current is what? It is equal to 𝐼𝑎 plus this is continuous copper strip; this
is continuous copper strip field current in any case much smaller than armature current.
So, this is the major of armature current; armature current is decided by whom by the load
present on the shaft of the motor suppose there is an overloading takes place in the motor,
then also you would like to stop the machine is not you have to you would like to stop the
machine.

So, what you will be doing is this, but you want to stop the machine with the help of the
starter, how it can come to a stop? It can come to a stop provided the handle is released
from this fellow it will come to off position that is what you need to do, how this can be
done, it is done so nicely. What is done with this armature you imagine there is a handle
extended handle and there is a copper strip here it is attached to this a thick copper strip.

Thick copper strip is attached to this handle, what all you have to do is these to bring back
the handle from the on to the off position quickly somehow you have to de energize this
coil. If you make this current in this NVRC 0 you are just assured spring this spring will
bring back this handle to the off position that is what I want.

So, what is done is this a little bit of wiring is done, you from this h and from the two
terminals of this NVRC you bring these two terminals here. So, that it is not touching this
two when normal condition prevails up to rated current, the force is not sufficient to
overcome the spring a spring tension to pull it up.

So, these two are open circuited normally open condition and therefore, everything is fine
it was working. Now, suppose this current exceeds to a large value because of overloading
or whatever reason then what will happen, this force of this electromagnetic we will pull
up this soft iron piece up and it will go up and we will touch these two terminals.

769
So, how can you make current through a particular coil 0, two ways you can do; you
remove the current from the coil or you put a short circuit across the coil then all the
currents will be bypassed, this is precisely what is done here. Everything is working fine,
started the motor on position then overload takes place what do I mean by overload, when
this armature current becomes pretty large above the rated current.

In that case, this current will be also be high and it is so designed this gap, it will be pulled
up before that spring was preventing that it will go up, this copper strip will go up it will
short circuit these two points. Therefore, this field current will now has to flow like this,
but the moment it does so, this current becomes 0 and if this current becomes 0, it cannot
keep this handle in the on position spring will bring back this handled to off position.

So, you see this is a very popular starter, it was used a considerably I mean earlier days or
even in some old establishments, you will find this sort of starter is connected and it gives
you two protections; one is no volt protection supply may go off anytime you do not know.
So that, no one can start the motor without connecting this external resistance this is 𝑅𝑎
external. It will be released that is why, it is called overload release, no volt release coil it
is in series with the field current.

(Refer Slide Time: 36:59)

There are improved version on this there is a four point starter we will not discuss that I
mean no point. In fact, what happens is these two this I will mention at later stage, at least
one starter you have got some idea because this is very interesting to know how electrical

770
electromechanical systems can be used so efficiently, it is a very robust starter do not worry
about that. And so 3-points starter it is; 3-point starter for shunt motor. So, I conclude
today and we will continue with then speed control of DC motors from our next lectures.

Thank you.

771
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 80
Speed Control of Shunt Motor – I

Welcome to 80th lecture on Electrical Machines I and we were discussing about DC

motors particularly, shunt and separately excited motor for the time being. And last time I
told you that for any motor there are at least 3 things we should have ideas; one is about
the starting of the machine, then the speed control and then electrical breaking.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:46)

Last time I told you about a very popular; it is to be a very popular starter for shunt motor.
The ideas were given starter is a device which protects the machine from very high current
drawn at the time of starting, because of the absence of any back EMF. So, you insert a
resistance in series with the armature, then gradually cut out and finally, it will be running
with full voltage across it is armature and field supply.

In case of any overload takes place this electromagnet will take care of that and if under
voltage; under voltage or no volt phenomena takes place then this electromagnet will work,
I think we have discussed that.

772
(Refer Slide Time: 01:49)

Today we will study this speed control aspects, speed control of DC shunt and separately
excited motor, right. In fact, DC motors were very popular in fact; so, far as speed control
of the machine is concerned. Earlier it is competitor was I mean, induction motor could
never compete with DC motors so far as speed control thing is concerned.

Because, of the fact in earlier days it was only 50Hz supply available, speed control of
induction motor was difficult either you use multiple separate stator windings to produce
different number of poles and complicated; induction motor was considered to be a
constant speed motor. It was DC motor where we will see right now that speed control can
be achieved rather easily and smoothly without practically any complicated circuit
arrangements that is the thing.

So, first to we will discuss about and basically the speed control are of two types. So, one
is a control in the armature circuit, control of armature voltage and two, control of field
current, control of field current. Now, control of armature voltage once again there were
two methods; one is the armature resistance control, armature resistance control or
armature voltage control.

Field current of course, you control the field current of the machine so, this armature
resistance control means, you connect some 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 in the armature circuit and vary it speed
will change. Now, let us first try to understand this method let us see what is going to
happen? Suppose you have a shunt motor like this and here is the field circuit and when I

773
will be controlling the armature resistance I will not touch the field circuit, field current
will I will keep constant it means that.

So, this is the thing. This is your field circuit and here is your external armature resistance;
𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 and with 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 I connect these two in parallel and here is the supply given to the
machine, ok. And this 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 resistance I will make it variable so, that machine will operate
at different speed. First of all when 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0 that is no external resistance is connected,
but machine has it is own 𝑟𝑎 inherent armature resistance.

When it runs with some speed rps, then rps or rpm whatever it is; the basic equation how
speed is related with various quantities is governed by the armature KVL equation, ok.
Armature KVL equations; which is equal to the applied voltage across the armature this is
𝐼𝑙 line current drawn from the source and this is connected in parallel, this is field current
and this current is the armature current 𝐼𝑎 . And, we already know that applying KCL at
that point, ok

𝐼𝑙 = 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑓

And, this is your back EMF. 𝐸𝑏 this battery with this polarity; therefore, KVL equation in
the armature circuit we have written many a times is equal to

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑎 (𝑟𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 ) + 𝐸𝑏

Since I am taking 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0, it is equal to

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 + 𝐸𝑏

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 + 𝐾𝜑𝑛𝑟

This I could express in terms of 𝜔𝑟 also in any unity you like you represent it.

Now, this is the applied voltage to the machine; applied voltage is the rated voltage of the
machine. Therefore, I will say that

𝑉 𝑟𝑎
𝑛𝑟 = − 𝐼
𝐾𝜑 𝐾𝜑 𝑎

This is the speed, how it depends on armature current, how it depends on armature
resistance and how it is depends on field current? Are all represented here in this equation

774
that is the thing. Now, suppose what is this armature current? The value of the armature
current we know is decided by whom? Decided by the mechanical load you have put on
the shaft.

More the opposing torque, electromagnetic torque is to be made higher therefore, more
armatures current will be drawn and in the steady state low torque is equal to
electromagnetic torque. Therefore, if you increase the mechanical load torque on the shaft
of the machine armature current will rise. If opposing torque is zero, then armature current
ideally will be zero. Because no mechanical load is to be supplied; so, this is the equation.

The torque developed by the machine, electromagnetic torque developed by the machine;
is some I will write some

𝑇𝑒 = 𝐾𝑇 𝜑𝐼𝑎 = 𝑇𝐿

I do not know whether these two constants are same or not we can decide. And that is
equal to is load torque; more the load torque is 𝜑 constant 𝐼𝑎 will be more for steady state
operation. So, this is the these are the two equations we will be using to understand how
speed control is achieved in a decision motor.

Now, suppose with 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0 if I want to sketch; how speed varies with respect to armature
current? If 𝜑 is constant, then this also will represent electromagnetic torque. Therefore,
𝑉
the speed of the machine when 𝐼𝑎 = 0 is equal to here that is 𝐾𝜑 is not; that is the no load

speed which is equal to suppose some 𝑛0 , no load speed with 𝐼𝑎 = 0 whatever is this speed.

𝑉
𝑛0 =
𝐾𝜑

Because I know if 𝐼𝑎 = 0, 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 , then only 𝐼𝑎 = 0.

𝑉 − 𝐸𝑏
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑟𝑎

Whatever is 𝑟𝑎 . So, if so,

𝑉 = 𝐾𝜑𝑛0

775
Now, if you go on increasing the shaft load torque, then what will happen? This equation
tells you that speed will drop this is your 𝑛0 .

No load from that it will drop it depends on 𝐼𝑎 and the slope of the line depends on 𝑟𝑎
which is small; therefore, the variation of speed may be like this as the load torque or
armature current is increased, the speed will droop have a drooping characteristic. And
that drooping characteristics will be like a straight line as this equation suggest

𝑦 = 𝑐 − 𝑚𝑥

𝑟
𝑎
What will be the slope of this line? Slope of this line is decided by 𝐾𝜑 , 𝑟𝑎 is small therefore,

it will be small.

Suppose the rated current of the machine is this much, I load the machine go on loading
the machine, go on imposing more and more shaft load torque armature current will rise.
Of course, I should not exceed its rated current suppose you reach the rated current; at that
time the machine is going to run at this speed, suppose the rated speed it is, 𝑛𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 nominal
speed of the machine is this much.

Therefore, what we observe here that if a DC shunt motor; field current is held constant,
𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0 then from no load to full load, speed will change by this much amount and this
amount is very little, because of the fact 𝑟𝑎 is small, had 𝑟𝑎 would have been 0 then it would
have remain same. Therefore the change of speed from no load to the full load condition
is called the speed regulation of the machine. And, in case of shunt motor the change of
speed from no load to full load is only little, if you do not touch field current therefore, it
is called a constant speed machine.

And, this is not the speed control it is the natural speed change of the machine as you
change the degree of loading that is all; this is not speed control. Now so, we have now
understood that how speed drops from no load fixed value to the rated current condition
which is very little and that is why sometimes shunt motors are also called constant speed
motor from no load to full load variation of speed is little, ok.

Now, what is speed control means? Speed control is when the machine operates at this
rated current it is supplying some mechanical load, how much is that load? 𝑇𝐿 is how
much?

776
 𝑇⏟𝐿 = 𝑇⏟𝑒 = 𝐾𝜑 𝐼⏟𝑎
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

This is the load torque. 𝑇𝑒 steady state operating point is nothing, but also load torque here
therefore, this axis could be 𝐼𝑎 as well as representing your load torque this much is the
load torque, this much is this speed.

Now, by speed control I mean, suppose opposing load torque is constant, can I run it at
different speed. Got the point I will keep this load torque constant, suppose load torque
constant it is now running at the speed, load torque remaining constant can I run it at
different speed that is called speed control.

Of course, so, you will see that we will remove this restriction clearly is constant later, but
what understanding first let us assume, the load torque on the shaft of the machine is
constant and I want to run the machine at different different rpm; the answer is yes, I can
do that. What I will do? I will connect an external resistance.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:46)

So, let load torque is constant, ok. Load torque 𝑇𝐿 and this is the circuit diagram, I will just
take this circuit diagram here so, that I do not have to do. So, this is the same diagram let
me put it here and armature and field. Now, I will not make 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 zero, suppose machine
this is the general equation of the armature voltage 𝑉 = 𝐾𝜑𝑛 + 𝐼𝑎 (𝑟𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 ). Now, let us
try to understand why speed will change rather physically what is happening?

777
You just see that, suppose this 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 I will make a circuit like this; there is a switch here
like this and this switch is closed initially this is your 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 , you have switched on of course,
taken care so, that the starting current is limited and all this things, but finally, the machine
has to run with full voltage, but this is shorted. Then what will be operating point?
Operating point will be here this is the no load speed, it changes this is suppose 𝐼𝑎 rated
and machine is running at this speed, is not.

This is with 𝑟𝑎 this is the characteristics why? Because 𝑛 we have seen that is equal to

𝑉 (𝑟𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 )
𝑛𝑟 = − 𝐼𝑎
𝐾𝜑 𝐾𝜑

This is the thing. If and this characteristics is with 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0. Now, what I will do is this?
So, machine is running at what speed now? With this switch on, with the load torque
present on the shaft, this is 𝐼𝑎 or torque.

So, this is the load torque, this line is also load torque, constant load torque. And, this axis
is speed axis speed this is no load speed as I told you Anyway and this is the full load
speed; with no external resistance so, the intersection point of intersection of the speed
torque characteristics of the motor and load they decides what will be the operating point
now? It is this point this is the load torque and load torque demand is constant no matter
what is this speed it has nothing to do with your motor.

It is the characteristics of the load; that means you want to run that load at 100 rpm,
whatever torque will be required same torque will be required; if you want to run it at 500
rpm and so on. So, a constant load torque; so, this is the load characteristics, load torque
speed characteristics. So, a constant load torque.

So, so this point of intersection is this one that is all. Now, you imagine listen carefully,
first mathematics live it aside suppose now it is running fine at this rpm I open the switch.
So, that 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 is suddenly inserted into the circuit the switch is opened. So, armature
resistance will change instantaneously from the values 𝑟𝑎 to the new values (𝑟𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 ) it
will change, can speed change instantaneously no, it has got a inertia, supply voltage is
held fixed.

Therefore, suppose I write it like this suppose; at machine is running steadily at this point
at 𝑡 = 0 that time, S is opened, switch is opened. So, that armature resistance suddenly

778
becomes (𝑟𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 ). That is at 𝑡 = 0 + after you have executed this immediately after
that what is happening?

Armature resistance becomes this. Speed will be how much at 𝑡 = 0 +? It will be same as
full load speed (𝑛𝑓𝑙 ), speed cannot change instantaneously so, this is speed. Supply voltage
is of course, fixed. So, 𝑉 is constant all along so, at 𝑡 = 0 + also it is 𝑉. Therefore, the
armature current at time 𝑡 = 0 +, this will be

𝑉 − 𝐸𝑏 (0 +)
𝐼𝑎 (0 +) =
𝑟𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡

𝑉 − 𝐸𝑏 (0 −)
𝐼𝑎 (0 −) =
𝑟𝑎

𝐸𝑏 (0 +) = 𝐸𝑏 (0 −)

𝑛(0 +) = 𝑛(0 −) = 𝑛𝑓𝑙

Can 𝐸𝑏 changed at 0+. No, because at 𝑡 = 0 + speed remains same and 𝜑 is constant I
have not touched field circuit 𝜑 is constant. Therefore, 𝐸𝑏 (0 +) = 𝐸𝑏 (0 −) divided by
(𝑟𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 ). So, what thing will change? Denominator for the armature current; so,
𝐼𝑎 (0 +) must drop down armature current immediately decreases.

So, in the machine at 𝑡 = 0 + if armature current decreases electromagnetic torque which

is product of field current and armature current flux and the armature current,
electromagnet torque will decease and load torque I am telling it is constant. Therefore, at
𝑡 = 0 + situation is like this; this is the motor, this is suppose the direction of rotation, this
is the direction of electromagnetic torque in case of motor and this is the load torque 𝑇𝐿 in
opposition.

So, at 𝑡 = 0 + I find there will be an upset between 𝑇𝐿 and 𝑇𝑒 they will not balance at 𝑡 =
0 +. In fact,

𝑡 = 0+, 𝑇𝑒 < 𝑇𝐿

𝑇𝐿 is held constant mechanical load, that opposing torque I will not change. Therefore,
what the machine is going to do? Machine will decelerate therefore, machine will start
decelerate after 𝑡 = 0 +.

779
So, motor starts decelerating that is speed starts dropping from 𝑛𝑓𝑙 at 𝑡 = 0 + it remains
𝑛𝑓𝑙 , but then it starts dropping it has to 𝑛𝑓𝑙 decelerating that is speed of the machine will
decrease will start decreasing. Now, if speed decreases flux constant so, this I have I am
not now changing, (𝑟𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 ) I have kept it. So, back EMF must decrease, if back EMF
decreases armature current which became less at 𝑡 = 0 + must increase.

Therefore, if 𝐼𝑎 increases a time will soon come, it will draw enough armature current such
that electromagnetic torque becomes once again equal to load torque therefore, at what
value of armature current? Once again this two will be fixed once again the same armature
current which was flowing under steady state condition before you inserted this 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 .

So, finally, the armature current will not change of course, during that dynamic process if
you want to analyze what is going on when you have suddenly inserted an 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 ? The thing
is that cannot change instantaneously, back EMF remains same, supply voltage is fixed.
𝑉−𝐸𝑏
Only thing resistance in the circuit is increased; so, so, current will decrease, if
𝑟𝑎 +𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡

current decreases the electromagnetic torque decreases.

So, load torque becomes more than electromagnetic torque at 𝑡 = 0 + machine will
decelerate it is speed will fall. And, if speed starts falling, then once again armature current
𝑉−𝐸𝑏
starts increasing because 𝑟 is the current.
𝑎 +𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡

And, you leave it to the motor; motor will seek it is new operating point; it will stop further
decrease in speed. Once 𝑇𝐿 = 𝐾𝜑𝐼𝑎 . Therefore, in case of armature control, we note one
interesting thing; that armature current in steady state in between it might have changed as
I have explained to you. In steady state once again it will draw same armature current;
because 𝜑 you are not touching and load torque is remaining same.

So, it will be running at reduced speed, but supplying the same load torque. Now, what
about these characteristics now? Now, let us come to this characteristics, so with external
resistance incorporated in this characteristics will be like this, because slope of this line is
decided that I have increased 𝑟𝑎 by (𝑟𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 ).

So, 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 here it was zero and this is with (𝑟𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 ). Therefore, operating point load
torque will be here and you see this is 𝐼𝑎 rated as sorry so, this point is 𝐼𝑎 rated suppose
so, it will run at reduce speed. So, this is speed control, ok. You are supplying same load

780
torque, but at reduced speed therefore, you can draw a family of curves if you have
connected slightly less armature resistance operating point would have been here.

Increase the armature resistance it will be here. So, speed can be controlled very smoothly
just control this 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 . In fact, you can control up to the zero speed to the rated speed
supplying this same load torque, very low rpm to rated rpm for a constant load torque
present on the shaft of the machine. Very smooth thing here just control this resistance
only thing you have to connected external resistance there.

Only one point I would like to tell that this method is not at all efficient method, because
of what? Suppose the rated current you have purchased a DC motor, rated current of the
armature is suppose 20 Amp you will always love to see the armature current is maintained
20 ampere suppose it was operating here with no external resistance how much current it
was drawing? 20 Amp.

As you go on connecting external resistance still armature current will be 20 ampere drawn
and you will love it ok, I have spent money and this motor is capable of carrying 20 ampere
armature current, then let it carry 20 ampere all along that is very good, 20 ampere. But
that rated current will cause extra power loss in this 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 .

So, the system becomes very inefficient 𝐼𝑎2 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 , is not. Therefore, this is not an efficient
not efficient at all, not an efficient method. We will continue with this in the next lecture.

Thank you.

781
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 81
Speed Control of Shunt Motor – II

(Refer Slide Time: 00:26)

Welcome to the next lecture and we have been discussing very important and interesting
topics on DC motor speed control, and how we have taken up first shunt and separately
excited machine. So, if you want to control the speed of the machine, by connecting an
external resistance in the armature circuit here that is 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 . Then the operating point, steady
operating point will be the point of intersection of the electromagnetic torque.

Torque versus speed characteristics of the machine, speed we plot on the y-axis and torque
or armature current on the x-axis. And I am not touching the field current rated flux it is
operating then, the operating point with no external resistance will be here. There will be
a small drop in speed that is why shunt motor from no load to full load variation of speed
is very little, that is called speed regulation.

But, if you want to control the speed down to zero by connecting an external resistance in
the armature circuit that you can do. Because, the torque speed characteristic, of the DC
motor can be modified. And if it is constant a load torque, you can run it at different speed.
Down to zero speed even, it is moved to control very nice method apparently but it is not

782
at all efficient. Because the armature will always draw rated current and 𝐼𝑎2 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 will be the
huge power loss in the armature circuit.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:25)

So, what is the next good method? Next good method will be to armature control only I
will do armature side control, but armature voltage I will change. The moment I say I will
change the armature voltage applied, then it must be a separately exited motor. That is
same shunt machine what I will do is this is your armature circuit and this is your field
circuit. And the field circuit, I will pass constant current whatever it is 𝐼𝑓 . So, this method
is armature voltage control.

Mind you, earlier method should not be told armature voltage control. Armature voltage
is fixed external; sometimes students get confused armature control ok, but here I am
connecting external resistance; somebody may say ok, you are applying lesser voltage in
the armature circuit because of this drop but that is not the good way of telling. Because,
I am my armature circuit voltage applied is fixed, I have changing external value of the
resistance connected in the armature.

If you say it is armature voltage control it should be like this that is, I will not connect any
external resistance. This is your back EMF 𝐸𝑏 , this is your plus minus, this voltage I now
call because it is separately excited it has to be if you want to control the armature voltage
field I will not touch constant field current at rated current. So, that it produces flux 𝜑 and
it is drawing a current of 𝐼𝑎 .

783
So, once again then the KVL equation in the armature circuit in the same way it is

𝑉𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎

𝑉𝑎 = 𝐾𝜑𝑛 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎

Speed of the machine is suppose 𝑛. No 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 I am connecting. Then your speed will be
equal to

𝑉𝑎 𝑟𝑎
𝑛= − 𝐼
𝐾𝜑 𝐾𝜑 𝑎

This will be the basic equation. Now, this armature voltage I will control. Now, what will
be the range of the control of the voltage?

Suppose it is a 220V DC motor, then the maximum voltage you will apply is 220 Volt.
Definitely not a voltage you will apply across the armature greater than 220 volt then the
rating of the machine will be exceeded so far as voltage is concerned. So, its highest limit
variation of 𝑉𝑎 I am telling rated voltage from I will control this voltage 𝑉𝑎 from rated value
down to say zero, like that very small voltage, that is that will be the range of variation of
𝑉𝑎 straight. I should not apply a voltage greater than rated value; because its rating will be
exceeded, there will be insulation problem things like that. If it is a 220 Volt machine range
of variation of 𝑉𝑎 will be between say 0 volt to 220 volt any way that is fine.

Also let load torque 𝑇𝐿 is constant therefore, if you find the machine is running steadily
with some applied voltage. You are sure that electromagnetic torque produced by the
machine is also this much, that you know by this time always think in that way. Now, let
us try to see the characteristics of the machine. Speed I will sketch on the y axis speed and
here on the x axis I will sketch 𝐼𝑎 or electromagnetic torque developed by the machine,
which is equal to 𝐾𝑇 𝜑𝐼𝑎 . 𝜑 I will keep constant, this is constant 𝜑 is not changing.

Therefore, suppose at no load 𝐼𝑎 = 0 therefore, no load speed is equal to

𝑉𝑎
𝑛0 =
𝐾𝜑

Now, this is the thing, suppose this is the rated current of the armature 𝐼𝑎 rated.
Corresponding to this rated torque will be 𝐾𝑇 𝜑𝐼𝑎 in newton meter. So, this vertical line is

784
the mechanical load characteristics mind you speed versus torque. How much torque your
load demands so, that it can run at a given speed. It has nothing to do with your electrical
motor; it is its own separate characteristics.

Now for the motor you know this is 𝑛0 ; suppose you have applied rated voltage, if 𝑉𝑎 rated
suppose this is 𝑉𝑎 rated corresponding to that this is 𝑛0 . Then as we have seen, if you
increase the load torque, this speed will fall and it will operate at this rpm which is 𝑛𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
suppose, got the point. That is this characteristics is drawn with 𝑉𝑎 rated applied voltage is
on rated voltage. So, there is a speed regulation this is not speed control and this is load
torque. So, operating point will be here very close to the no load speed slightly less than
that. May be speed regulation is within 5% or so with respect to this no load voltage.

Now, what I will do is this; I will reduce this armature voltage to a lesser value; because
there is no scope for increasing the voltage beyond rated value. So, only thing I can do is
I go on applying if it is a 220 Volt machine, then I will reduce the voltage to 200 Volt may
be then 180 Volt like that this armature voltage because of this. So, you reduce the voltage
first let us try to understand what is happening in the machine. Initially this is the operating
point with rated voltage, suppose suddenly you reduce the voltage to a lesser value. If you
reduce this armature voltage, you see armature current is equal to

𝑉 − 𝐸𝑏
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑟𝑎

𝑉 − 𝐾𝜑𝑛
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑟𝑎

This is the expression for the armature current. Now, what I am telling it is initially running
steadily everything 𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝑙 , drawing this much armature current running at this rpm 𝜑.
You now imagine voltage is slightly reduced. If you reduce the voltage and that time you
call 𝑡 = 0. At 𝑡 = 0 + immediately after you have reduced this voltage, what is going to
happen?

Armature current will decrease because 𝐸𝑏 cannot change instantaneously 𝜑 is fixed and
speed cannot change instantaneously. Therefore, back EMF at 𝑡 = 0 + remains what it
was at 𝑡 = 0 − and therefore, armature current will decrease, if armature current decreases
electromagnetic torque developed by the machine will decrease.

785
If electromagnetic torque decreases but I have assumed load torque is constant. Therefore,
load torque will exceed the electromagnetic torque and this two act in opposition so speed
will fall. If speed falls; will speed fall indefinitely no, as speed falls then armature current
𝑉−𝐸𝑏
starts building up ; 𝐸𝑏 falls armature current once again increases.
𝑟𝑎

Finally, motor will seek a find a steady operating point such that, once again same armature
current is drawn; so, as to match the electromagnetic torque but it will run at a reduced
speed. Now the question is, this is the characteristic with 𝑉𝑎 rated what this characteristics
will look like if 𝑉𝑎 is reduced.

In case of 𝑟𝑎 it was like this from the same point, but you see the no load speed depend
𝑉
upon 𝑛0 = 𝐾𝜑. Therefore, this characteristics will shift parallel to this, is not. And this
𝑎 𝑟
slope of this variation almost it will remain parallel remains same 𝐾𝜑 ; 𝐾𝜑 is constant 𝑟𝑎 is

constant it will be like this.

So, 𝑉𝑎 decreasing this way, and operating point will be at reduced speed here. Further
reduce this voltage it will be like this, further reduce the voltage it will be like this got the
point. Similarly, you can run the same motor supplying a constant load torque at various
speeds and machine will continue to draw rated current and it will run at different speed.

𝑉
What is this no load speed, this no load speed is whatever is the 𝑉𝑎 applied, that 𝐾𝜑, is not

that will be the thing. Therefore, no load speed itself changes and you can once again it is
a smooth control of speed of the motor only thing you require a variable DC supply
voltage. Now, in earlier days to have a variable DC supply voltage itself was a problem.
You know, because transformer using transformer auto transformer for a from a fixed AC
voltage you can get variable magnitude AC output voltage, how simple it is, but in case of
DC supply it is not so ok. Of course, nowadays it is also not a problem, because what you
do is this, you have AC supply that is why DC motors are still in use.

This armature control what you do, your AC supply is there, because I told you, DC
generation is also not there. So, what you will be doing? AC supply is there, use a rectifier
block controlled rectifier block and get variable DC here. It is SCR based say converter
AC to DC converter. And then that voltage you applied to the armature very nice or may

786
be AC first make it DC then you some chopper circuit buck converter to vary the voltage
at is.

Nowadays, it is so simple. What is the advantage of this method? With respect to the
previous one, no external resistance I am carrying. And when you do this armature voltage
control for a constant load torque, what is this ammeter reading? Ammeter reading will
remain same at its rated value; of course, during the transient period when the machine is
looking for the new operating point I m a change.

But finally, at the steady state point armature current will remain constant at rated values.
And that is what we always try to see DC motor 20 Amp is the rated current, let it carry
always rated current. No point in running the machine to carry 10 Amp current all along,
what is the point? So, rated current machine is fully loaded, but still you are supplying a
constant load torque at various RPM.

Down to zero speed even is not, you can select characteristics like that. Therefore, armature
voltage control method is very efficient method and smooth variation of speed you can
get. Earlier days before this rectifiers were used, what people oh that I will tell later, Ward
Leonard method was very popular that I will tell you. To get a variable DC voltage you
purchase another DC generator and connect it here.

Dedicated DC generator to supply this motor vary the field current of that generator to get
variable voltage. This I will just give you a block diagram at later stage. But now, it is
unthinkable I mean to control the speed of a DC motor by armature voltage variation what
I am telling that purchase another DC generator and connect it here separately excited DC
generator vary the field current of that so, that this armature voltage could be controlled.
That is not a good proposition cost of the thing will just go many times higher another.

And DC generator if it is you require a prime mover may be a induction motor. So, you
require not only a DC generator, but also another AC motor. Assuming AC supply is only
available that was the case in earlier days only supply available is this AC. So, this I will
just draw in a block diagram.

787
(Refer Slide Time: 21:31)

So, what you do? You connected induction motor, three-phase induction motor couple it
to a DC generator and make itself excited. Its field current you will be able to vary, got the
point but idea is very simple, these the generator general. Therefore, prime mover is you
are this induction motor, prime mover three phase supply AC supply earlier days this was
the situation three phase supply, prime mover connected to the shaft of the generator,
separately excited generator what is this voltage? This voltage is 𝐾𝜑𝑛 at whatever speed
it is running.

And then this voltage you apply to your motor whose speed you want to control. And this
motor is also made separately excited, it has got its own field plus minus, it will produce
flux. And, this voltage what I am telling in the previous diagram 𝑉𝑎 ; I will be able to control
by varying the field current.

Induction motor also it is almost a constant speed machine; therefore, where is this field
current, get various values of armature voltage and do it. Therefore, to control this speed
of this DC motor by armature applied voltage control method, what you need? This scheme
tells you that you require another DC generator, and not only that and other DC AC motors
to drive the generator, a very involved arrangement. Simply you wanted to control the
speed of this DC motor.

Now, what I am telling those days are gone, no nobody is going to invest so much money
what you doing is this now motor, because otherwise it is a very nice method, what you

788
do? This whole thing will be replaced by AC supply may be single phase supply, then a
block AC to DC converter and then apply it to this, AC to DC converter could be a rectifier
bridge controlled rectifier bridge with thyristor or it could be some DC to DC chopper
circuit.

In case of DC to DC chopper circuit what you do, this is the thing supply plus minus have
a rectifier bridge; diode bridge rectifier fixed DC voltage. You will get from the output
and then DC to DC converter and motor field is separately excited of course, that is all. It
do not require bulky machines, it will occupy space, cost this that a small converter it will
do. That is why DC motors are still in use and this is how armature voltage control method
can be used.

Now, I will make one comment here that armature resistance in both this method armature
resistance; armature resistance control which of course we will not be using. We know it
is inefficient armature resistance control and armature voltage control. In both this method
𝐼𝑎 remains constant I am sorry, 𝐼𝑎 remains constant at constant load torque. So, if your
load torque is full load torque then 𝐼𝑎 will be, 𝐼𝑎 rated and that is very good one good thing
about that, ok.

So, I will come to this point a little later that is suppose the load torque is not constant, ok.
Let me make that comment also. So, that you understand what it is. Suppose your load
torque is constant at rated value and it is 𝐼𝑎 rated, ok. And I put a condition load torque is
constant these are the operating point. Suppose I say that these an interesting point so, that
you can analyze on your own what is going on.

789
(Refer Slide Time: 27:52)

Suppose they what I am trying to tell, this is this speed this is 𝐼𝑎 or torque that is fine. This
the no load speed 𝑉𝑎 rated and this is suppose 𝐼𝑎 rated, machine is operating here. Now,
suppose I say that I will reduce the voltage and also increases the load torque; I mean I
should be why I putted restriction on that that is what I am telling.

Suppose I reduce the voltage, armature applied voltage reduce the armature applied
voltage, but also along with load torque demand is increase load torque demand and also
load torque is a. Mind you in case of electro magnetic torque developed by the machine is
𝐾𝜑𝐼𝑎 . If you increase the load torque on the shaft of the machine, 𝜑 is constant 𝐼𝑎 must be
more than what it was at this point.

Therefore if you increase the load torque, the motor is going to draw a current which will
be greater than the rated current machine will be overloaded, is not. And if you reduce the
voltage, your new operating point it will run at a lesser speed no doubt, but it will draw
higher current. And if you are earlier steady state operating point was drawing rated current
it is bound to draw a current which is greater than rated current.

See, in between what is happening, I am not interested in steady state I know this much,
electromagnetic torque and load torque has to be same. Therefore, this armature voltage
control method is most suited for constant load torque demand. If the load torque is
constant, corresponding to that rated current its current will not increase, armature current
will be detected. That is what this point, this point it will go like this.

790
But if you say, it will run at reduced speed but torque demand is more then operating point
will shift here. This is the new increase load torque got the point. Therefore, armature
voltage control method or armature resistance control method. Both this method will be
most suited for constant load torque, because then everything is so nice, at rated current
always I will pass and I will be running the load at different speed I am controlling the
speed.

In case of armature resistance control this was the situation, rated current it will run this
speed. If somebody says no I have increased this was the rated torque load torque suddenly
increases to this value. Then this is being current or torque it will run here, but machine
will be over loaded. If this is rated current, this current run will be much higher; because
you are not touching flux got the point. Therefore, armature voltage control is most suited
for constant load torque.

So, this method is adopted to supply a load whose torque demands remains constant
nothing is better than that. Armature current rated value, rated torque and let that torque
remains constant, you will be able to run at different rpm and so on.

Therefore, you see this armature voltage method of control is can be done either by
connecting external armature resistance like this, but this is not good inefficient. So,
armature voltage control which is a very nice methods smooth control. And compared to
other days nowadays the variation of armature applied voltage can be achieved not by big-
big machines externally to be connected to your motor.

This is the motor I want to control the speed. Now, connect a converter have some control
so that these applied voltage can be varied and wherever constant load torque is to be
supplied at of this method, that is what the ultimate conclusion of this method. So, we will
continue with this.

Thank you.

791
 Electrical Machines- I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 82
Speed Control of Shunt Motor - III

Welcome to this lecture and we have been discussing about the Speed Control of DC
motor. We discussed in the earlier lectures, the speed control of the DC motor by
controlling its armature voltage or by connecting some external resistances in the armature
circuit. If, it is to be controlled by armature voltage method, then field circuit should be
separated and, you apply a variable DC voltage. Armature resistance control is inefficient,
so armature voltage is a nice method and you can control this speed down to zeros very
smoothly and this is done.

And, this method of speed control is most suited for the load, whose torque demand is
constant at various rpms that is what I told. Now, today I will discuss about another
interesting method that is the field control.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:23)

Field control, that is also called 𝐼𝑓 field current control, 𝐼𝑓 control. And, I will also restrict
our discussion till now on DC shunt motor or separately excited motor whenever it will be
necessary. Since, you will be controlling the field current therefore, the circuit adopted is

792
like this, this is your armature ok. And, this your field circuit, here I will connect supply
and this is the thing these are connected parallel and here a constant voltage is applied.

This time, what I will do? I will control the field current by varying some external
resistance connected in the circuit. So, that these flux per pole I will be controlling, ok.
This is what I will do? In this case to understand first before I write down the equation, in
the same way let us try to see physically what is going to happen. One thing is cleared here
it is 𝑟𝑎 and 𝐸𝑏 , suppose the machine is running steadily at some constant rpm drawing
some armature current 𝐼𝑎 .

And, field current is set to some values so, that it is drawing 𝐼𝑓 , field current. Now, in this
case once again the equation remain same, you have to start with the armature KVL
equation applied voltage. This time this armature voltage I am not varying so,

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 + 𝐸𝑏

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 + 𝐾𝜑𝑛

Also I will not play with no external resistance in the armature circuit, neither I am varying
the voltage applied across the armature. This time, I will be varying the flux this quantity
I am varying and

𝑉 𝑟𝑎
𝑛= − 𝐼
𝐾𝜑 𝐾𝜑 𝑎

And, remember the electromagnetic torque developed by the machine is equal to

𝑇𝑒 = 𝐾𝑇 𝜑𝐼𝑎

No matter what you are controlling this is the rule for electromagnetic torque. Now,
suppose I say that the machine is operating steadily, this axis is 𝐼𝑎 , I say and this is the
speed. Suppose, field current was rated field current initially operating point, so that the
𝑉
no load speed was here suppose and no load speed was . And, let us say that initial
𝐾𝜑1

operating point all the quantities are like this

𝑉 𝑟𝑎
𝑛1 = − 𝐼
𝐾𝜑1 𝐾𝜑1 𝑎1

793
 𝑇𝑒1 = 𝐾𝑇 𝜑1 𝐼𝑎1

So, what I am telling machine is running steadily at some field flux say 𝜑1 , speed is 𝑛1 ,
then applied voltage is 𝑉 which is held fixed from this I get these values. Therefore, at that
value of field current, this characteristics if I draw, suppose this is the no load speed. So,
𝑉
it will be 𝐾𝜑 .
1

𝑟
And, then it is characteristics if you increase the current will be like this slope is 𝐾𝜑𝑎 . And,
1

suppose it is the load torque; suppose, load torque is constant 𝑇𝐿 constant. Then operating
point will be here and this is suppose and the speed at which the machine will be running
way is this one, this is the thing, ok. Now, what we will be doing? So,

𝑇𝐿 = 𝑇𝑒1 = 𝐾𝑇 𝜑1 𝐼𝑎1

This is the equation it is running here.

Let us assume that this current whatever it is the rated current of the machine, ok. It is
supplying intersection of the torque speed curve of the motor and the load torque gives
you this one point of intersection. Now, suppose I suddenly increase this resistance field
circuit resistance. Suppose, 𝐼𝑓1 is reduced to say 𝐼𝑓2 .

Initially it was 𝐼𝑓1 produced flux 𝜑1 . Now, 𝐼𝑓2 will produce flux 𝜑2 . And, 𝜑2 will be less
than 𝜑1 , because I have increased this resistance 𝑅𝑓 applied voltage is fixed here because
the field circuit. So, flux is reduced; reduce to field current is suppose 𝐼𝑓1 is reduced to 𝐼𝑓2
from 𝐼𝑓1 got the point, this is the equation.

Let us first observe or explain the sequence of events that will go on. Initially, this was the
operating point 𝜑1 . Now, suppose I have suddenly reduce the field current from 𝐼𝑓1 to 𝐼𝑓2
at 𝑡 = 0. Can speed change instantaneously? No, that is the mechanical inertia decides
that. So, at 𝑡 = 0 + which thing will change, flux has been reduced. Therefore, your back
emf must have dropped back emf depends on the product of field current and speed.

So, if you suddenly say that flux has been brought down from 𝜑1 to 𝜑2 speed cannot
change instantaneously that is fine, but flux you have brought down. Therefore, back emf

794
which is 𝐾𝜑𝑛 speed has not changed must drop down. Therefore, armature current at 𝑡 =
0 + must go up is not armature current will go up.

At 𝑡 = 0 + I am examining 𝐸𝑏2 ; or 𝐸𝑏0+ must be less than 𝐸𝑏1 that is all that is what I am
telling speed cannot change flux you have reduce it will. If, that be the case then your
armature current at 0 plus must go up because armature current is after all

𝑉 − 𝐸𝑏 (0 +)
𝐼𝑎 (0 +) =
𝑟𝑎

𝑟𝑎 I have not changed. So, the armature current will go up.

Now, the question is I had assumed load torque to remain constant ok, whatever it is
constant load torque. Earlier electromagnetic torque was equal to load torque in this
condition, this was equal to 𝑇𝐿 steadily running. Now, I have reduce the flux from 𝜑1 to
𝜑2 , then this is at 𝑡 = 0 + I am examining. What has happened to my electromagnetic
torque developed?

Now, electromagnetic torque develop at 𝑡 = 0 + is once again the same relation suppose

𝑇𝑒 (0 +) = 𝐾𝑇 𝜑2 𝐼𝑎2

This product will decide what is the electromagnetic torque developed.

Now, we are in a fix now a bit, because of the fact 𝜑 has reduced armature current has
increased. So, whether the electromagnetic torque developed at 𝑡 = 0 + is greater than the
electromagnetic torque which was developed by the motor at 𝑡 = 0 −.

That is what one should ask, then only I will say motor will start accelerating or
decelerating, because load torque is constant. The fact is this, this armature current at any
time armature current is

𝑉 − 𝐸𝑏
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑟𝑎

This is the current. Now, if you reduce the flux by say 2% increase in the armature current.
It can be easily shown; it will be many folds then that.

795
Are you getting me what I am telling? Ok. This flux is reduced armature current has
increased whether the product will be greater than the previous electromagnetic torque. I
am telling it will be greater, because of the fact the increment in the armature current will
be many fold than the reduction in the flux, because you are dividing it by a very small
quantity 𝑟𝑎 got the point, this is the most crucial point.

We will solve problem you can easily see that. Therefore, what is going to happen then the
electromagnetic torque developed by the motor at 𝑡 = 0 + will be more than the
electromagnetic torque, the motor developed at 𝑡 = 0 −. And, I am telling load torque is
constant therefore, motor will start accelerating from 𝑡 = 0 + onwards, if it accelerates, it
is armature current will then start falling.

And, finally, once again it will draw final steady state armature current, which will make

𝑇𝐿 = 𝐾𝑇 𝜑2 𝐼𝑎2

𝑇𝐿 I have assumed constant. So, what do I say about the armature current drawn from the
supply, when we have reduce the flux with constant load torque present on the shaft.

So, new armature current will be this is constant I have assumed. Therefore, new armature
current is

𝑇𝐿
𝐼𝑎2 =
𝐾𝑇 𝜑2

𝜑2 I have I know I have deliberately reduced it.

So, the armature the new armature current drawn will be more than what was 𝐼𝑎1 earlier
got the point. Therefore, we reduce the field current load torque constant, final armature
current drawn by the machine will go up and up. Unlike the D.C armature control method;
armature control method, there armature current was always constant and that is why we
told it is better suited for constant load torque.

But, in case of field control I immediately discovered that if the load torque is constant as
I told you I would always like to see the motor is drawing armature is carrying always
constant current rated current. But, if it was earlier at this point carrying rated current and

796
if I have reduced the flux, the current drawn new armature current drawn at steady state
will be more than these if load torque is constant got the point.

Here of course, 𝜑 is not constant therefore, it is difficult to say that this is load torque are
you getting ok, load torque is constant. But, see so now, let us see in the characteristics
terms what is going to happen? If, you have reduce the field current, new torque slip
𝑉
characteristics look at this 𝜑 I have reduced. So, new no load speed will be 𝐾𝜑 , it will be
2

here.

And, then it will fall, but the slope will not be parallel. Because, 𝜑 has this is the slope of
the line 𝜑 I have reduced. So, slope decrement in speed will be in at a much faster rate,
this will no longer be parallel as we have seen it was parallel in case of armature voltage
control, but it will be like this. So, it was drawing this much current. Here, I cannot show
the load characteristics, if this is 𝐼𝑎 , because load torque is 𝐼𝑎 × 𝜑, ok.

So, it is 𝐼𝑎 armature current. Now, what I am telling, if, the load torque is constant it will
run at higher speed, but with increased armature current. May be here, it was running here.
Now, we have reduce the field current it will run there, if the load torque is constant. Mind
you load torque is what product of armature current and the flux per pole, here it was 𝐼𝑎
rated; here it will be how much is the load torque at this point.

This new 𝐼𝑎2 𝜑2 is more than this. Therefore, load torque is increased like that load torque
is will remain constant and it will run at the speed. Therefore, it looks like the field control
method better do not use it for constant load torque. If, the mechanical load is constant
then better do not adopt to run the motor at higher and higher speed for constant load
torque.

If, load torque is constant we have reduced 𝜑, simply look at the statistic equation 𝜑 × 𝐼𝑎 .
If, your initial current was 𝐼𝑎 rated, if you have reduced the flux, what will be the new
armature current it must go up. So, that the product remains constant and if your initial
current was 𝐼𝑎 rated your new 𝐼𝑎 will be more than the rated values, that I do not like is
not. Therefore, and; obviously, what happen if I go on increasing field current see at best
this resistance.

797
If, you decrease this resistance, then only field current will be increased. So, at best you
make this 𝑅𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0 you cannot make 𝑅𝑓 negative is not. Therefore, variation of field
current method means, flux control. You only increase the resistance, you cannot increase
the field current beyond this value 𝑉 by resistance of this coil at best you can make
𝑅𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0, no.

So, this speed control above the rated speed is adopted by flux control, go on reducing the
field current speed will rise. Now, the question is see I think you have got me I will try to
summarize the result.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:12)

Suppose, field control I am talking about field control. Electromagnetic torque developed
by the machine is 𝑇𝑒 = 𝐾𝑇 𝜑𝐼𝑎 that is known. In field control what I will be doing, I will
reduce the flux; we reduce the flux. So, suppose initially electromagnetic torque was this
steady operating point I am telling. If, you reduce the flux from 𝜑1 to 𝜑2 , then how much
is the electromagnetic torque developed by the machine,

𝑇𝑒1 = 𝐾𝑇 𝜑1 𝐼𝑎1

𝑇𝑒2 = 𝐾𝑇 𝜑2 𝐼𝑎2

And, this armature current 𝐼𝑎2 , what I am telling is if you insist that 𝑇𝐿 equal to constant;
I will say then

798
 𝐾𝑇 𝜑1 𝐼𝑎1 = 𝐾𝑇 𝜑2 𝐼𝑎2

That is what it will be steady operating point.

But, I know and suppose if 𝐼𝑎1 is rated, then what will be 𝐼𝑎2 ?

𝜑1
𝐼𝑎2 = 𝐼
𝜑2 𝑎1

𝜑 2 < 𝜑2

𝐼𝑎2 > 𝐼𝑎1

That is what I wanted to tell. So, if somebody connects a constant mechanical load and
initially it is drawing rated armature current, then he reduces the flux, then immediately
current armature current will become more than that.

Therefore, this drive these method of control of speed is not suitable to drive constant
mechanical load.

It is not suitable very important to drive the constant mechanical load. See, your ultimate
thing is you would always like to see your armature is carrying rated current that is the
crucial thing. But, it is suitable for; constant power load.

What is constant power load? It is also the load characteristics, constant mechanical power
load. Suppose, you have a load whose

𝑇𝐿 × 𝜔𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

What is 𝜔𝑟 load speed, then or

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇𝐿 =
𝑛𝑟

𝑛𝑟 is the load torque speed

𝜔𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑛𝑟

799
So, it will be proportional to these this is what power that is mechanical load whatever you
have connected, it tells that it always requires constant power, that is now it is running at
100 rpm torque is so much.

So, torque into speed this product remains constant, that is if you want to run it at higher
speed, it requires lesser torque. What is the constant power load? Higher the speed is that
load requires lesser torque to be applied it is the characteristics of the load. Such a load
should be then called constant power load, higher speed torque requirement is lesser. And,
for such load this field control is absolutely fine? why, I will tell just verbally today, then
I will explain next day with the help of some example.

That, if you higher speed you want to you want to run it D.C. motor at higher speed, higher
than the rated speed you reduce the field current. But, your load torque is such that when
it runs at higher speed, it required lesser torque to be produced by the machine, then what
will happen, 𝜑 you have increased. So, armature current will decrease then, initially if it
was carrying rated current making 𝜑1 × 𝐼𝑎 rated is the torque. Next time, it is 𝜑2 , but the
armature current new armature current drawn will be such that this product remains same
as these, I mean into speed.

Therefore, you see this type of a control of speed will be most suitable for loads which
requires constant power mechanical load, torque into speed is constant. Speed make high
then 𝑇𝐿 required by the load is less therefore, 𝑇𝑒 required developed by the motor will be
less and 𝑇𝑒 = 𝐾𝑇 𝜑2 𝐼𝑎2 therefore, 𝜑2 𝐼𝑎2 will be less. So, 𝐼𝑎2 will be less I mean may be of
the same rated current, you think about it and next time we will continue with our
discussion with some numerical example.

So, remember that this field current method is suitable for constant power drive and
armature voltage method is suitable for constant torque drive. And, armature voltage
method is adopted whenever you want to control the speed below the rated speed and field
control method is to be adopted when you want to control the speed above the rated speed.
We will continue our discussion next time.

Thank you.

800
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 83
Field Control (Contd.)

Welcome to lecture 83. We have been discussing about the speed control DC motors.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:23)

And, there are two very important methods. In which one method where armature voltage
is varied keeping field current constant, I will not touch field current, it will constant
remain constant and I will vary armature voltage from a variable dc supply voltage. And,
then I found that if the load torque is constant. Then armature current will remain constant
no matter what armature voltage you have applied. And, therefore, it will be suitable for
constant load torque drive.

In the sense that I would always like to say that armature carries close to it is rated current,
it will carry rated current at various speed of rotation when the load torque is constant. It
does not mean that if the load torque is not constant you cannot still vary armature voltage
and get current. But, if suppose load torque is proportional to the speed, then what will
happen at lower speed when the armature voltage is less, it will carry lesser armature
current that is there.

801
Because,

𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝐿 = 𝐾𝜑𝐼𝑎

Therefore, if 𝜑 is constant if load torque demand is less then 𝐼𝑎 will be less that is all. And,
of course, you cannot apply a voltage across the armature which is greater than it is rated
value. So, variation of 𝑉𝑎 will be from zero to the rated value of the armature that was
there. In the field control what you do you apply rated voltage.

And this machine in this case armature voltage control you must connect it as a separately
excited machine. Here rated voltage you applied of the field coil, that is equal to we know
from the nameplate rating. In this case you can connect it as a shunt motor no problem and
this voltage is rated value 𝑉. And, you vary this field current and at steady state operation,
once again

𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝐿 = 𝐾𝑇 𝜑𝐼𝑎

Since, I am playing with the field current 𝐼𝑓 hence I am also changing 𝜑. So, if I reduce
flux, then electromagnetic torque at 𝑡 = 0 + will be more than the load torque if it is a
constant load torque drive. And, it will finally, draw an armature current which was greater
than the previous armature current. Therefore, it was initially carrying rated armature
current and you have reduced the flux load torque is constant. Then machine is going to
draw an armature current which will be higher than the rated. So, therefore, it will not be
suitable for a constant load torque drive.

Rather it will be suitable if at higher speed load torque demand is lesser. So, load torque
should be inversely proportional to the speed or 𝑇𝐿 × 𝜔 should be constant, that is the
mechanical load which is connected on the shaft of the machine at higher speed it requires
lesser torque.

So, that flux has increased or flux has decreased then 𝐼𝑎 will be adjusted. So, that this
product is equal to present load torque. And, if resent load torque is less at higher speed
therefore; it will be most suitable for that. So, this and this field control that is to run the
machine at higher speed; generally, above base speed ok. Field control to controls field
control is adopted is adopted above rated speed, below rated speed control the armature
and so on; so, that is the idea.

802
And, these things are expressed in this way that suppose, I say that this side is the torque
ok. Then, if load torque is constant this side is torque. Suppose, I will change this this side
and this side is suppose speed, then I will I can show it like this that up to the and this is
suppose 𝑛𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 .

So, here is the, this axis I will plot two things either torque or power delivered. So, this is
torque; constant torque up to rated speed you vary the armature voltage ok. So, this is
between zero speed to rated speed armature control in this zone, this is torque constant.
And, if you control the field this I will draw with a different colour, it will be at higher the
rated speed torque requires will be less, it will be like this. So, this is, this will be the torque
characteristics.

So, field control. So, torque demand when it is becoming lesser and lesser with increased
speed, it is most suitable. Then perhaps you will be able to pass always rated current in the
armature that is what we want and you vary the speed above the rated value. So, this way
this is the torque. In in case of so, this side is then the field controller, weakening the field
you are reducing the field current field control above this in this zone.

So, speed will increase as you decrease and it will be like this. The same thing which
essentially means that, if torque remaining constant speed is changing in some other scale.
So, this is torque and you can also show this power curve, it will be like this. This red one
is the power curve torque is constant speed is increasing torque into speed is power.

So, it will be linearly increasing, then constant power load that is what I wrote here field
control and so on. So, you know a shunt motor these are the two very popular method of
controlling speed ok, but only thing is you if you want to run the machine at higher and
higher speed, you will be weakening the field current. So, what happens is this main flux
is very much reduced. Although, armature current under this condition will be about rated
current and therefore effect of armature reaction will be much more pronounced, because
many field flux is less.

So, these are the disadvantages, you should not run it at any high speed you like of course,
so mechanical restrictions will be there. So, this is the point I wanted to make about the
field control of shunt motor. In this regard I would like to point out another interesting
thing that because I am telling about weakening of field current means, you will be

803
increasing the flux. Before, I discussed that point, let us see what will you how to find out
suppose a DC motor is there ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:46)

This is the DC motor armature and this is your field circuit, ok. This is the field circuit of
the motor, this is the armature current it is drawing, this is no, this is line current always
show correctly and this is the armature current 𝐼𝑎 and this is field current at some value of
field current and this is the field resistance generally. Now, suppose this is the voltage,
initially steady state operating point only I will tell.

Though in the first steady state operating point suppose the armature current is 𝐼𝑎1 ok, field
current is 𝐼𝑓1 ok, and so, basic equation will be

𝑉
𝐼𝑓1 =
𝑅𝑓1

𝐸𝑏1 = 𝐾𝐼𝑓1 𝑛1 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎1 𝑟𝑎

𝑇𝑒1 = 𝑇𝐿1 = 𝐾𝑇 𝐼𝑓1 𝐼𝑎1

as you know there is some 𝐸𝑏 this is the circuit. So, it is running at some rpm say 𝑛1 .
Calculations in DC machines are pretty simple two equations you have to write. What is
that, one is the KVL equation in the armature circuit, that is back emf equation. Let us
neglect saturation.

804
Now, what I will do is this, I will change this 𝑅𝑓 field control.

So, this is the initial operating point and what is the torque developed by the machine 𝑇𝑒1 =
𝑇𝐿1 . And, this is equal to some torque constant this constant may be equal if the speeds are
𝑃𝑍
in radian per second, otherwise torque constant 𝐾𝑇 = . So, this is the two sets of
2𝜋𝑎

equations 1 and 2, that is what I will be doing. Now, suppose in the second case field
resistance 𝑅𝑓1 is increased to 𝑅𝑓2 suppose.

So, that field current becomes 𝐼𝑓1 to 𝐼𝑓2 and; obviously, 𝐼𝑓2 < 𝐼𝑓1 , because I have increased
the field current. Now, in this case the armature current in the steady state becomes suppose
𝐼𝑎2 speed becomes 𝑛2 and so on. So, these two equations will be

𝐸𝑏2 = 𝐾𝐼𝑓2 𝑛2 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎2 𝑟𝑎

𝑇𝑒2 = 𝑇𝐿2 = 𝐾𝑇 𝐼𝑓2 𝐼𝑎2

Armature resistance I have also not changed.

Now, I want to know I will not put that restriction general case load torque constant or it
load torque is inversely proportional to the speed that can easily be seen.

So, these are the general 4 equations. So, I would like to know if I want to run the machine
at suppose now it is running at 𝑛1 rps initially I want to increase the speed by 10%. So,
that 𝑛2 = 1.1𝑛1 , then what should be my new 𝑅𝑓2 that is type of questions I am trying to
solve here.

So, first thing is you play with

𝑇𝑒2 𝐾𝑇 𝐼𝑓2 𝐼𝑎2 𝑇𝐿2

= =
𝑇𝑒1 𝐾𝑇 𝐼𝑓1 𝐼𝑎1 𝑇𝐿1

𝑇𝑒2 𝐼𝑓2 𝐼𝑎2 𝑇𝐿2

= =
𝑇𝑒1 𝐼𝑓1 𝐼𝑎1 𝑇𝐿1

For constant load torque

𝑇𝐿2
=1
𝑇𝐿1

805
Or if it is 𝑇𝐿 is inversely proportional to speed it will be

𝑇𝐿2 𝑛1
=
𝑇𝐿1 𝑛2

Power is constant. Depending upon that this ratio will be fixed up.

And, another set of equation is there which is

𝐸𝑏2 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎2 𝑟𝑎 𝐼𝑓2 𝑛2

= =
𝐸𝑏1 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎1 𝑟𝑎 𝐼𝑓1 𝑛1

This is what exactly you have to do all the time, take the ratio of the back emfs and take
the ratio of the electromagnetic toques no matter, whether it is a shunt or series motor, we
will see it later.

Now, what happens is this, if I say I want to run it at a speed 𝑛2 10% higher than 𝑛1 , then
this is one equation, which will relate 𝐼𝑓2 to 𝐼𝑓1 etcetera and this is the other equation 𝐼𝑓 to
𝐼𝑎 .

So, what all you have to do is from these two sets of equation, you have to make an
equation involving only 𝐼𝑓2 . And, that equation will become in general a quadratic
equation. And, from this I will be able to then estimate what should be my 𝑅𝑓2 , that is the
if you solve it with some numerical example, if time permits I will do it. Although in my
note I have included one such problems to do either you have increase the reduce the flux
by a certain amount, then what should be the new speed that is one kind of problem or if I
want to run the machine at 10 to 15% higher than the rated speed, what should be the value
of 𝑅𝑓2 ?

But all what you have to do is to concentrate on these two equations. These two equations
depending upon, it maybe see ultimately load torque may change with speed as desired it
is desired, but it you may put any load torque for general analysis. Then, see yourself
whether it will be good or not, initially if it was carrying rated current and if you have
reduced flux, you are sure the armature current drawn has to be higher, is not for constant
load torque.

806
So, this is how the calculations are to be made? But, one thing I cannot resist from
commenting here is that, see it will be a quadratic equation in suppose I tell you change
the variables. So, that it becomes an equation involving 𝐼𝑓2 only solve for 𝐼𝑓2 , I then get
𝑅𝑓2 that is fine, but for very quick estimation you can do another interesting thing, that is
that will not be the exact correct answer, but it is worth noting. Because, armature here I
have not connected any external armature resistance I am after all controlling the field
resistance. So, the armature resistance rob is very armature resistance being small can be
neglected here.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:56)

If it is neglected so approximately you can say that, if 𝑟𝑎 is negligibly small, which will be
only negligibly small, then your

𝐸𝑏1 = 𝐸𝑏2 = 𝑉

There ends the matter is not. And,

𝐸𝑏1 = 𝐾𝐼𝑓1 𝑛1

𝐸𝑏2 = 𝐾𝐼𝑓2 𝑛2

And, therefore,

807
 𝐼𝑓1 𝑛1
≈1
𝐼𝑓2 𝑛2

So, back EMF is fixed supply voltage is fixed 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 drop if you neglect. So, this will be the
equation and then the torque equations are there

𝑇𝑒1 = 𝑇𝐿1 = 𝐾𝑇 𝐼𝑓1 𝐼𝑎1

𝑇𝑒2 = 𝑇𝐿2 = 𝐾𝑇 𝐼𝑓2 𝐼𝑎2

Take this ratio. So,

𝑇𝑒2 𝐼𝑓2 𝐼𝑎2 𝑇𝐿2

= =
𝑇𝑒1 𝐼𝑓1 𝐼𝑎1 𝑇𝐿1

These two simple equations and that the quadratic equation you can avoid.

And, express 𝐼𝑓1 in terms of 𝐼𝑓2 here is not. And, therefore, you will get a linear equations
from which 𝑛2 can be estimated very easily quickly. And, what I am telling is this
estimation of 𝑛2 neglecting 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 drop will be very close to the exact value. Estimation
quickly is very important from engineer’s point of view that is ok. If, I reduce the flux by
this amount 𝐼𝑓2 is.

So, what I will do? Suppose, I say let 𝐼𝑓2 is made reduced by 10%. So, it becomes

𝐼𝑓2 = 0.9𝐼𝑓1

Then from this equation tells me that

𝑇𝐿2 𝐼𝑓2 𝐼𝑎2 0.9𝐼𝑓1 𝐼𝑎2

= =
𝑇𝐿1 𝐼𝑓1 𝐼𝑎1 𝐼𝑓1 𝐼𝑎1

And, suppose the load torque is constant, it is given that 𝑇𝐿1 = 𝑇𝐿2 , then this must be equal
𝑇
to 1 then 𝑇𝐿2 = 1.
𝐿1

Therefore,

𝐼𝑎1 = 0.9𝐼𝑎2

808
So, armature current is known and it will be higher than the previous armature current. If,
𝐼𝑎1 was rated it will cross this rated current limit 𝐼𝑎2 ok that will be the thing.

And, from this what you get? See I have assumed this to be this one. So, 𝐼𝑓1 from this
equation I will say, that field current you have reduced, so

𝐼𝑓1 𝑛1
=1
0.9𝐼𝑓1 𝑛2

So, now this problem statement is field current I have reduced to by 10% 𝐼𝑓2 has become
this one, what is the new speed I the machine will be running?

Therefore, you will be getting that

𝑛1
𝑛2 =
0.9

New armature current will be this much these are the two answers I am looking for. So, no
quadratic equation nothing, in my earlier case what I was telling that ok, because of this
presence of this term, if you eliminate bring all the variables in terms of a 𝐼𝑓2 and 𝐼𝑓1 are
related.

Now, 𝐼𝑓2 = 0.9𝐼𝑓1 it will be a quadratic equation, but quickly it can be estimated, more
problems you solve better it will be. And, this ratio need not be also equal to 1. In fact, it
should not be if initially, it was running at rated current you should not put a constant
mechanical load, rated current will be higher if 𝐼𝑎1 was rated. So, that is why that restriction
was put to that ok, rather load torque demand will become lesser at higher speed, 𝑇𝐿 is
inversely proportional to 𝑛.

So, very interesting problems can be set from this, ok. So, always try to see quickly
estimate and, if you have not playing with armature resistance like resistance control, that
is now a days it is not at all done armature resistance control. So, these 𝑟𝑎 small, 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 is
also small. So, then say 𝑉 ≈ 𝐸𝑏 no matter what is this 𝑅𝑓 , this must go into your head.
And, you can always approximate that for if you are not so, sceptic about correct results
ok, but how much will be the speed very quickly you can estimate, ok.

809
So, always keep your mind open, if exact things are necessary you will be able to handle
no doubt by playing with these equations, but very quickly also you can estimate the new
speed of the motor, when you either say that field current I have changed to this value or
conversely if I say I want to run at 10% higher speed then what should I do?

Then in this equation 𝐼𝑓2 will be unknown are you getting suppose I say, that I want to run
𝑛2 this is another problem, that is 𝑛2 = 1.1𝑛1, what 𝑅𝑓 ? 𝑅𝑓2 is how much, this is the
problem. In that case, what I and load torque constant suppose 𝑇𝐿 constant, then what I
will do?

𝐼𝑓1 𝑛1
=1
𝐼𝑓2 × 1.1𝑛1

So, from this I will be getting the values of

𝐼𝑓1
𝐼𝑓2 =
1.1

𝐼𝑓1 known I will get 𝐼𝑓2 . Hence, I will say

𝑉
𝑅𝑓2 =
𝐼𝑓2

Problem is over; no quadratic equation nothing in both the cases.

So, always try to use this concepts at least to verify your results, you have taken everything
is into account, solve this circuit got this speed new armature current, but you should not
shut your eyes to say that ok. 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 drop is a small drop and quickly you will be getting the
results and better compare the results, ok. So, we will continue with the discussions in our
next class.

Thank you.

810
 Electrical Machines – I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 84
D. C Motor Braking

Welcome to lecture number 84. So, I talked about since you must not forget that, DC
generators a now a days not used because of so, many reasons : their ratings are restricted,
voltage rating cannot be beyond say 1000 volt, because of committed or segment brushes,
etc that put a restriction. And secondly, if DC is required DC cannot be transmitted over a
long distance therefore, AC it is all along in our country 50 Hertz see.

Therefore, if at all you required a DC supply you better use a converter to get the DC
supply. So, use of DC generators are restricted, nowadays practically not use; however,
DC motors are still there, because of the fact this speed control of DC motor can be done
with very ease maybe by connecting a resistance in the field circuit; field circuit power is
also less.

So, higher speed smoothly control the field and armature resistance of course, is once again
out of question, but you can vary armature voltage fixed AC is there, make it a DC supply
with diode which rectifier, then you some controlled rectifier to supply the armature and
smoothly you will be able to vary the armature voltage and that is why and smoothly it can
be controlled. And when you have a such a scheme, another point I must tell you also kill
another problem; see this is your field circuit; field circuit.

811
(Refer Slide Time: 02:16)

Here suppose you have a variable DC supply suppose available variable DC supply; DC
supply how do you get these variable dc supply? AC supply is there use a rectifier block,
make it DC and then use some chopper circuit or straight here, control rectifier circuit say
chopper, DC chopper circuit here you will get DC and this one you connect here.

So, that you have some control here, ok. It will be able to vary the applied voltage you
make it zero, increase it slowly like a buck converter this that. And then you can go up to
rated voltage and field you connect separately that is there separate; in this scenario
separate supply, in this scenario you can easily see you do not require any starter, 3 point
bulky starter is not necessarily, because I will why this starter was necessary?

Because we are applying full rated voltage armature resistance small therefore, you
incorporate some resistance in the armature circuit like 3 point starter then gradually cut it
out, applied rated voltage, machine will be running with some protections, this that. But
here if I start increasing applying the voltage across the armature from the very low value
slowly by using this control then no question of high current in inflow into the armature
take place.

Go on increasing the applied voltage speed will smoothly increase and finally, settle down.
Therefore, armature voltage control is a very popular method not only controlling the
speed, but also this one. Today what I have planned, before I discuss about series motor
with this DC motor there is electrical braking can be also executed on DC motor, ok.

812
For example, if a motor is running, DC shunt motor so, electrical braking I will just briefly
discuss electric braking to give you the ideas how it can be done and ideas are simple and
interesting. Electric braking on DC say shunt or separately excited motors shunt or
separately excited motor.

What is the idea of this electrical braking? This is the thing, this is the field and here is
your supply and suppose there is a switch; where from you have connected it to supply
voltage. And, suppose initially the machine was running steadily you want to stop the
motor. If you want to stop the motor then what you will do, you will simply disconnect the
supply and a machine will eventually come to a stop; how long it will take?

Because what happens is this, when the machine was running it acquired some kinetic
1
energy is not, 𝐽𝜔2 where 𝜔 is the speed. So, how fast this rotor will come to a stop,
2

depends upon how fast you are your kinetic initial kinetic energy is taken out from this
system. Eventually the kinetic energy has to become zero, when it comes to a stop and that
initially energy stored in the rotor must dissipate somewhere.

So, what do you think? If I removed this supply where that initial kinetic energy will be
dissipated? It will be dissipated; because you see you switch off the supply field current
becomes zero, ok. So, there is practically no flux, very little residual flux maybe there as
you disconnect it, ok. And, it will be like in the friction on the shaft of the machine it will
be dissipated. Will come to this, but the point is you have to dissipate this energy somehow.
So, depending upon how you are doing that different methods of electrical braking is there?

(Refer Slide Time: 08:31)

813
There are various method; one is called a plugging, another is called regenerative braking,
and there is another method will come to this. So, plugging and regenerative braking or it
is called dynamic braking. Let us see what does this mean? See here is suppose I will make
a connection like this. Only see the ideas will not of course, we can analyze it we will do
a little bit of analysis. This is suppose your field coil and this is the thing.

And, here what you do and here is your supply and these are one switch we will also do,
ok. Remove this switch and what you do is this? You connect very interestingly a
resistance here, 𝑅 external resistance. When you want to run it as a motor this switch is
connected here, this switch is connected here and this is the supply voltage, shunt motor
this fellow is outside the circuit. So, there was some armature current like this there is
some field current and it was running as a motor, drawing armature current was like this.

Now, suppose I want to break the electrical machine; initial kinetic energy if you bring the
switch S just like this neither connected to this point to this point, if I just disconnect like
this suppose it has got this switch has got 3 positions; one is this, another is this and another
is this. So, suppose you keep it in the neutral position do not touch it here, then what will
happen?

𝐼𝑎 will be 0 is not and there will be no electromagnetic torque developed by the machine,
because electromagnetic torque is product of 𝐼𝑓 and 𝐼𝑎 if you keep it vertical the switch 𝐼𝑎
becomes zero, electromagnetic torque develops zero and a initial kinetic energy stored will
be dissipated in the friction. Strictly speaking it will be not only dissipated in the friction,

814
but also there will be core losses in the armature, because field flux is present excited these
I have not changed.

So, all the kinetic energy stored here will be dissipated in the friction measure and then in
the rotational loss that is in the rotational loss will be supplied, because flux is there
armature is rotating it cannot come to stop immediately. So, like that it will happen it will
take some time, but that is a thing.

But in this method what is done is this; when you execute the braking you connect the
switch here, bring this switch here this is 𝑅 and this is your field circuit. This switch it was
here you have put it suddenly there this is 𝑅 and here is your supply voltage 𝑉. So, field is
energized field current I have not disturbed initially; it was running in the clockwise
direction. Now, when you put this switch from this to this point what is the equivalent
circuit of the armature?

There was 𝑟𝑎 and it was running at some speed 𝑛0 initially therefore, speed cannot change
instantaneously at 𝑡 = 0 +, what is 𝑡 = 0? It is the instant when I have moved this S to
this one. So, 𝑡 = 0 + it is corrected there, but this flux is there it is running therefore, there
will be generated voltage that back EMF which was present and the value of that is some
𝐾𝜑𝑛0 at 𝑡 = 0 +, because switch cannot change instantaneously.

Therefore, in this circuit there will be a current 𝐼𝑎 , how much will be the current?

𝐾𝜑𝑛0
𝐼𝑎 (𝑡 = 0 +) =
𝑅 + 𝑟𝑎

What is 𝑛0 ? 𝑛0 was the speed at 𝑡 = 0 −. So, this much will be the armature current, but
you see the armature current direction has reversed with respect to this case when it was
running as a motor.

Now, this machine is running as a local generator supplying 𝑅 and in case of generator the
electromagnetic torque is in the opposite direction, it will also develop electromagnetic
torque how much is the value of the torque?

𝑇𝑒 (𝑡 = 0 +) = 𝐾𝑇 𝜑𝐼𝑎 (𝑡 = 0 +)

But in this direction in this case electromagnetic torque was in the direction of rotation.

815
Therefore, the moment you do this on the shaft of the machine opposing torque was load
torque present plus now, I find there is an opposing torque which we will try to put a
braking torque on the machine rotor and therefore, machine speed is expected to decrease
why not, it will come down gradually, but as speed falls this will not remain constant it is
only at (𝑡 = 0 +).

So, as time passes these back EMF will be 𝐾𝜑𝑛 its value decreases this current decreases
braking torque too will be decreasing this is at 𝑡 = 0 + braking torque at 𝑡 = 0 + will be
𝐾𝑇 𝜑𝐼𝑎 (𝑡 = 0 +) highest braking torque. With time as time passes the circuit remains
same. Plus minus, I have executed the braking; switch is this side, but speed with time it
will start decreasing in the same direction.

So, there is 𝜑 present, so as time passes, speed decreases; speed decreases much faster
than the case when the switch is just put in the neutral position, because no opposing torque
I have put extra only the opposing torque was the friction torque present, got the point. So,
machine will come quickly to stop compare to these earlier case; that is a DC motor is
running you disconnected from the supply it will eventually come to stop it will take it is
own time depending upon the inertia of the rotor, it is kinetic energy gets dissipated
somewhere maybe in the friction and it will come.

When we apply mechanical brake what do I do? I put a opposite torque and what happens
is this your kinetic energy stored, will be dissipated as heat in the brake shoes that is what
we do. So, in this case initial kinetic energy will be dissipated in 𝑅 and also there is flux,
got the point. Therefore, this is how electrical braking can be executed.

One simplest method is this one although the kinetic energy I am not using for any useful
purpose, but heating this resistance dissipating it, ok. Therefore, you see if you want to
execute electrical braking you must put a torque in the reverse direction of rotation of the
machines that is why it must operate as a generator during braking mode is not.

Therefore, I can analyze a I can always find out how armature current will go on
decreasing, these will be function of time 𝑛 will be also function of time, but eventually
speed will be zero. To stop the motor to get more braking torque that is suppose, because
it is sometimes necessary you know a motor is running in the clockwise direction at 1000
rpm then you your operation demands that it must be brought very quickly to stop

816
condition, then once again restart the motor. Situations like that often take place not that
continuous running.

I want to in so, many seconds I must bring the machine back to stop condition and then I
will restart the motor. So, in those kinds of operation therefore, it can be executed like that
another interesting method is called plugging. What is plugging is; plugging, what do you
do is this here is your supply these the field circuit, I will keep field circuit energized got
the point.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:25)

And, here I connect a two way switching this switch is connected here, like this. Here what
I will be doing is this is plus minus supply voltage, I will do a little bit of wiring so, that
this supply voltage also comes here like this. So, I will connect resistance no doubt and I
will this one, between these two point I will connect the here is your 𝑅𝑎 , here is your
generated EMF and I will connect a supply voltage like this. The same 𝑉, I will do a little
bit of wiring here this negative I will bring it here this positive I will I will keep it ready
supply with this polarity.

Then initially, with S in position 1, it is doing motoring, motoring mode at that point what
is this circuit this part is not there, this part is not there in the circuit only this one S in
position 1. It was drawing armature current like this like a motor it was operating, there
was some back EMF generated flux per pole was there, field current was present like that
it was nice.

817
And, it was developing some electromagnetic torque equal to load torque, running at some
speed suppose in the clockwise direction and so on. Now, what you do is this at 𝑡 = 0
what you do? You bring move this switch to position 2 very quickly. So, that your circuit
will then look like this is position 2 got the point put it here, here is 𝑅 here, 𝑉 supplies
same supply here with this polarity it is like this 𝑉 supply this is the equivalent circuit for
𝑡 > 0 and this is 𝑟𝑎 and back EMF was like this, your field circuit mind you it remains
energized, like this plus minus 𝑉 supply it will be like this flux.

Therefore, in this case at 𝑡 = 0 −; machine was running steadily the moment you connect
it here at 𝑡 = 0 + speed cannot change instantaneously. So, how much is the at 𝑡 = 0 +
the back EMF is still your 𝐾𝜑𝑛0 and it is the local circuit, flux is present there. So in this
case the direction of the current has to be like this and how much will be the current?

𝐼𝑎 at plus at 𝑡 = 0 + the current will be

𝐾𝜑𝑛0 + 𝑉𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦
𝐼𝑎 (𝑡 = 0 +) =
𝑟𝑎 + 𝑅

The direction of current has reversed that is what I want. What will be the electromagnetic
torque developed? It must be in the opposite direction; because current has changed it is
reduction earlier it was running as a motor electromagnetic torque was in the same
direction of 𝑛0 so, the moment you connect armature to this side with field energized back
EMF will be there this back EMF plus this voltage will be 𝑟𝑎 .

And, this method is called plugging when you are applying a reverse voltage across the
armature compared to its motor mode, ok. Motor mode you applied plus here minus here
now, you are you have change the supply polarity across the armature. So, that these supply
and back EMF together decides this armature current this plus this.

And, electromagnetic torque will be in direction opposite to that of 𝑛0 t that is what I want
to execute electrical braking, and following it is dynamics speed will fall, compared to the
DC dynamic braking it will come to rest at a faster rate, because you see in the previous
𝐾𝜑𝑛0
case the current at 𝑡 = 0 + only , some sufficient current was there.
𝑅+𝑟𝑎

𝐾𝜑𝑛0 +𝑉𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦
But this time it is 𝑟𝑎 +𝑅
. So, braking torque will be much higher than the braking

torque due to DC dynamic braking and therefore, machine will try to stop at a much faster

818
rate. Similarly, here the decay of the current see as time passes speed falls this EMF falls
current fall here also that magnitude of the current will fall no doubt, because 𝐸𝑏 will
decrease as time passes, because 𝐸𝑏 depends on this fellow 𝐸𝑏 at 𝑡 = 0 + it was 𝑛0 , but I
eventually this 𝑛 becomes function of time it decreases.

There about this 𝐸𝑏 will be decreasing varying, but your V supply is large value that will
maintain large a braking torque during this process of slowing down of the machine. So,
if sufficient opposing torque will be present on the shaft of the machine and machine will
come faster to close, but only thing is you should be careful that, it comes to stop; a time
will come eventually machine will come to a stop, but after that what will happen?

If you if it gets connected like that then machine will start running in the opposite direction,
because field is not change it as a separately excited DC motor is not, therefore, if you
want really braking to bring the machine come to a stop very quickly. So, it was motoring
this side, switch was motoring and this side it is braking then you must keep a watch at
what speed the machine has reached, when it has reached close to zero speed disconnect
it from this supply you once again.

That can be done by using some speed relay to disconnect this switch from the supplying,
otherwise it will start running in the opposite direction. These are very interesting
observations so, during braking mode you are essentially running the machine as a
generator. We will continue with the next method next time.

819
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 85
Introduction to Series Motor

(Refer Slide Time: 00:42)

Ah. So, we have been discussing about electrical braking on DC shunt or separately excited
motor. In DC dynamic braking what is done? Is armature only disconnected, it is running
as a motor initially. Then only armature is disconnected from the supply.

820
(Refer Slide Time: 00:45)

Armature is only disconnected from the supply, with this switch and connected across that
resistance. Then eventually I know what would be the factor. The direction of the armature
current then will reverse armature current will flow this way. Electromagnetic torque
developed will be opposite to the earlier electromagnetic torque. So, it is like you are
braking the motor.

You must apply an opposing torque in the direction opposite to the direction of rotation
for executing braking. And I told you how to calculate the braking torque at 𝑡 = 0 +. In
case of dynamic DC dynamic braking highest braking torque will be at 𝑡 = 0 +. Then
speed eventually falls back emf decreases the braking torque is in itself is a function of
time it gradually collapses to zero. But in this case flux is maintained ok.

821
(Refer Slide Time: 02:01)

An improvement if you want to bring the machine much faster than the DC dynamic
braking then what you do? You make an arrangement right hand side arrangement is
almost similar to that. Except that along with this 𝑅, you connect a source say same supply
voltage you bring it here. And the polarity of this source should be properly with respect
to this 𝐸𝑏 it must be properly connected.

So, that 𝐸𝑏 and 𝑉 together acts in the same direction so, at 𝑡 = 0 +. Here the current at
𝐾𝜑𝑛0
𝑡 = 0 + will be much higher than simply larger braking torque will be developed.
𝑅+𝑟𝑎

Because there are machines with large inertia you want to bring it to stop quickly such a
method should be then adopted. And in this case also field you have to maintain. If you
also disconnect the field it will not work because flux will collapse 𝐸𝑏 will collapse. Of
course, got the point 𝜑𝐼𝑎 is the torque.

822
(Refer Slide Time: 03:26)

So, the another method is there that is called regenerative braking ok. Here the idea is
interesting. In a previous cases, what we did that initial that kinetic energy stored is
dissipated in 𝑅, is not? Ultimately eventually it is dissipated in 𝑅. So, it is like this in
regenerative braking what happens is this that, braking will take place but really not for
bringing the machine to come to a stop. Let me tell you one thing for example, you see
that there is a track here ok. And you have a loco here and the motor drives this wheels so,
that it moves in this direction. And here is the supply lines and the negative is connected
to the rails and the power is collected by a say pantograph or whatever it is supply. So,
here is their DC motor you imagine it is driving this and it is moving smoothly on a smooth
railway track ok.

Now suppose. So, it is running as a motor, giving I mean moving this vehicle or loco from
left to right a DC motor is driving the wheel. Now so, in normal case when it is on the flat
track it will run as a motor fine. Now, you imagine that this track is has got a slope like
this ok. This is the supply lines v and your vehicle comes here.

There is a downhill in the track and your this thing this is the wire this will be the scenario,
when it negotiates. This downhill and it will still moving in this direction. Now, when it
was moving on the flat track, then the electromagnetic torque developed by the motor is
also equal to the opposing load torque present on the machine. And let us imagine it is a

823
shunt motor but the moment it comes to this portion of the track which is having a ramp
down here.

Then gravity 𝑚𝑔 whatever it is its weight there is a additional force will come, which will
accelerate the rotor apart from the electromagnetic torque whatever is acting. But there
appears an torque force or torque because of the component of the gravity present. For
example, forget about any supply connected, if you just keep a vehicle like this it will just
accelerate in this direction.

Forget about your supply is not there a vehicle put on wheels you put it here it will on its
own come down is not mechanical thing. Now, in such a situation what happens? Suppose
when it was in position 1 this is suppose position 2 vehicle has reached. Initially we know
that they that the machine is having a finite no load speed is not this is speed and speed
varies like this.

So, when it was here, it was drawing an armature current 𝐼𝑎1 shunt motor. This is the speed
versus armature current characteristics, it was running at this speed and running as a motor
it was drawing an armature current. I am not showing the motor armature field here just to
give you the idea it was drawing an armature current here and it was running at this speed;
delivering mechanical power to move this vehicle or attraction.

Now, when it comes to position two what will happen is this, the speed of the rotor of the
machines which are coupled to this wheel that will go on increasing accelerating, is not?
Speed will go up, that is operating point will move here got the point it will move here
speed will increase. A time will come when speed this is the no load speed.

𝑉
How much is its value? = 𝑛0 we have seen that ok. I will draw it straightly and nicely.
𝐾𝜑

So, I am now telling its speed increases beyond 𝑛0 because of some external as if sort of
prime mover is present. What was the circuit here? When it was on the flat track, it was
like this 𝑟𝑎 back emf and your supply 𝑉 and it was drawing a current 𝐼𝑎 .

And let us imagine separately excited machine or whatever is shunt motor also no problem
field is always connected like this is position 1. And not this is not 𝐼𝑎 it was drawing this
current and your 𝐼𝑎 was this motoring mode. Electromagnetic torque in this direction of
protection was in this direction this is position 1.

824
Now, in position 2; position 2 what will be the scenario? Scenario will be this is the field,
this is the armature, supply voltage is still 𝑉 here. And here is 𝑟𝑎 and here is your back emf
in series those things remaining intact. But this back emf was proportional to

𝐸𝑏1 = 𝐾𝜑𝑛1

Speed here 𝑛1 like that that was the back emf. And the it was less than supply voltage that
𝑉−𝐸𝑏
is why current was flowing in this one .
𝑟𝑎

Now, I have a situation where in this zone maybe this speed has gone up to higher value,
such that this back emf 𝐸𝑏2 . This speed has become greater than 𝑛0 . So, 𝐸𝑏2 it has become
such that speed has become 𝐾𝜑𝑛2 speed is higher at this point 𝑛2 . And which is greater
than 𝑉; then what will happen field current will remain in the same direction nothing like
𝑉
that 𝑅 , but your armature current will reverse, is not?
𝑓

𝐸𝑏2 −𝑉
Because this is the new armature current 𝐸𝑏2 is greater than supply voltage it may
𝑟𝑎

so, happen. Because it was accelerating like this and your 𝐼𝑎2 reverses. And as I told you
the moment 𝐼𝑎2 reverses it was moving in this direction electromagnetic torque developed
by the machine must reverse because 𝐼𝑎2 has become like this.

So, operating point has become so, it is −𝐼𝑎2 . And therefore, an opposing torque comes in
and your machine will then experience a opposite torque with respect to 𝑛. Therefore,
braking takes place ok, but it will not bring the machine to stop what it will do? It will find
a another operating point doing like this, but it will do one very important thing.

It will not make this vehicle uncontrolled I mean like a free fall 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 will accelerate it
down. It soon will find a final velocity I have done the initial no load velocity no doubt,
but it will stabilize the thing. So, regenerative braking will put free acceleration not
possible I mean will not make this free acceleration possible it will but none the less the it
is braking got the point.

So, this is called regenerative braking why regenerative? Because in this case one
interesting thing happens that the this current this power will be fed back to the supply 𝐼𝑎2
will come and (𝐼𝑎2 − 𝐼𝑓 ) whatever it is here if we apply KCL that will flow to the positive

825
terminal of the supply. So, power will be fed back to the supply. So, kinetic energy
whatever will be lost or gained there is no loss of power no external resistance connected.

Therefore, regenerative braking means that the machine speed when it becomes greater
than the no load speed of the machine. A natural reversal of current in the armature will
take place. And it will produce torque in a direction opposite to the direction of rotation of
the machine. And thereby some braking torque will be produced.

Now, once again I am telling it will not bring the machine to a stop. So, regenerative
braking are very interesting method of temporary braking which will not allow the rotor
to accelerate freely just like that. And at the same time the power will be fed back to the
supplying clear. So, there are interesting problems on this you can try solving.

Therefore, these are the three methods, which I have not gone much detail into it for
obvious reasons, but you get the idea what it will be. Just use very basic principles of motor
generators see the direction of the torque develop and in this case also field flux is held
fixed here nothing like that.

So, there are interesting problems in the book of parker smith will point them out in our
handouts you try to solve them ok. Now, today I will give you after discussing about the
electrical basics of electrical breakings. I will tell you about another kind of motors which
are called series motor, DC series motor ok..

(Refer Slide Time: 18:11)

826
Now, there is a kind of motor, where this was the armature is not in our basic structure is
same these are the poles., this is A1, A2 armature. Now, this field coil will be very few
number of turns, but thicker wire ok. First let us see the construction this is the field coil
on each pole it will be connected like this.

So, these are called and these two will be connected in series. These are connected inside
the machine and these two terminals are marked as Se1 and Se2. So, fewer turns thick
wires. In case of shunt machine there were large number of turns thin wires and these two
are as usual the armature terminals.

So, this machine in the simplified diagram can be drawn like this. This is your armature
two terminals; A1, A2 and there is the two terminals Se1 and Se2 and while connecting
this machine this armature is connected in series with the field. And here supply will be
connected to run it as a motor got the point. So, in this case there is no shunt field coil
there is only one coil with very few turns because everything comes in series with the
armature must have very low resistance ok. And here I will connect the supply that is the
thing.

So, I can make a motor like this and I will connect it to the supply so, but because of these
will the all the derivations that we have done back emf torque will change no not at all.
Here what is important is this is the flux per pole, this is the armature current these two
will decide everything. Flux per pole whether it is created by a series field coil or shunt
field coil armature does not care about that.

If it is running it will develop a generated voltage 𝐾𝜑𝑛 that remains. It will be able to
produce an electromagnetic torque, that is proportional to 𝐾𝑇 𝜑𝐼𝑎 that is all. So, so far as
the basic equations are concerned flux per pole is now merely created by some coil which
is conditioned like that their connections etcetera. And also note that, in this case the
armature and field current they are same this series field.

Armature and field current are same. So, no point in distinguishing between 𝐼𝑎 and 𝐼𝑓 they
almost become same ok. So, I will be connecting here. So, there will be a series field
resistance 𝑟𝑠𝑒 and here is the motor armature flux per pole will be created as usual flux per
pole. And this armature circuit will then look like and 𝑟𝑎 with some back emf.

827
And here is some 𝑟𝑠𝑒 in the electrical equivalent circuit I am telling. And there may be
brush drop as usual this is the supply. And this is the current drawn by the machine and
this is your back emf. Let us try to understand it from the very beginning. Suppose you
have a switch here this I will tell verbally by this time I hope you understand what I am
telling suppose machine was at rest.

And I have closed the switch at 𝑡 = 0 + how much will be the current drawn machine was
at rest there was no back emf. Back emf is 𝐾𝜑𝑛 in this case flux per pole is also
proportional to 𝐼; that I know it is equal to

𝐸𝑏 = 𝐾𝜑𝑛 = 𝐾 ′ 𝐼𝑛

because 𝜑 is proportional to 𝐼. So, when you close the switch at 𝑡 = 0 +, machine has not
started yet rotating the equivalent circuit will be 𝑟𝑎 , 𝑟𝑠𝑒 and your supply.

So, current drawn

𝑉
𝐼(0+ ) =
𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑠𝑒

This much will be the current, but machine has not started yet. So, no back emf is there.
So, equivalent circuit at 𝑡 = 0 + is just like this. So, a finite current which may be very
large because armature resistance 𝑟𝑎 is small 𝑟𝑠𝑒 is also small will be drawn in from the
supply.

And will there be electromagnetic torque developed? Yes. Because electromagnetic torque
is equal to

̅̅̅̅
𝑇𝑒 = 𝐾𝑇 𝜑𝐼 = 𝐾 𝑇𝐼
2

So, electromagnetic torque will be developed and machine will accelerate it is there. Now,
as machine accelerates that is the 𝑛 increases 𝐸𝑏 increases back emf will appear.

Now after machine starts accelerating. So, this is the circuit I have to refer to get the
current. So,

𝑉 − 𝐸𝑏
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑠𝑒

828
This will be the current as machine picks up speed.

𝐸𝑏 depends on 𝐼𝑎 this is to be noted. As machine picks up speed 𝐸𝑏 increases, but 𝐼𝑎 also

decreases is not. Now the question is what will be the final steady operating point?
Machine speed will go on increasing and it will try to settle down steadily at some point,
where the load torque will be equal to the electromagnetic torque developed by the
machines.

Suppose there is opposing torque present. So,

𝑇𝐿 = 𝑇𝑒 = 𝐾𝑇 𝐼 2

Electromagnetic torque is this one suppose my machine finally, settles down to this. So, at
the final steady state operating point it will draw some armature current. And what is your
𝐼? 𝐼 will be at that time is equal to

𝑉 − 𝐸𝑏 𝑉 − 𝐾𝐼𝑛
𝐼= =
𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑠𝑒

This will be these two equations, then because flux is proportional to 𝐼 neglect saturation.
So, this is the thing now there are two or three observations I must tell at this point, imagine
a shunt motor. In case of shunt motor and suppose in shunt motor the torque in shunt, shunt
motor these are interesting points you must note that is one is electromagnetic torque in
shunt motor is 𝑇𝑒 = 𝐾𝐼𝑓 𝐼𝑎 is not electromagnetic torque development.

𝑉
𝐼𝑓 = 𝑅 it is no way connected with 𝐼𝑎 . What is the value of at the point of shunt motor at
𝑓

the point of starting; the point of starting what is the armature current? Armature current
𝑉 𝑉
will be 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑟 . So, armature current is large 𝑟 into 𝐼𝑓 gives you the starting torque. So,
𝑎 𝑎

𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐾𝑇 𝐼𝑓 𝐼𝑎

Come to series motor; during series motor the starting torque is

𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐾𝑇 𝐼𝑎 2

What is this starting current in series motor

829
 𝑉
𝐼(0+ ) =
𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑠𝑒

𝑟𝑠𝑒 is of the same order of 𝑟𝑎 . Therefore, armature current is very large in both the cases
𝑉 𝑉
they are comparable it was there it is . But the point I want to make it is that in
𝑟𝑎 𝑟𝑎 +𝑟𝑠𝑒

case of series motor, this starting torque is proportional to 𝐼𝑎 2 .

Therefore, the magnitude of the starting torque is many fold higher than the starting torque
of a shunt motor. Very large starting torque you can get how I am telling that because of
the fact armature resistance and series field resistance are comparable. So, 𝐼𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 in case
𝑉 𝑉
of series motor back emf is not there 𝑟 . And in case of shunt motor it will be 𝑟 starting
𝑎 +𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑎

current.

Torque is proportional to 𝐼𝑓 𝐼𝑎 , 𝐼𝑓 is finite which is small in case of shunt motor. So, a large
quantity 𝐼𝑎 into a small number here. In case of series motor 𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐾𝑇 𝐼𝑎 2 and this 𝐼
is same as this 𝐼𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 . Therefore, a series motor can produce a very large starting torque
unlike a shunt motor ok, which is there are uses of this particular thing.

For example, I will today only tell this point and then next class we will continue. You
suppose you imagine that, you have to crush some nuts hard nuts you have to crash with a
say what it is called crusher something, at the time of starting their hard the nuts are. So,
you will be requiring very large torque at that time ok. But after the nuts break becomes
fine particles then you do not require large torque.

We will see that there are loads which require very large starting torque. For example, in
traction a heavily loaded say wagon it is to be started. At the time when you want to start
that locomotive which is fully loaded; that means, the opposite torque is very large already
present on the shaft. But to make it start you must develop enough starting torque.

For shunt motor if you use it may not reached at one because 𝐼𝑓 by design is small 𝐼𝑎 may
𝑉
be large 𝑟 , but 𝐼𝑓 is small finite. But if you use a series motor, then large starting torque
𝑎

𝑉
can be created torque is proportional to 𝐼𝑎 2. And it is indeed necessary when you
𝑟𝑎 +𝑟𝑠𝑒

want to start that locomotive which is heavily loaded fully loaded at the time of starting.

830
But as it accelerates and that and some finite speed do you require that much of torque?
Certainly not in torque required to overcome the inertia is gone. Now, therefore, you will
be requiring less amount of torque to run the locomotive at some constant speed. We will
come to this point in a much more detailed way in our next lecture. But only thing I want
to tell you that no matter whether it is a shunt and series motor do not forget those two
basic equations.

Back emf equations (𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 ) in case of series motor which is [𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 (𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑠𝑒 )] minus
maybe brass drop and that is equal to back emf. So, there may be different situations. So,
when the applied voltage is this, torque is this. So, what is the current run etcetera. So, I
will write down in each cases the back emf equation and what else the torque equation for
steady operations;

𝑇𝑒1 = 𝑇𝐿1

𝑇𝑒2 = 𝑇𝐿2

And we will also see another interesting thing in the next class that a series motor should
not be started with any mechanical load present on the shaft that is also another interesting
thing. In case of shunt motor even if there is no opposing torque or load torque present at
the time of starting you have a finite speed machine will go to that speed and will run.

But a series motor without any mechanical opposing torque load torque present. If you
want to start the motor, we will say there is no finite speed machine is racing to a very
large value creating problems. Those are interesting things we will discuss in my next
class.

Thank you.

831
 Electrical Machines -1
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 86
Series Motor Characteristics

Welcome to the lecture on Series Motor, DC series motor.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:24)

And, we have seen that in case of DC series motor the armature is as usual, but there is the
field winding which are having fewer number of turns that is why I am just drawing like
this only few turns and field terminals are marked as S e 1 and S e 2 and these two are as
usual armature terminals and what happens is this, the field winding is connected in series
with the armature.

Unlike shunt machine where the field winding is connected across, and which means, that
the armature and field current are same for this machine and here you supply the machine
with some DC voltage 𝑉. And, this current is 𝐼 and at some steady operating point, the
machine will be running at some 𝑛 rps and drawing some current.

Now, the point to be noted here is that armature and field current are same. Therefore,
there is no distinction between 𝐼𝑓 and 𝐼𝑎 as it is, right now. Now, what will be the basic
equations? The field coil although it is number of turns are less, but it will carry now, large

832
current same as that of armature current. So, the field coil thickness will be large, unlike
shunt field coils. Fewer turns no doubt, but large current so, it will produce substantial
flux. So, flux per pole will be proportional to 𝐼, if saturation is neglected. Then of course,
the rest of the things will remain same that is the back emf here what will be the thing 𝑟𝑎
and there is some back emf 𝐸𝑏 , ok.

And, your KVL equation in the simple series circuit will be

𝑉 = 𝐼(𝑟𝑠𝑒 + 𝑟𝑎 ) + 𝐸𝑏

𝜑∝𝐼

𝐸𝑏 = 𝐾𝐺 𝜑𝑛 = 𝐾 ′ 𝐼𝑛

𝑉 = 𝐼(𝑟𝑠𝑒 + 𝑟𝑎 ) + 𝐾 ′ 𝐼𝑛

Brush drop can be added. That is the thing it will happen, ok. This will be the equation,
KVL equation of the machine.

Suppose the machine is operating steadily at some 𝑛 rps drawing some finite current I, this
will be the basic equation, ok. And, what about the torque equation; these are the only 2
equations we can important; one is the back emf equation for any dc machine analysis
these two equations matter therefore,

𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝐿 = 𝐾𝑇 𝜑𝐼

𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝐿 = 𝐾𝑇′ 𝐼 2

These are the 2 equations, ok. Now, one can see that the torque produced is directly
proportional to 𝐼 2 , in case of series motor and if you consider the motor to be this point I
told in my last class, but once again I am repeating, if I am starting the motor when it was
stationary switched on the supply then the current drawn in by the machine will be simply

𝑉
𝐼𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑠𝑒

𝐸𝑏 is absent at that time 𝑛 = 0 and torque is proportional to 𝐼 2 , in case of shunt motor it is

the armature and this is the field. If you applied the full voltage 𝐸 𝑏 absent only 𝑟𝑎 is there

833
so, armature current will be similarly, large 𝐼𝑎 . 𝐼𝑓 is of course, small rated value will flow
𝑉
whatever is there, but the torque is proportional to 𝑇𝑒 = 𝐾𝑡 𝐼𝑓 𝐼𝑎 . Therefore, the starting
𝑅𝑓

torque will be quite large in case of a series motor of similar ratings that we must specify
same rating, same kind of armature coil then the starting torque will be very large, and,
this is the thing.

Now, what are the speed depends on what? If you look at this equation this is the
relationship of speed; speed will be equal to from this equation, how speed is related?

𝑉 (𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑠𝑒 )𝐼 𝑉 (𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑠𝑒 )

𝑛= − = −
𝐾 ′𝐼 𝐾 ′𝐼 𝐾 ′𝐼 𝐾′

This will be the equation.

Now, (𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑠𝑒 ) is small. So, this small negative term you forget about so, what happens
is, this speed is practical this term will be quite small, small negative.

𝑉
𝑛≈
𝐾 ′𝐼

1
So, essentially speed is proportional to for a fixed applied voltage. Therefore, if you
𝐼

sketch, speed versus the current this current happens, to be same as armature and the
armature current is decided by load and this will have an inverse relationship like this.

So, in case of series motor, who decides the value of 𝐼? The load present on the shaft of
the machine. How much torque it has to develop? It has to be same as the load torque if it
is running steadily this we have learned therefore, the magnitude of the current drawn from
the supply is decided by the opposing load torque present on the shaft of the machine, this
is 𝑇𝐿 and this is 𝑇𝑒 . In steady state these two are same therefore, I am telling that the current
drawn from the source is decided by 𝑇𝐿 is not, load torque present on the shaft of the
machine.

And, I find that as load torque decreases, if you decrease low torque; that means, the 𝐼
value will decrease from this equation, because 𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝐿 = 𝐾𝑇′ 𝐼 2 . It is now, drawing some
current 𝐼 for some 𝑇𝐿 ; make 𝑇𝐿 half, current will decrease further reduce, these are the
steady state current I am not telling the dynamics, how the things changes?

834
Therefore, it looks like if I so, this is also degree of loading it represents; degree of loading,
mechanical loading 𝑇𝐿 so, if you decrease 𝑇𝐿 , the value of 𝐼 you will decrease not linearly,
but anyway it will decrease. If we assume that there is no opposing torque at all on the
shaft of the machine that is 𝑇𝐿 ≈ 0 suppose.

Then I find that ok, the motor to operate at steady state it must draw vanishingly small
current 𝐼, if 𝑇𝐿 value is decreased the current run this apply in the steady state has to be
very small and, if 𝐼 is very small you see speed will go up tremendously, because there is
no finite no load speed 𝐼 = 0 speed is going to be infinite. This equation tells me as 𝐼 → 0
speed appropriates infinity, large value that is why people say never ever try to start a DC
series motor. We do not ensuring that there is some mechanical load torque present;
otherwise machine will raise to a very high value of speed and thereby damaging the
motor.

Therefore a series motor should never be started with no load on the shaft of the machine
even if the practical machine, even there is no load there will be some frictional load
present which is very small then also it will be dangerous, but that is not the case in case
of shunt motor why? Because shunt motor if I draw it here, 𝐼 versus speed if you recall
there is a finite speed no low speed you recall, shunt motor.

There is absolutely no problem, because with this means 𝐼𝑎 then armature current that
decides the load torque 𝑇𝑒 = 𝐾𝑡 𝐼𝑓 𝐼𝑎 field current, I am not touching therefore, there is a
finite no load speed for a shunt motor, finite no load speed for shunt motor. But for series
motor no this is not the case this is the characteristics series motor. No finite, no load speed
in fact, it is infinite going to infinity, no load speed which is certainly not allowed.

Because, motor will be damaged and all these things therefore, keeping this in mind we
should operate a series motor although series motor has got a very large starting torque; it
will produce a large starting torque, it will accelerate fast, it can overcome if already
opposing load torque is present very fast, that is why it is very useful for traction purposes.
And, series motor will be like this, torque is proportional to like that.

We will come at this a come to this point several times as we go on discussing about it
further. For example, in case of a so, this is one characteristics of series motor that is speed
versus 𝐼 and we have seen torque is proportional to 𝐼 2 is not that I have seen therefore,

835
these axis also represent torque, because although it is not linearly proportional. But, you
can always write

𝐼 ∝ √𝑇𝑒

𝐼 ∝ √𝑇𝐿

If this is 𝐼 it in some way represent to √𝑇𝑒 or the electromagnetic torque present on this
shaft of the machine and this axis is what speed ? So, at no load 𝐼 is the degree of loading
decides by armature current and this is origin therefore, it will be like that, ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:43)

Therefore, machine will run at this speed. When speed is very small that is suppose at the
time of starting the machine, toque developed by the machine will be very high this is √𝑇𝑒 ,
but anyway 𝑇𝑒 when you are going to start the motors with these small zero speed therefore,
torque will be very high, but as machine picks up speed, back emf comes, 𝐼 decreases and
electromagnetic torque decreases and leave it to the motor. Motor will always try to seek
a steady operating point where 𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝐿 and then it will run at steady speed.

But in absence of any opposing load torque present on the shaft, machine will go on trying
to make the current zero, how the machine can makes a current zero? Suppose there is no
just physically let us try to understand, what is going to happen? This is your circuit you
have applied voltage, suppose I say machine is started from the what go when speed was

836
zero I have switched on the supply and let us assume there is no load torque 𝑇𝐿 = 0
absolutely no load torque at that time what will happen?

You have energized the circuit at the time 𝑡 = 0 + it will draw very large current, large
starting torque will be there, electromagnetic torque will be present and machine will
accelerate fast, speed will go up; at as speed goes up this back emf appears which is
proportional to 𝐼 × 𝑛 so, speed goes up this goes up, but 𝐼 decreases is not.

Mission is not knowing all these things, it only see I have to increase this speed further,
because 𝐼 is decreasing so, that it draws enough current to balance 𝑇𝐿 , but 𝑇𝐿 = 0 so, it
will try to make this 𝐼 = 0 trying very hard to rise it is speed as much as it can; that means,
it will go on increasing the speed, with 𝑇𝐿 = 0 what it is seeking? It is seeking that I must
make 𝐼 = 0, because there is no low torque present.

So, how load torque, load torque will be balanced by 𝑇𝑒 ; 𝑇𝑒 ∝ 𝐼 2 therefore, how it can
make 𝐼 = 0 it can make 𝐼 = 0 provided this back emf and supply voltages are equal then
only current drawn by the machine will be zero, but how it can make, how 𝐸𝑏 can match
supply voltage? Only by raising speed higher and higher, it goes on trying to do that.

In the process speed approaches infinitely large such that finally, current drawn has to be
made zero, because you are telling your load torque is absent, but in presence of load
torque, it will it is speed will rise soon it will find a steady operating point where the load
torque and electromagnetic torque will match and it will draw a finite current and machine
will run steadily at that speed that is the whole idea. See in series motor that is the
interesting part of it therefore, in series motor never operated or tried to start a DC series
motor we do not ensuring that there is no ensured that there is load torque present, then
attempt to start then it will really reach a final steady operating point and your machine
will operate fine, .

So, this is the thing, but whenever you draw this speed versus current or speed versus
𝑉
torque characteristics I must, because you see this equation is what? 𝑛 ≈ 𝐾′ 𝐼 and minus
(𝑟𝑎 +𝑟𝑠𝑒 )
some negative number something will come, but this number I do not bother,
𝐾′

because that is the small negative number it is telling to be subtracted why it is a small
number? Because (𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑠𝑒 ) is quite small so, the moment I draw these characteristics I

837
must also right at what? That is 𝑉 you may now think that I will control 𝑉 perhaps, to
control the speed of the machine got the point.

See one obvious thing is from these I now, learned that this speed torque characteristics I
can change it to another characteristics, I can draw if the applied voltage I change for
example, if I decrease this supply voltage 𝑉 to say 𝑉1 if it is decreased these characteristics
will remain same, but it will now come below is not a family of curves can be drawn where
𝑉1 < 𝑉.

Therefore, if you are supplying a constant load torque, machine will run at different speed
decrease it further is not, I can then control the speed by controlling the applied voltage
across the machine terminal, this voltage you vary assumed some load torque constant this
is the 𝑇𝐿 suppose and therefore, you will think it is not 𝑇𝐿 , but 𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝐿 it has to be a constant
load torque means, a constant current I draw a vertical line and therefore, you will get
different operating points.

So, this is one way of controlling speed of a series motor. In this context I would like to
tell you another important thing see ultimately, what is happening here as you switched on
the supply as I told you initially current is large electromagnetic torque, in absence of any
load torque present, it will accelerate fast so, that 𝐼 value decreases it will try to make it
zero; so, that these back emf matches 𝑉 which it can do with smaller value of 𝐼 with large
𝑛 that is what I told you and it is avoided that is finally, it is looking for a final steady state
operating point where 𝐼 drawn has to be zero, how it can do it ?

In this context one point so, that it has got similar argument that is why I am telling for
example, consider a shunt motor; this is an interesting part a DC shunt motor is like this,
suppose here you are applying voltage is not and making is running steadily in this case
what happens? Switch on the supply field current is finite 𝑛 = 0 initially, armature current
𝑉
is 𝑟 torque is developed not as a larger torque as in a DC motor, but anyway it will develop
𝑎

a starting torque and if it can overcome load torque let us assume load torque is absent; in
this case what is happening?.

This is 𝑟𝑎 back emf will appear, 𝐸𝑏 will rise if load torque is absent finally 𝐼𝑎 = 0, because
𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝐿 so, final 𝐼𝑎 it can be zero provided your back emf matches 𝑉 then this current will
be these

838
 𝑉 − 𝐸𝑏
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑟𝑎

In this case since, this flux was independent of this armature current flux remain constant
therefore, it is there is a finite speed then, because machine can nicely speed up it is 𝐸𝑏 ∝
𝐼𝑓 𝑛.

This speed will go up to a there exists a finite value of speed which will make

𝑉 = 𝐾𝐼𝑓 𝑛 = 𝐸𝑏

𝐼𝑎 = 0

That is how you get finite speed this is known, but the point I want to tell in this machine
also shunt motor; only one precaution one should take for example, you at least must
ensure what you know some students were when working with a DC shunt motor in the
laboratory while connecting the field winding, armature winding they have correctly
connected.

But suppose the field connection is a not formally made some loose thing is there that is
this field coil these are the field terminals, while you connected there is some loose
connection here. Are you getting me? This connections are not formed you should then
you just ask yourself ok, motor is working nice running at certain speed 𝑛 rpm then what
happens is this field circuit becomes open, because of that loose connection.

What will be the consequence of that? So, what is this statement of the problem? A shunt
motor operating steadily ok, at 𝑛 supplying some load torque drawing some finite armature
current running at finite speed then let us also put it like this I suppose I have connected a
shorting switch I will open this; when the shunt motor was operating steadily I will open
this that is I will make field collapse, but still the armature is connected across the supply
then what is going to happen? That means, what will be the flux per pole now?

I should not say zero the flux per pole will become equal to the residual flux whatever very
little flux no doubt 𝐼𝑓 has vanished, but there is opposing load torque present and suddenly
the field circuit become open circuited; if such a thing happens, this is weakening of the
field current what happens to this speed? Speed will go up you have as if reducing the field

839
current is not, we have seen to increase this speed above base speed we control the field
current reduce the field current increase this resistance speed will go up.

But, in this case an extreme situation open this field has become so, much we cannot that
it approach almost 𝜑𝑟𝑒𝑠 , but making a will pretreated as if you have a changed the field
current to a very extremely low value. So, that the flux per pole is 𝜑𝑟𝑒𝑠 . So, what the motor
will try to do? It will try with this small residual field

𝐸𝑏 = 𝐾𝜑𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑛

When you open the switch this is the scenario and load torque is constant so, with less
value of 𝜑𝑟𝑒𝑠 how electromagnetic torque can match the load torque? It will require some
current which will make final steady state armature current into 𝜑𝑟𝑒𝑠 same as load current.
So, machine speed will raise so, that armature current decreases and it will speed up to
also very large value in order to match that.

So, a shunt motor now, nicely operating. If by chance it is field circuit becomes open a
dangerous situation speed will once again rise to a very high value that is why while
connecting a shunt motor make sure that field circuit connections are very tightly done.
No question of this that loosely do not connect any terminal here, otherwise you will run
the risk motor is running fine, but because of something this where comes out flux
collapses almost to zero. Then machine does not know machine will try to make its speed
as high as possible.

So, that it will draw enough current which will make I a into phi residual is equal to your
load torque and in order to do that n will be very large. So, this point I just want to make
in series motor of course, there is nothing like if it is a open circuit here ok, machine is
disconnected nothing suppose the these field circuit open circuit means, what? Armature
is also disconnected from the supply such a, but here the problem is different you must
ensure there is load torque present.

That is why there is no separate protection taken for the field circuit in a shunt motor; if
you want to take a protection connect fuse wires in the lines for the motor has such fuse
wires some bodies may say oh I will connect also fuse wire for protection of field circuit
and protection for armature circuit separately no, no never do that. Because who knows
this field if you connect a fuse wires here if it just goes off then you will be in a terrible

840
situation speed will rest to a high value, commutation failure that will be sparks this, that
current will shoot up. So, these are interesting practical phenomena which may occur if
you are a little bit careless in handling DC motor.

So, remember that in case of DC series motor, always ensure opposing load torque is
present you cannot afford to start a DC series motor, we do not any load torque. Then
machine speed will rest to high value mechanical failure, there may be damaging the
commutated segment brasses, this, that several problems we will take place so, we will
continue with this in the next class.

Thank you.

841
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 87
Series Motor Speed Control

(Refer Slide Time: 00:19)

Welcome to lecture number 87, we were discussing about Series Motor. So, the basic
characteristics of series motor, we have seen one of the characteristics is speed versus
current and this current is proportional to √𝑇𝑒 . So, series motor the connection is one of
the simplest connection. So, this is the motor and this is the series field few turns ok.

Any way this is the thing and here is the applied voltage 𝑉 and the field current and
armature current are same because, of the series connection and speed torque
characteristics is like this. Which is inverse in nature, we have seen that ok. And therefore,
with load torque vanishingly small speed will go up. And torque is proportional to 𝐼 2 that
is what we have seen.

If saturation is neglected saturation neglected. So, if you simply sketch torque developed
by the machine against current 𝐼. So, at 𝐼 = 0, 𝑇𝑒 = 0. So, it will be some parabolic way
it will go on increasing, but what happens is this if you go on increasing the current a time

842
will come when flux per pole will not be proportional to 𝐼 at large value of current it will
reach saturation.

So, what people say that at large value of 𝐼𝑎 it will be almost like a straight line after that.
So, this is saturation as takes place and if you say no saturation it will go on increasing
parallel. So, torque versus 𝐼 characteristics. In case of shunt motor you remember, the
torque versus armature current characteristics 𝑇𝑒 versus armature current for shunt motor
was linear in nature because, 𝑇𝑒 ∝ 𝐼𝑓 𝐼𝑎 is not 𝐼𝑓 is constant.

So, and there was armature current and field current at different. So, it was a straight line,
but it was in case of series motor it will be parabolic in nature. And if you neglect saturation
it will go on increasing like this. With saturation of course, it will become once again
proportional to I mean that 𝐼 is the armature current is not torque is proportional to this is
the true thing.

So, initially 𝜑 ∝ 𝐼, it is this portion after that 𝜑 is arrested to a fixed value because, of
saturation, but it is proportional to then 𝐼 that is what we get it. Therefore, to control the
speed of series motor we have seen, we can vary the armature voltage. I should not say
armature voltage terminal voltage of the machine. Of course, this terminal voltage will be
very close to that of back EMF.

Because after all 𝑟𝑎 and 𝑟𝑠𝑒 both are small it has to be. So, it is with respect to some
parameter voltage 𝑉 it is like this and if you want to control the speed, you can get a family
of curves with 𝑉1 and 𝑉2. So, that 𝑉2 < 𝑉1 < 𝑉, where 𝑉 is the rated voltage. Now can I
control the in case of shunt motor what did we do? To control the speed below the base
value, we control the armature voltage.

I connected the motor as a separately excited motor and varied the armature voltage to
control the speed below the base speed. Above the base speed if you want to control the
speed, one could increase the armature voltage no doubt, but armature voltage has got a
rated value up to that only I will be able to control the voltage. So, if I want to have this
speed above the base speed or rated speed of the machine, field control was adopted
weakening the field current means your raising the speed higher and higher. In case of
series motor, can I also control the field current?

843
Apparently if you look at this circuit diagram separate field control is not possible how?
Because, armature and field current theirs one and the same because, of this series
connection ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:25)

So, in case of series motor how to control; field current in series motor? There are very
interesting ways of controlling the field current. So, in other words, what I am telling is
that; that is it possible to connect the motors in a slightly different way. So, that I will be
having some say separately on the field current. Let us see one of the things. For example,
if I say that I have a 2 pole machine 𝑃 = 2; 2 pole series motor.

Means, what on each pole face there are this is one pole face this is the other pole face
identical number of turns are there and these two are I have told you connected in series
and this is your Se1 and Se2 that is what I introduce to you the field coils. So, I see there
are two separate field coils. Now, these two field coils, I can slightly play with in this
fashion. So, in normal series motor they are connected in series these two are the terminals
and then there are armature terminals.

This is what we have done so far A1 and A2 and this A1 is connected with Se1 this two
are in series supply with the voltage like that. So far what we have done? I can do this way,
this is my armature terminals A1 and A2. There are two coils I will now show them two
coil like this. This is coil 1 and coil 2 and this two I will connect in series and this is what
I am telling Se1 and Se2 and then you connect these two in series. This is the normal way

844
of connecting series motor and you see your 𝐼 is same as the field current flux per pole
will be there.

But another innovation can be done. It is like this is the armature fine this two coils I will
connect them in parallel. This coil and this coil I will connect them in parallel and this I
will treat as my field coil terminals and connect these two in series I can do that. In that
case the armature current and the current which is producing flux per pole, they will be
𝐼 𝐼
different. In fact, if it is 𝐼 and if this two coils are identical this will be 2 and this will be
2

This is your supply voltage, 𝑉 got the idea?

So, a two pole machine having two coils I can connect either in this way or I can connect
this two coils in parallel and then this parallel combination in series with the armature and
get it like this. Then I will say that for the same current 𝐼 here the current in these two coils
𝐼 𝐼
are 2 and 2. Therefore, if flux per pole 𝜑 which is important 𝐾𝜑𝐼𝑎 is the torque back EMF

is 𝐾𝜑𝑛 what is 𝜑; 𝜑 is the flux per pole. So, flux per pole in this case, if it is 𝜑 in this case
𝜑
it will be 2 is not? Because, your passing through the same number of turns up the current.

Therefore, you have weakened the flux by two times. And in effect we have weakened the
flux got the point? Let me tell you in a I mean something mathematically ok. This is the
applied voltage 𝑉 I think your following me, the way I want to train you is that in DC
machine to get the quick results I am always emphasising this point armature resistance
whichever things are connected in series with the armature for example, field coils their
having very low value of resistance.

So, to understand what is happening very quickly? You neglect those resistances and you
can reach the correct conclusion very quickly. For example, let us assume 𝑟𝑎 is vanishingly
small 𝑟𝑠𝑒 is vanishingly small in this case you find the machine is running at a speed 𝑛.
What I am telling ok? This motor in this fashion is observe to run at a steady state speed
𝑛1 . What is this speed? I will straight way write if this resistances are neglected, then it is
only the back EMF which will be present. And back EMF is

𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 = 𝐾𝜑𝑛1 = 𝐾𝐼𝑛1

𝑉
𝑛1 =
𝐾𝐼

845
So, this will be the situation. In this case once again back EMF is same with no resistance
present here back EMF will be same as the supply voltage because, no drops. So,

𝐼
𝑉 = 𝐾 𝑛2
2

The new speed I want to find out 𝑛2 let us call this is 𝑛1 . So,

2𝑉
𝑛2 = = 2𝑛1
𝐾𝐼

So, now, the speed will be twice that approximately twice of the speed. Provided it is
loaded to same current same armature current got the point? Therefore, you see I have
weakened the flux in a indirect way speed is more now. So, I can connect the field coils in
a way I have connected and of course, with a two polar machine you can we can the flux
for the same armature current in both the cases. Only two things you can do, that is connect
them in series or in parallel. If it is a four pole machine of course, you can do more things
𝑃 = 4.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:24)

That means, physically there are four coils present this is one pole this is another pole sorry
this is another pole, this is another pole and each one of them is having coils identical coils
4 pole machine. Therefore, I can do several things now connect all the field coils in series.
And consider this to be your series field terminals connect them in series with the motor.

846
This is the applied voltage, let it carry current. You could connect all the coils in parallel.
And if the machine is loaded to carry its rated current armature current, in this case current
𝐼
flowing through each coil is 𝐼 itself, but here it will be if there identical coil, it will be 4

current will be divided there is no back EMF here only resistances.

So, flux per pole compare to this is reduced by factor of 4. You could also connect two in
series another two in series and connect it like this. So, in this case flux per pole will be
reduced by factor of 2 and so on; therefore, field control can be done one of the way nice
way of doing it is this way, but not like a smooth field current control as we did in case of
a shunt motor.

In shunt motor the connection was like this and this is the resistance we controlled to
decrease the flux per pole that is all, but here in discreet steps some 4 speeds may be
possible 1, 2, 3 level of speed control can be possible you must keep this in wind. Any way
if you do not like to neglect the resistance all the resistances are there 𝑟𝑎 𝑟𝑠𝑒 then I will
write very faithfully, the back EMFs and the torque equation and also let us not assume
low torque remains constant or not.

And I will write down the torque equation balancing the low torque that is and the back
EMF equations, take their ratios and you will be able to solve the problem understood this
point. Another way of controlling the speed is called use field control in series motor.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:23)

847
Field control of series motor by using a diverter resistance. What it is? It is telling that this
is the motor and this is the our original field where I have not separated two coils at least
two coils we have and they are connected in series as I told you. This way you connect it
and then your 𝐼𝑎 and 𝐼𝑎 for same your answer tied you cannot control the field current
separately.

But what you do know? You connect a resistance in parallel with the field circuit and this
resistance is the diverter resistance called the diverter resistance. Where is this diverter
resistance 𝑅𝑑𝑖𝑣 , then what happens is this when the machine is running is steadily at certain
rpm 𝑛 and drawing some current 𝐼. Then the field current we have been able to make it
different from 𝐼 because this current is suppose 𝐼𝑑 this current is 𝐼𝑓 I can say.

In this case I must write the electromagnetic torque developed by the machine is not
proportional to 𝐼 2 it will be proportional to the armature current here is now, a clear
distinction between field current and armature current 𝑇𝑒 ∝ 𝐼𝐼𝑓 . And back EMF is also
should be carefully written is at proportional to field current 𝐸𝑏 ∝ 𝐼𝑓 𝑛. And how 𝐼𝑓 and 𝐼
r related? It will be related if this total current is 𝐼. Then

𝑟𝑠𝑒
𝐼𝑑 = 𝐼
𝑟𝑠𝑒 + 𝑅𝑑𝑖𝑣

𝑅𝑑𝑖𝑣
𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼
𝑟𝑠𝑒 + 𝑅𝑑𝑖𝑣

What is 𝐼? 𝐼 is the armature current. So, this way also you can control the field current in
the machine. There is another called tap field, we are not going into that there is a in that
case what happen series field has got several taps 1 2 3 step. And you can this is not a very
popular method.

Because you have to make and break the circuit in order to your supply comes here, field
winding then armature. You can vary the number of turns of the field circuit tap field just
I am mentioning. I have mentioned it in my notes also, you see those notes have been
uploaded go through it and try to find out several aspects of speed control of series motor
by controlling the armature not armature separately supply voltage, terminal voltage by
controlling the field current these are very nice thing.

848
So, I mean field can be connected in series parallel and several flux weakening scheme
can be incorporated. Whatever little time is left, I will now just tell you to just solving one
numerical problem.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:42)

For example, if I say that neglect armature and field resistances of a series motor. Suppose
you neglect those resistances I say that a series motor is connected like this and I say that
you have applied 200 volt plus minus and it was seen drawing a current of 10 ampere and
running it at a steady speed of say1000 rpm. So, this is 𝑛1 and this is 𝑉1 applied voltage 10
ampere like that it is doing like this ok.

And suppose I say case 1 𝑇𝐿 is constant no matter at what speed the load torque rotates
load torque opposite torque is constant. So, we know this is 𝑇𝑒 and this is 𝑇𝐿 . So, from the
initial steady state conditions, I can say that 200 volt applied voltage is equal to this
resistance and this resistances are neglected. So, supply voltage will be balanced by the
back EMF. And what is the back EMF? Back EMF is proportional to flux per pole.

That is proportional to

200 = 𝐾 × 10 × 1000

And also I will write that electromagnetic torque now, produced neglect saturation suppose
I say saturation neglected. Electromagnetic torque developed is equal to

849
 ̅ × 102
𝑇𝑒1 = 𝑇𝐿1 = 𝐾

This is these corresponding to this steady state operation.

Suppose I say now, what I have done is this supply voltage has been changed to 150 volt.
I want to know, what is the speed and what is the current drawn by the machine. Case 1
load torque is constant. So, how much current it is now going to draw from the supply, if
you have reduced the supply voltage to 150 volt and what will be the new speed? Low
torque

̅ × 𝐼2
𝑇𝑒2 = 𝑇𝐿2 = 𝐾

If load torque is constant this is the thing. Therefore, if you take the ratio between 2 and 3

𝐼𝑎2 2 𝑇𝐿2
( ) = =1
10 𝑇𝐿1

And if 𝑇𝐿2 and 𝑇𝐿1 are same as per this statement, this is equal to 1 and I will say 𝐼𝑎2 will
remain unchanged. Final steady state current when you have applied 150 volt is going to
be this.

What will be the new speed? New speed will be equal to

150 = 𝐾𝐼𝑛2

I mean I should not write 𝐼𝑎2 because, if they are same got the point? So, what will be 𝑛2
now? So, this one this and this you take the ratio that is

200 10 × 1000
=
150 10 × 𝑛2

I have got 10 ampere once again in the second case.

So, 𝐼2 is also 10 ampere. Therefore, 10 × 𝑛2 or you can then calculate

150
𝑛2 = × 1000 = 750
200

So, speed will be reduced by the same factor as you have reduce the supply voltage ok.

850
Thank you, we will continue with this in this.

851
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 88
Universal Motor

(Refer Slide Time: 00:19)

Welcome to lecture number 88. And, we have been discussing about series motor, and it
is speed control I mean, controlling the applied voltage, as well as how to control the field
current. Because, in general field current and armature current are same so, you must make
a distinction between these two issue you want to weaken the field of the machines. Several
techniques I have told you.

Only one point I will tell that, what happens is these for example, in traction purposes.
Series motors are used because it can give you large starting torque and running torque
required is less; therefore, series motor had been very widely used for traction purposes.

But, nowadays as I am telling you, once again people are going for induction motor drive
in traction even. But, nonetheless series motors were used for a long time; in fact, Calcutta
Tram still uses DC motors or Kolkata Metro uses DC series motors too for traction
purposes.

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Now in general, what they do is this or in general for tractions, there may be several DC
motors. So, at the time of starting, more than one DC motors are used. For example,
suppose we have got two motors; this is one motor, series motor and this is another series
motor. I mean, I will just give you idea, how to analyze these things. What they do is this
at the time of starting the motor, this is one motor field and armature this is field an
armature for another motor.

These two motors at the time of starting they will connect them in series and apply the
voltage 𝑉 like this. 𝑉 is the rated voltage for each of the motor. So, you can connect these
𝑉
two motors in series and apply the same rated voltage 𝑉 means you have applied 2 across

each of it, half the rated voltage you have then applied it means that, is not. And also you
can connect them in parallel. This is another motor connect them in parallel and apply 𝑉.
That is perhaps at the time of starting, you apply half voltage may be some resistance will
be also necessary to restrict the starting current, that is not the issue, but you can get two
different speeds in this way. You connect them in series, then we have just indicated for a
motor.

If you reduce the voltage by certain amount for same load current or whatever it is you can
calculate the speeds and similarly you can connect them in parallel and you can get another
voltage. And on top of it if you want to run it at higher speed then the individual field coils
can be connected in series or parallel. Several options are now available to control the
speed of the machines.

So, what I have planned in my next lectures, I will hold some tutorial sessions to solve
some problems on DC motors, where this kind of problem also I will discuss. There is you
can connect the two identical motors. Connect them in series, connect them in parallels
and they might have field coils switch can be separated and they can be individually
connected in series parallel to give you various speed options.

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(Refer Slide Time: 05:56)

Today, what I am planning only one point about series motor I must tell to conclude this
particular topic is that. Suppose, I pose a problem like this, suppose you have a shunt
motor, ok and you have a series motor here. And they are designed for DC fine. We ask
ourselves this question that, suppose it is a shunt motor, this is the field coil, this is your
supply. Suppose, I ask you this question; that ok, rated voltage we have applied machine
is running at some speed things like that.

Now, if I ask you that; the same motor, I will now disconnect it from the supply from this
supply disconnect it and connection I will not change anything. But, what I will do is this?
I will apply reverse voltage, once again restart the motor. What is the observation? Will
the machine run in the same direction? The answer is yes, it will run in the same direction,
because 𝑇𝑒 is proportional to the product of

𝑇𝑒 ∝ 𝐼𝑓 × 𝐼𝑎

So, it was 𝐼𝑎 , it was 𝐼𝑓 . In the second case, this is 𝐼𝑓 , this is 𝐼𝑎 , is not, both of them has
reversed; therefore, product will remain same.

So, electromagnetic torque will be in the same direction. If it was running doing like this,
in this case also it will do like this, got the point. Therefore, a shunt motor if the supply
terminals are reversed; in the steady state, it is it will be rotating in the same direction.
However, if one of them either armature or field is reversed, then of course,

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electromagnetic torque in will be in the opposite directions. So, to reverse the direction of
rotation; what we say, either you reverse the armature terminals or the field terminals, then
it will start rotating in the opposite direction, that is what we say.

After knowing this fact; that the, if the supply voltage terminal is reversed direction of
rotation does not change, it remains same. Therefore, we ask our self; that ok, I have the
same DC motor, shunt motor and I will do like this instead of connecting it to a DC supply.
I now plan after knowing these facts; that if, supply voltage reverses torque produced in
the machine is in the same direction, if that be the case, then, I will do one experiment. I
will connect it to an AC source, instead of DC supply I will connect some 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜔𝑡.

And I will see to it that the voltage applied to the machine is not exceeded beyond its rated
value; such that 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 I will select in that, 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜔𝑡 I am applying. And then I am
thinking that this fact is known, now I have applied AC voltage; therefore, supply voltage
will reverse on its own. I do not have to do that changeover myself. And therefore, this
machine should work as a motor when it is connected to AC supply.

That is the question I am asking to you. Will it really work, if you apply an AC voltage
instead of a DC voltage and you have undertaken enough precaution that this applied
voltage magnitude is not exceeded its rated value. Therefore, then I say that machine is
because, this currents will be now like this 𝑖𝑓 and 𝑖𝑎 , instantaneous currents, time varying
AC voltage I have applied whether it will work. Because I know this fact; if supply voltage
reverses torque remains unidirectional, it is expected it should be work, this is this thing.

Now, the answer to this question is; that torque is 𝑇𝑒 ∝ 𝐼𝑓 × 𝐼𝑎 , product of 𝐼𝑓 × 𝐼𝑎 no doubt.
In case of shunt motor; at least at the time of starting if you see the inductance of this field
circuit is very large. Why? Because number of turns of the field coils of a shunt motor is
large inductance is proportional to 𝑛2 , therefore field circuit inductance is very large.
Whereas the armature circuit inductance is very small, only leakage flux is not quadrature
axis reluctance is also high.

So, what happens is this? If this is the supply voltage, in this case what will happen? This
is your voltage, the field current at the time of starting I am drawing ok. Machine was not
running, I have switched on this AC voltage. Then what is 𝑖𝑓 and 𝑖𝑎 will be; 𝑖𝑓 phasor will

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 𝑣
be approximately 90° lagging. And this 𝑖𝑎 , which is approximately at the time of
𝑟𝑎

starting, no back emf nothing like that.

So, 𝑖𝑎 will be in phase with this current. Therefore, you see the field current and armature
current will be practically 90° apart. So, what will happen is this? If this is armature
current, this is 𝑖𝑎 . Field current will be lagging it here; field current will be 90° lagging the
armature current. So, field current will be something like this here, is not. So, this is your
𝑖𝑓 . That will be this situation.

Therefore, you see that torque, which is proportional to 𝐼𝑓 × 𝐼𝑎 , and this is mind you 20ms
50Hz supply .Therefore, in this zone if you see 𝐼𝑓 × 𝐼𝑎 is negative this product. During this
zone, 𝐼𝑓 × 𝐼𝑎 product is positive, is not during this zone 𝐼𝑓 × 𝐼𝑎 is in one direction, negative.
During this zone 𝐼𝑓 × 𝐼𝑎 product is positive, then during this zone 𝐼𝑓 × 𝐼𝑎 product is
negative 𝐼𝑓 is positive, but 𝐼𝑎 is negative. So, over a cycle and during this zone 𝐼𝑓 and 𝐼𝑎
both are negative, so positive. Therefore, the average torque will become zero and motor
will not work, it will never start.

So, a shunt motor if somebody thinks that, knowing this fact that if I reverse the supply
voltage terminal. Torque direction remains intact same direction torque. And then he
thinks that I will then energize it with AC voltage 50 Hertz it should work, but it will not
because, field inductance is very large or 𝜔𝐿 is very large of the field circuit compared to
armature circuit. So, 𝑖𝑎 and 𝑖𝑓 will be out of phase by 90°. Therefore, average
electromagnetic torque will be zero over a cycle and motor inertia will only respond to the
average torque. So, it will not work.

So, a shunt motor will never work with AC supply out of question. Because 𝑖𝑓 and 𝑖𝑎
therefore, it is essential that if a DC motor works from AC supply. Then 𝑖𝑓 and 𝑖𝑎 must be
in same time phase, is not. If 𝑖𝑓 and 𝑖𝑎 ; if this is your 𝑖𝑓 and this is your 𝑖𝑎 , same time phase
then this product will be always positive this up this up also.

So, unidirectional torque will be produced. This is suppose 𝑖𝑓 and 𝑖𝑎 are in phase time
phase. Then the product of 𝑖𝑓 × 𝑖𝑎 will be always positive and torque produced will be
always in the same direction. No matter; whether both of them are positive or both of them

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are negative, because it is the product of this two that decides the torque. Therefore, it
looks like then 𝑖𝑓 and 𝑖𝑎 will be in phase provided if it is a series motor.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:16)

This is the field, this is the this one, it is a series motor; this is series motor. In this case, if
you apply an AC supply, I do not care, because this current; armature current and field
current are same and they cannot, but change together. That is in this case; both armature
current and field current are same and they are indistinguishable. Therefore, it is like this;
this is suppose, small 𝑖 better indicate if it is to be operate under ac. This 𝑖 is nothing,

𝑖 = 𝑖𝑎 = 𝑖𝑓

Therefore, the electromagnetic torque produced will be 𝑇𝑒 ∝ 𝑖𝑓 × 𝑖𝑎 and if I sketch it like

this it will be something like. This is the electromagnetic torque. So, always unidirectional
torque and average torque a very good average torque exist and therefore, motor will start
rotating in a particular direction. Therefore, a DC series motor is a candidate to be operated
not only from DC supply, but it looks like from AC supply as well it will work.

The question is, whether it will be operating as nicely as it will operate from a DC source
or not, that those things have to be investigated. But the point is, from the simple argument
we can say that; it is only the DC series motor perhaps it will work also from AC supply,
because 𝑖𝑎 = 𝑖𝑓 . Instantaneous and they are bound to be in time phase, because of this
series connection that is the whole idea.

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Now when a DC series motor which is designed for DC operation only should it be
operated from AC supply. I now know that it will operate with AC supply as well, but
suppose a there is a DC series motor and it is written that it is designed to operate from a
DC supply. But, I know these things, then I plan to operate it from AC supply will it be
advisable or you can have a motor where it is written that DC series motor, but it is
designed to operate from both AC and DC supply.

Therefore, what should be the differences between these two cases? Differences will be
obvious, because you know the structure of any DC machine. This is the armature and
these are the field structure. I will draw quickly like this, and these are the pole shoes it is
like this. What I told, if it is a DC motor, what I told? This iron including the pole shoes,
they are made solid iron because, it will operate on DC. But, I am not now telling these
are the field coils.

I will I have planned these armature and field coils will be in series and I plan to excite it
from AC supply. The moment you do the flux here will become a function of time.
Therefore, this flux will be flowing like this here through the arcs. And if it is solid iron
the eddy current loss, hysteresis loss will be taking place in the stated iron structure as
well. In the armature, in any case in case of DC operation also eddy current loss, hysteresis
loss takes place and that is why armature is laminated in normal DC machine as well
remember this fact. For a DC motor, which is operated which is to be operated from DC
supply alone. If you insist on that, then you solid iron for the stator iron structure, no
problem.

Of course, armature is to be laminated, but the moment you say you will operate this
machine from AC supply series motor, then you will have this problem that, this flux will
be crossing through the cross sectional area of the stator iron. Therefore there will be eddy
current hysteresis loss both in the armature and field coil. Armature is in any case
laminated, but the then I will say that this stator structure too should be laminated,
otherwise how to increase the efficiency of the machine. Therefore, a DC series motor; if
it is to be operated from AC supply.

First thing we learn is that both the stator structure the stator must be laminated. Armature
is laminated in any case; armature is laminated no matter, whether the machine, the motor
is operated from ac or dc supply. It does not matter. That is the first thing we learn.

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Then I say that this kind of motors which is designed in this way stator is laminated,
armature is laminated, then perhaps you will say that from AC supply it will operate. It
will operate not only from AC supply, but from DC supply as well and such a motor is
called universal motor, universal. Will not go much detail into it, but certainly point out
some interesting features of this universal motor.

And this motors are very much useful, in the sense that in your what is called mixie for
example, universal motors are used in the kitchen mixies are used to crush nuts this that.
Series motor characteristics is preferred, but your supply is AC, then use series motor, but
with this change stator is also laminated. Because in that case starting torque will be very
large if you want to crush something, say nuts you want to crush starting torque initial
required will be large, but after those are broken into pieces torque required will be less.

So, very good torque speed characteristics of a series motor that thing can be utilized in
such a situation. Of course you see the relationship of this supply voltage and this back
EMF. Not only the resistance drop, but now also there will be reactance drop taking place
here and also a little bit of armature will have its own inductance small inductance and its
reactance drop.

So, supply voltage phasor will be something like this, it will be I suppose this current
drawn in terms of phasor I am just indicating how things will look like

𝑉̅ = 𝐼 (̅ 𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑠𝑒 ) + 𝑗𝐼 (̅ 𝑥𝑎 + 𝑥𝑠𝑒 ) + 𝐸
̅̅̅𝑏

So, additional drops comes in, in between. It will slightly reduce the performance of the
machine. Earlier it was only resistive drop, but now reactance drop comes in. And this
reactance drops can be avoided if you use some compensating coil, that I will indicate in
my next lecture.

But, what I want to tell you is that; this is shunt motor cannot be operated from AC supply
out of question, because of the fact field winding is having very large inductance 𝐼𝑓 and 𝐼𝑎
will not be in phase. Therefore, there will be some times positive torque sometimes
negative torque average torque will be zero, motor will not be driven that is there. But in
series motor, 𝐼𝑓 and 𝐼𝑎 by virtue of their connections cannot but be in time phase. They are
forced to be in time phase. And torque is proportional to 𝑇𝑒 ∝ 𝑖𝑓 × 𝑖𝑎 , therefore, average

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torque will be there as I have indicated 𝐼𝑓 and 𝐼𝑎 in phase therefore, rotor may accelerate
and supply the load torque.

So, in my last few lectures ahead, what I will do is this, I will conclude this DC fields
motor and start some topics on testing on motors and some tutorial session. Maybe three
four lectures I will further take. In the meantime go through the where notes are uploaded.

So, go through those notes and I will only request to you; see there may be some
typographical mistakes or things like that, go through them carefully. And if you give me
a feedback, I will further correct it hopefully it is not there no mistake. But still you know
so many documents are there. So, read also books not that only the notes because no notes
like that it is only supporting the lectures I am telling I have uploaded some notes. So, have
a nice time.

Thank you.

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 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 89
Swinburne Test

(Refer Slide Time: 00:22)

Welcome to next lecture and we have been discussing with a universal motor, universal
motor which is actually series motor series motor. Why it is universal because it will
operate both from ac and dc supply ok, and the because 𝑖𝑓 and 𝑖𝑎 are in phase so,
unidirectional torque will be produced even if the current reverses with time ok. So, what
is essentially to be done is this, because it is to be supplied from ac supply from ac supply.

Therefore, if this is ac supply here and this is your 𝑖 this 𝑖 is same as 𝑖𝑓 and 𝑖𝑎 then torque
is proportional to 𝑖 2 therefore, torque will be always unidirectional even if currently versus,
but only point is if you want to any dc series motor designed for dc supply operational
only, that should not be energized to with ac supply because then the core losses will be
very high on the stator.

Therefore if a series motor is to be operated both from dc and ac supply then you must see
that the stator irons are also laminated, apart from the armature is laminated. Armature is
laminated in any case in dc supply also. So, that was the first thing, and the second thing
is I told you in this case if this is the supply voltage I will just indicate I will really not

861
analyze, but tell you fairly o l, so that you will be able to also calculate power torque what
not by drawing the further diagram of the machine.

For example since this is a series circuit this is the applied ac voltage 𝑉 and suppose the
machine is running at some speed 𝑛 and electromagnetic torque developed is equal to load
toque then it will run at steady speed. Those things are there this is the electromagnetic
torque, then your thing is that the phasor diagram tells me that it will be equal to applied
voltage, should be equal to this

𝑉̅ = 𝐼 (̅ 𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑠𝑒 ) + 𝑗𝐼 (̅ 𝑥𝑎 + 𝑥𝑠𝑒 ) + 𝐸
̅̅̅𝑏

Now, to draw the phasor diagram it is very simple because it is a series circuit you better
start first drawing because current is same for field as well as armature. So, draw first
current phasor 𝐼 ̅ if this is the current phasor, then go on adding the drops that is 𝐼 𝑟̅ 𝑎 armature
resistance drop plus 𝐼 𝑟̅ 𝑠𝑒 the resistances are of the same order very low this plus 𝑗𝐼 𝑥̅ 𝑠𝑒
series field plus, 𝑗𝐼 𝑥̅ 𝑎 armature reactance. This will be this term this term this term this
̅̅̅𝑏 and the
term and the remaining terms is your 𝐸

𝑒𝑏 = 𝑘𝜑𝑛

𝜑 is the flux per pole and 𝜑 will be here is not, because flux per pole will be in phase with
𝐼 .̅

Therefore 𝑘𝜑𝑛 is the back emf produced and back emf will be therefore, in phase with this
one, because 𝑒𝑏 after all is proportional to 𝑘𝜑𝑛, 𝜑 is time varying 𝑛 is constant it will
unidirectional torque rotor will respond to average torque whatever it is. And therefore,
this thing will be the supply voltage, and this will be the power factor angle 𝜃 at which the
machine will operate. Therefore, what you do is this if you know this supply voltage how
much current the machine is drawing so, you will be able to calculate back emf 𝑒𝑏 is equal
𝑉 minus these drops take this on the left hand side, and then the power you can easily
calculate how much a power is converted to mechanical energy that will be 𝑒𝑏 𝑖𝑎 just like
that.

Sometimes what is done to, so you see compared to dc operation its drops in the machine
will increase because of the reactances of the field and armature winding. What you can
do is to reduce this drop further you can use a compensating winding, compensating

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winding to reduce the 𝐼 𝑥̅ 𝑎 drop how idea is simple, this is the field this is the usual thing
this is the armature like this, but here you connect a coil and this coil you keep it shorted
this coil is kept shorted. It is like this one in case of a transformer for example, a
transformer suppose I keep these secondary open circuited, what will be the reactance
between these two points if you connect a supply it will see a very high reactance is not,
but if you short circuit this what will be the equivalent reactance scene between this
determinant only the leakage reactance.

So, here there is a coil here armature coil which is like this so, so it will have now armature
flux which is time bearing therefore, there is a coil here whose access is same there will
induced voltage and it is shorted therefore, reactance of this armature will be now only
leakage fellow, just like this one therefore, some compensating coil maybe connected to
reduce the drop here so, that 𝑒𝑏 will be more like that.

Anyway so, if all the parameters are given you will be able to solve since we will be
concentrating on d c supply therefore, I will not go any further to this one, but only thing
I will say mechanical power will be 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 or 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃 is the real power, from that if you
subtract the copper loss in the field and the armature you will get the real power output
that will be equal to the gross mechanical power developed by the machine.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:58)

So, anyway with this rather conclude the series motor as well ok. Now, I will today tell
you about some testing on d c machines. So, d c machines while you test you better operate

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as a motor and try to test this. One test is called a very simple test called Swinburne test
what is done for example it is a shunt motor you are running. So, you run the machine first
on shunt or separately excited motor. So, a shunt motor you connect it like this and you
give supply rated supply voltage you give.

So, this is the line current 𝐼𝐿 and this is the field current and this is armature current. So,
in Swinburne test run the motor run the motor under no load condition under no load
condition. What does this mean under no load condition that is on the shaft of the motor I
have not connected any load torque no opposing torque is acting so, far as load is
concerned; however, opposing torque is acting because of friction and windage is not,
some little opposing torque will be acting that is why it will run at a constant power and
the current drown in the armature circuit is 𝐼𝑎0 is called the no load armature current
because no load operation. So, whatever armature current it draws it should be called no
load armature current ok.

So, a little bit of mechanical power is developed that will supply the opposing frictional
torque present or core losses of the motor. Total input power

𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑇𝐿0 = 𝑉𝐼𝑓 + 𝑉𝐼𝑎0

This certainly is the field copper loss so

𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝐼𝑓

𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑉𝐼𝑎0

𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝐼𝑎0 2 𝑟𝑎

There is some back e m f, no load condition.

So, copper loss in the armature is this therefore, gross power developed by the armature
developed by the armature, will be equal to

𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑉𝐼𝑎0 − 𝐼𝑎0 2 𝑟𝑎 = (𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑟𝑎 )𝐼𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎

You can easily see that is what we have been telling you repeatedly, that if you take this
common 𝐼𝑎 common this is nothing but 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 gross power developed by the armature is

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that is what we get. Now this power 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 or this one this gross power developed is nothing
but the no load loss or rotational loss of the machine therefore, rotational loss.

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝐼𝑎0 − 𝐼𝑎0 2 𝑟𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎

And rotational loss consists of what It consists of the iron loss in the armature plus the
friction and windage loss that is present on the machine. Therefore, in the Swinburne test
what is done machine is operated on no load machine getting maybe high maybe 10 KW
D C motor, but it will draw only little power run the machine under no load condition. So,
to conduct the experiment you require only machine will draw only the no load current 𝐼𝐿0
under no load condition ok.

So, this a rotational loss is what is estimated from Swinburne test, then we will say that
only this test I will do then I will be able to predict the efficiency or performance of the
machine when the same machine is running either as a motor or as the generator we will
see that under loaded condition. So, from this test this test merely will help you to estimate
the pre rotational loss. Rotational loss mind you depends upon the speed of the machine
and level of the flux if you are not wearing the flux rated field current is flowing and speed
from no load to full load in a shunt motor changes only by a small amount is not you recall
with no external resistance connected.

So, change in speed from no load to full load current is only little, speed regulation is quite
small in a shunt motor because 𝑟𝑎 small anyway and this is 𝐼𝑎0 , so, we assume that
rotational loss is constant.

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(Refer Slide Time: 18:39)

Then I will say that suppose the same machine the same machine is operating as motor
and drawing rated armature current rated armature current say. 𝐼𝑎 ; that means, what I am
telling this is the motor is loaded this armature current is no longer 𝐼𝑎0 it is drawing the
rated armature current; field current I have not touched. So, this motor that is loaded
machine I have put now mechanical load. And same rated voltage I have applied field
𝑉
current is not going to change because I have not touched the field circuit is the field
𝑅𝑓

current, and now the machine is loaded direction of rotation there is sufficient
electromagnetic torque and so on. And load torque is equal to electromagnetic torque and
this is the situation.

Now, how to calculate the efficiency of the machine? What is known 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 is now
known is known from where from Swinburne test ok. Then I will say that that input power
I mean I am writing once again so, that you understand this is the line current now. So,

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝐼𝐿

𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝐼𝑓

𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑟𝑎

866
So power input to armature copper loss is this. So, power converted to mechanical energy
I could write straight like this here this is 𝐸𝑏 . So, from this you subtract this and this ok.
So,

𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑉𝐼𝐿 − 𝑉𝐼𝑓 − 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑟𝑎 = 𝑉𝐼𝑎 − 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑟𝑎

= 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎

Now, therefore, efficiency of the motor will be this is the gross power converted to this is
we are power input to the armature is that way also you can write

𝑉𝐼𝑎 − 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑟𝑎 − 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

𝜂𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑉𝐼𝐿

And this will be the efficiency when it is running as a motor, got the point. Therefore, you
assume many degree of loading 50% loading 𝐼𝑎 will be 50% of the rated current plus these
numbers here you will be able to predict the efficiency of the motor at various loading
condition.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:41)

Similarly, if the same machine is operating as a generator, suppose as a shunt generator

this is the field and here is your load. So, this is the load current and this is the field current
and this is your 𝐼𝑎 is not this will be the thing. So, here also I will say that and the machine
is running at speed 𝑛 which is close to the rated speed of the machine. Field current here

867
it is rated voltage so, the efficiency as a generator it will be for a generator you first
calculate it is easy to calculate the output power of the generator.

𝑉𝐼𝐿
𝜂𝐺 =
𝑉𝐼𝐿 + 𝑉𝐼𝑓 + 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑟𝑎 + 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

What is the net output power if this is the terminal voltage 𝑉𝐼𝐿 , this is the power output to
the generator, divided by input mechanical power mind you there is a prime mover prime
mover which is driving the machine with speed N.

So, 𝑉𝐼𝐿 is the output and what will be the input output that is 𝑉𝐼𝐿 plus all the losses what
are the losses 𝑉𝐼𝑓 field copper loss in this circuit plus armature copper loss 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑟𝑎 . This is
𝑟𝑎 and this is this here it is generated voltage 𝐸𝑔 . So,

𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝐼𝐿 + 𝑉𝐼𝑓 + 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑟𝑎 + 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

In case of generator you have to connect a prime mover that is the source of all the power
to the system. So, in case of generator it is very easy to estimate the output power divided
and get the input power.

Similarly, here also you can predicted the efficiency of the generator at various degree of
currents supplied to the load. Mind you here it is 𝐼𝐿 = (𝐼𝑎 − 𝐼𝑓 ) applying kcl at this point
So, this is how you can do it. So, this is the simplest test Swinburne test run the machine
as a motor run the no load condition, estimate the rotational loss estimate the rotational
loss this fellow from the it is running as a motor since it is running as a motto in case of
motor what happens is this input power is very easy to calculate 𝑉𝐼𝐿 from that you start go
and subtracting the losses. If it is running under no load condition initially then I mean the
earlier one if it is running under no load condition. So, current drawn is 𝐼𝐿0 .

There is some opposing torque present which is very little because of friction windage and
also here there is power loss in the code. So, these two together and power loss in the code
is proportional to speed and the strength of the flux that decides the ad current and if these
two are constant I am not touching field current speed is not changing too much because
no external resistance connected speed regulation is only maybe 2 to 5% from no load to
full load current therefore, you estimate what is known as the rotational power.

868
And that rotational power you freeze it let it now run as a motor fully loaded then he will
be able to calculate efficiency because I now know the rotational loss this fellow is being
known I will in case of motor from input power you go on subtracting the losses field
copper loss armature copper loss and rotational loss then whatever power will be left that
is the actual mechanical power net mechanical power this net.

So, I subtract 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 an input is 𝑉𝐼𝐿 I will be able to predict the efficiency of the machine.
Although this method is simple, but and it is attractive in the sense suppose it is the big
machine 20 KW machine. Base thing would have been you load the machine see the
performance because this never tells you anything when these large current flows is
commutation visually you can see commutation is fine nothing you can do about that, you
only assume code loss to remain constant. So, in our next class I will tell you direct method
of testing the machine I will just point out that method and then I will tell you another
interesting way of testing the machine that is called Hopkinson Test so.

Thank you for the next class.

869
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 90
Hopkinson Test

Welcome to the lectures on DC motor testing’s. So, last time we learned about the
Swinburne test which is one of the simplest tests, but at the same time it does not tell you
many things. I mean you will never be able to predict really how machine when carrying
the rated current will behave those things they are not there in this Swinburne test. You
estimate the rotational loss and on pen and paper you go on predicting what will be the
efficiency, how much torque will be produced is that?

But, another way of testing that looks like by direct load the machine, but as I told you
loading a machine by connecting the mechanical load of a large machines are 50 kilowatt
DC machine; 50 kilowatt load is very difficult to obtain. In any case what is done is this
that is called brake test.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:26)

See DC brake test direct loading, sorry this method is called direct loading. And so, the
second method is direct loading, what is done or it is also called DC by using braking
mechanical braking, we will do the test, let us see the arrangement; arrangement is simple.

870
Suppose, this is the motor this is the motor ok; this is the motor, this is the shaft of the
motor shaft ok. Now, on the shaft of the motor a another drum type thing is connected on
the shaft of the motor, it is coupled. And, here so this is called pulley sort of thing and
what will happen is this I will just tell you the arrangement.

So, from the end if you see this end it will be like this that will be easier, this is the shaft
of the machine shaft. Now, here there is a grooved pulley is connected ok. A cylindrical
thing is inserted and firmly connected here. Now, and the machine shaft is like this so
motor is there. So, this is the shaft of the motor shaft.

And, what you do is this now you connect a belt, this is the belt, which will go through the
group of the this pulley ok. And, there will be and this these sides are connected you can
adjust a you can move it like this. So, that the tension in this pulleys can be adjusted. For
example, there will be some like your nut and bolt arrangement.

So, you can move this either this direction or that direction. It may so, happen that the
tensions. So, that it will develop tension, in these strings. It may so happen that what I
mean to say that this is the pulley drum this is a drum; drum you call it and this is the shaft
of the machine, shaft of the machine is this. And, these two are very loosened the screws
are loosened, then how it will and it is honest a stationary structure it is fixed here.

So, this belt will then hang like this it will it may. So, happen if the tensions on the strings
are loosened, it will be like this, it is not touching these. Now, adjusting the tension here,
you can push it up and so, that it comes into the groove and which is connected to the shaft
got the point. And, there will be an indicator like a weighing machine, mechanical
weighing machine, which will give you the tension you have applied to this two sides of
this string belt, this is belt.

Therefore, if these tensions are not there it will just slack like this and if the motor is
running it is running under no load is not. If the motor is so, the pulleys are here in this
diagram if I want to show this is the belt here, it will go like this and on the top it is
connected to these are stationary. So, you can adjust the tension of these strings. Now,
what you do it was loosened very much the tensions you tight them. So, that it will fit in
there in the groove and then, suppose this will give you the force applied here, how much
and this is force applied there. How much force?

871
Therefore, the difference of these two will give you the torque produced torque you have
applied to this rotating thing if this is suppose radius of the pulley

𝑇𝐿 = (𝐹1 − 𝐹2 )𝑅

So, this is the mechanical opposing torque you will apply on the shaft of the machine. So,
you are directly mechanically loading it any the moment this is very it will go inside the
groove with 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 and you have applied an opposing torque. If, 𝐹1 is greater than 𝐹2
the torque you will apply like this and machine must be rotating in this direction, then only
it will be loaded clear.

So, this is the load torque present on the shaft of the machine. And, suppose the machine
is running at a high speed 1000 rpm and you have loaded the machine. So, this will give
you the net mechanical torque on the machine, where that power will go. It will only heat
this pulley and the belt in this junction. It will not do going to do any mechanical work,
the same power is to be drawn from the supply for this machine. And, that power majority
of the power will be dissipated on the shaft it will become very hot. So, it is called direct
loading method.

So, you calculate this is the load torque, multiply the load torque with 2𝜋𝑛 where 𝑛 is in
rps, you will get the mechanical power output and here you measure what is the input
power. The moment you load the machine directly you will see armature current emitter
rating is increasing. And, therefore, you can calculate the efficiency of the machine directly
this output power will be how much, the difference of the tension into what is these 𝑅, no
resistance it is the radius of the pulley, effective radius into 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑛 in rps. This is the
output power and your input power is 𝑉𝐼𝐿 got the point.

(𝐹1 ~𝐹2 )𝑅 × 2𝜋𝑛

𝜂=
𝑉𝐼𝐿

So, this is called direct machine. And, this time armature will carry the rated current, it
will draw whatever power it delivers to the so called load here, which is dissipated as heat
simply as heat, that power of course, is to be drawn apart along with that power of course,
the other losses will be the input power.

So, it is not a very efficient method of doing this just directly loading the machine, but
there are a couple of small problems you will be able to solve it. So, what I do here on the

872
shaft we connect directly with the load. At least I mimicked the load, it is not running a
pump and raising water in the laboratory I cannot do that, but laboratory arrangement I can
do this. Knowing fully well all the powers will be wasted here, this you cannot touch after
doing this experiment it will become too hot, this pulley inside group and the belt as a
friction heat power it will be lost. But, nonetheless it will give you idea you can see whether
in the commutator segment from the end view of the machine, whether it is doing perfectly
armature resistance at high current will be higher is not.

So, the efficiency that you estimate will be better and also you can see the performance of
the machine visually ok, there is no problem. So, far as commutation goes no flash over
very large flash over taking place, those things were never possible in case of Swinburne
test that was the problem.

So, it is by direct loading you can do this solve couple of problems that will be the there
thing, but certainly for large machines this way of testing the motor not good, you are
wasting all the powers just like that. Although, physically the armature will carry the rated
current, it is like asking that a hundred kilowatt transformer tested directly in the lab ok,
that power will be wasted.

So, in case of transformer for example, there was a better method. Instead I will pass the
direct current, you can see in case of transformer do no load and load test from that you
can predict efficiency. Once again the drawback of that method is actual temperature rise
of the machine will not be understood by that test. And, also all the only little power is
strong that was a advantage of that method.

Similarly, in case of DC motor when you do no load test on these Swinburne test, that is
fine very good, only little power it will draw and from that you predict the efficiency or
want to see the performance of the machine physically, but the second objective will not
be made.

Because, it is after all armature you are not allowing the rated current to pass. So, the direct
loading method is this where actual real current will flow in the armature direct loading
you do, but disadvantages all the powers will be wasted.

873
(Refer Slide Time: 14:28)

So, there is a another better method and that is called Hopkinson’s method, Hopkinson
Test; very interesting method, it is equivalent to some contest in a transformer ok. What
you do is this in Hopkinson test as it will unfold you will see that machine will carry rated
current, armature currents will be rated I will be able to pass. But, the power drawn from
the supply will be very little that is the whole idea, but the condition for carrying out this
test is that you require two machines; you cannot do on a single machine this test.

Two similar machines, similar DC machines this is a shunt machines are needed. Similar
means it is rating voltage rating, current rating, kilowatt rating, all these things. Now, what
is the connection? Connection is this, this is one machine it has got it is field and this is it
is armature.

So, connect the first machine, machine 1, as a shunt motor and give rated supply voltage I
have not drawn yet the second machine. So, applied rated voltage; so it will run as a motor.
So, this machine I will machine 1, I will run it as a motor. The second machine whose
ratings are similar identical sort of thing, it will have it is armature, it will have it is field,
and I will insist that these two motors should be mechanically coupled, that I am showing
it by this line, that is mechanically coupled. What does it mean? Mechanically coupled
means their speed will be same.

Now, what I will do is this. So, the second this is the machine 2 idea is very interesting
machine 2 is this one. The field of this machine 2, I will connect it like this. Second

874
machine separately excited, because supply is connected it is field will be present. And,
the so, this is the connection ok.

And, then I will follow the connection this I will connect. And, here I will connect a
shorting switch and connect like this. Now, let us understand give supply here, this
shorting switch is opened initially ok. This current is field current of the motor, it will draw
𝑉
because 𝑟 will give you this current. Similarly, this supply is there therefore, this current
𝑓𝑚

will be the generator field current 𝐼𝑓𝑔 fields are excited all the time. Now, I have given
supply to this machine it is armature and fields are energized.

So, this motor is going to run at some speed 𝑛. Similarly, the generator speed cannot
change; because it is mechanically coupled it will also run at their speed. And, that will be
the thing. Now, look at this second machine. Second machine, this field current is there
and it is running at some speed. Therefore, there will be induced voltage bit across it is
armature 𝐾𝜑𝑛. It is 𝜑 is there, 𝑛 is there, therefore, there will be induced voltage between
these two points.

Now, if I connect a voltmeter across this shorting switch, what do you think this voltmeter
reading will be, you should be careful? See, if you look at the armature circuit, if you allow
me to remove this, it is a coupled I know that mechanically coupled. Here inside this
machine, what is the equivalent circuit there is some 𝑟𝑎𝑚 and back EMF of the motor 𝐸𝑚 .

And, what is the equivalent circuit here? 𝑟𝑎𝑔 and the generated EMF. Now, this generated
EMF this I am drawing here 𝑟𝑎𝑔 it could be this way 𝐸𝑔 or it could be you do not know
nah when you are starting this experiment is not. Therefore, the reading of the voltmeter
depends upon, whether generator has developed a voltage such that the upper side is plus,
lower side is minus or lower side is plus upper side is minus either of this one this two will
happen here. Therefore, reading of the voltmeter will be either (𝐸𝑚 + 𝐸𝑔 ) or (𝐸𝑚 − 𝐸𝑔 ).

So, if it is the (𝐸𝑚 + 𝐸𝑔 ) that voltage will be very large. And, I should never operate this
switch. If, I find this reading of this voltmeter is about twice this supply voltage 𝐸𝑚 will
be close to 𝑉, twice 𝑉 of that order then better stop the machine, either interchange the
field terminal. So, that the supply polarity becomes like this, this must be ensured, this is

875
𝐸𝑔 . For doing this test this must be the polarity of the induced voltages in the motor that is
the back EMF air and this is the generated voltage of the generator.

So, under these circumstances reading of the voltmeter; reading of voltmeter we will be
the difference between these two, (𝐸𝑚 − 𝐸𝑔 ) this will be the difference. So, up to this
point supply voltage this is running as a motor this switch is open, the field of the generator
is also excited because it is drawing a current. So, it will develop a voltage and only I
should ensure the polarity of this voltage is same as this one and S is opened. And, then
this voltmeter reading is difference of these two. What you first do is this try to make this
voltmeter reading close to zero.

How can I do that, I will adjust the field current of the generator? This resistance I will
adjust, such that 𝐸𝑔 and 𝐸𝑚 are same and this will be close to zero. And, if it is close to
zero, then what I will do is this I will close the switch, when this is true then closes. So,
that you are sure there will be no circulating current ok.

Now, so, the final circuit after you have closed the switch voltmeter reading will now
become zero so it will now be like this. So, I will so, successfully you have what is called
parallel them and this voltmeter reading has no meaning now. So, it was connected earlier,
but I am not showing that time. So, this will be the thing.

Therefore, now both the motors are mechanically coupled their speed cannot be different
they are same and it is steadily running as this one. Now, what is done this as I told you is
already running as a motor. Now, what this fellow is doing? Is it also running as a motor
or a generator? What I will do is this; I will increase as. Suppose you imagine there is an
ammeter connected here; DC ammeter with this side ammeter polarities plus minus MC
meter moving coil meter.

I will if I increase the field current, then 𝐸𝑔 will become greater than 𝐸𝑚 and current will
flow like this, it will try to drive current in this direction. Provided if 𝐸𝑔 is greater than 𝐸𝑚 ,
how it can be greater than? I will increase the field current of the generator, greater than 𝑉
close to because this armature resistance drop is neglected, what I am trying to tell, this
will be greater than 𝑉 no doubt, but anyway that is close to 𝐸𝑚 that part will be coming.
So, that it will circulate current like this and this current I will called 𝐼𝑎𝑔 this will be the
thing clearly.

876
So, now, the situation will be that this machine will be running as a motor, this machine
will run as a generator, because through the plus current is coming out, through the plus
of this back EMF current is entering. And, this is 𝐼𝑎𝑔 armature current of the generator and
this is the thing. That is both the machines are loaded now let us see what is the implication,
whether this armature currents, how it relates with this currents? What will happen is this
mind you in this circuit as was correctly pointed out this voltage is same as 𝑉 all the time.

So, generated voltage

𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑔 = 𝐸𝑔

𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑚 = 𝐸𝑚

Those things are prevailing like this. Later this current be called the line current drawn
from the supply mind you, there is only one supply 𝑉𝐼𝐿 .

What is the total input power to this set? It is 𝑉𝐼𝐿 , the goal is to first estimate the rotational
loss of the machine. So, what I will do is this, I will do rather quickly here. So, that you
can understand the understand that the it is not at all difficult, I will first not write in the
next lecture I will write, but first what I am telling is what is this quantity power drawn
from the supply.

From this I will go on subtracting the losses,

2 2
𝑉𝐼𝐿 − 𝑉𝐼𝑓𝑚 − 𝑉𝐼𝑓𝑔 − 𝐼𝑎𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑚 − 𝐼𝑎𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑔 = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 = 𝑊0

what is the field copper loss 𝑉𝐼𝑓𝑚 . 𝑉𝐼𝐿 is the total current drawn by this whole two sets
subtract the copper loss of the field circuit of the motor, also subtract the copper loss of
the field circuit of the generator, because this is also coming from the supply. So, 𝑉𝐼𝑓𝑔 this
is the thing.

2
Then, I will subtract the copper loss of the motor, how much it will be 𝐼𝑎𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑚 this is the
2
copper loss of the motor minus the copper loss of the generator 𝐼𝑎𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑔 is not this is the
total input power 𝑉𝐼𝐿 . So, this is the only source of power. So, from this go on subtracting
the losses, say it is running at some speed there is 𝐼𝑎𝑚 there is 𝐼𝑎𝑔 there is 𝐼𝑓𝑚 there is 𝐼𝑓𝑔

877
so, I subtract the copper loss of the field of the motor copper loss of the field of the
2 2
generator this term, copper loss of the motor 𝐼𝑎𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑚 , copper loss of the generator 𝐼𝑎𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑔 .

And, mind you on the shaft of the machine I have not connected any mechanical load, I
have not connected. Therefore, if I subtract all this losses this must be equal to the
rotational loss of both the machine of both the machine is not say it is equal to 𝑊0 if you
call it. Therefore, I will say rotational laws of each machine; of each machine is equal to
𝑊0
. So, I will continue with this in the next class.
2

878
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacgharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 91
Efficiency Calculation

(Refer Slide Time: 00:25)

So, welcome to this lecture; we have been discussing with the Hopkinson test. And the
connection I will better draw once again very quickly. So, one machine you connect it as
a shunt machine like this, like this. And another machine whose armature is this and whose
field is this, this field and here is your supplied the rated voltage. And this one you connect
it here and so, field winding of both the machines are separately excited from this voltage
right this current is 𝐼𝑓𝑔 and this current is 𝐼𝑓𝑚 that was there.

And this machines this two armatures are eventually paralleled. Some conditions to be
fulfilled that I told you it is like this connected. And this two motors are mechanical
coupled. So, they cannot, but run at this speed 𝑛 ok. And it is adjust the field currents of
this machine; such that, here is your 𝑟𝑎𝑔 and the polarity of the voltage should be like this,
this is 𝐸𝑔 . And similarly, here it is 𝑟𝑎𝑚 and polarity and this is the back emf of the motor
𝐸𝑚 .

879
And the I will make 𝐸𝑔 > 𝐸𝑚 . So, that current will flow. This is the armature current of
the generator as you can say this is the armature current of the motor. And this is the current
drawn from the supply. Now, obviously this total current, total power drawn from the
supply, power this we did last day only power drawn from the supply; supply is equal to
𝑉𝐼𝐿 , ok.

And from this power; if you total total rotational loss of both the machines is suppose 𝑊0
is equal to input power, power drawn from the supply and then go on subtracting the losses;
that is field copper loss. We did it last time

2 2
𝑉𝐼𝐿 − 𝑉𝐼𝑓𝑚 − 𝑉𝐼𝑓𝑔 − 𝐼𝑎𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑚 − 𝐼𝑎𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑔 = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 = 𝑊0

2 2
𝑉𝐼𝑓𝑔 field copper loss of the generator. Armature copper loss 𝐼𝑎𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑚 and 𝐼𝑎𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑔 .

Then we say that ok, this we have estimated the total copper. So, from the supply, the
power drawn whatever power it draws must be all the losses that is what I am telling.
Although there is armature current now, sufficient armature current there is sufficient
generator current. But power drawn from the supply will be only all the losses taking place
in the machine. Let us go ahead, so this is the rotational loss.

Now, suppose I want to so, this generator is armature current is no longer no load current
it is I can adjust the field; field resistance of the generator and motor such that 𝐸𝑚 < 𝐸𝑔 .
And current directions will be like this. Therefore, I can now calculate the efficiency of
this machine and that machine. See, I told you this two machines are similar or identical
in that case 𝑟𝑎𝑔 = 𝑟𝑎𝑚 will be equal. But I have taken a most general case; even if it is little
difference let it be like that.

So, I will say, see how I am writing. I will right straight away the efficiency of the motor
to be. For a motor which thing is easy to calculate? The input power is very easy to
calculate. You calculate input power output by input is the efficiency. So, what is the input
power to this motor? It is input will come in the denominator. So, it is

𝑊
2
(𝑉𝐼𝑓𝑚 + 𝑉𝐼𝑎𝑚 ) − 𝑉𝐼𝑓𝑚 − 𝐼𝑎𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑚 − 20
𝜂𝑚 =
(𝑉𝐼𝑓𝑚 + 𝑉𝐼𝑎𝑚 )

880
𝑉𝐼𝑓𝑚 field copper loss plus 𝑉𝐼𝑎𝑚 . This will be the total input power to this motor, got the
point. Input power to the motor.

And what will be the output power? Output power will be 𝑉𝐼𝑓𝑚 input plus the losses minus
the losses minus. Input power minus the losses. What are the losses? Filed copper loss
2
𝑉𝐼𝑓𝑚 . Motor losses minus 𝐼𝑎𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑚 , copper loss of the armature minus the rotational loss
𝑊0
which is . So, we after this we say that rotational loss of each machine will be
2
𝑊0
approximately . 𝑊0 I estimated rotational loss of both the machines. Because there will
2

be eddy current loss in the armature frictional, loss on the shaft of the machines

Why I am saying it is approximate? Simply because, see although this is this experiment
is nice, but you see the field current of the machine, which is acting as a generator is greater
than the field current of the motor. Therefore, flux level in the both the machines are not
same. Although speed is same, but anyway this is how I am estimating.

So, this will be the efficiency of the motor that is all. Similarly, so this is efficiency of the
motor. Similarly, I will be able to write down the efficiency of the generator. In case of
generator; it is easier to calculate the output first. For example, what is the output power
of the generator? This voltage is 𝑉. So, this is also 𝑉. Is not? 𝑉𝐼𝑎𝑔 is the output power; this
is the output of the generator. And to this output power, you go on adding the losses to get
the input power of the generator.

𝑉𝐼𝑎𝑔
𝜂𝑔 =
2 𝑟 + 𝑊0
𝑉𝐼𝑎𝑔 + 𝑉𝐼𝑓𝑔 + 𝐼𝑎𝑔 𝑎𝑔 2

So, 𝑉𝐼𝑎𝑔 is the output power. So, output plus the losses. What are the losses? Field copper
2 𝑊0
loss; 𝑉𝐼𝑓𝑔 plus armature copper loss; 𝐼𝑎𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑔 plus the rotational loss . This will be the
2

efficiency of the generator.

So, you see in this experiment compared with swing and test. Here you will be able to load
the machines to their rated current. But supply will never know; supply will only supply
the losses. So, current drawn from the supply is not large. Little current, 𝐼𝐿 which
comprises of the copper loss of this two field coils and armature copper losses and
rotational loss that is all.

881
Now, it may looks surprising, why it is happing like that. But still I am telling the output
of the generator 𝑉𝐼𝑎𝑔 will be large. Input to the motor is large 𝑉𝐼𝑎𝑚 . The answer to that is
this one that what is happing, this two machines are coupled. Is not? Motor this is 𝑛, speed
and electromagnetic torque developed by the machine will be same direction as that of that
is not. Similarly generator; direction of rotation is same 𝑛. But electromagnetic torque
developed by the generator will be in the opposite direction 𝑇𝑒𝑔 .

See for this motor; motor does not know it will only see on the shelf there is an opposing
torque that is why it is behaving like a motor. It will draw more current; whether, this
torque has come by your direct belt loading, the thing I discussed that it cannot distinguish.
It will see on the shaft there is now some opposing draw more current. Similarly, for the
generator mode; this electromagnetic torque, produced by the motor is in the same
direction. So, this is the prime mover torque of the generator 𝑇𝑒𝑚 is nothing, but the prime
over torque of the generator.

𝑇𝑒𝑚 is provided by whom? By the motor. Load torque is provided by whom? Is by the
electromagnetic torque of the generator. Therefore, the motor will always see, ok, this
generator is nothing but, mechanical load to me, similarly generator will see this motor is
nothing but, the prime mover to me, got the point. Therefore, this motor will run this
generator as a as a prime mover. Similarly this generator will give supply to the motor.
Therefore, this is how they will manage to survive with sufficiently large armature
currents.

So, but our purpose is to see that their carrying rated currents, then calculate efficiency.
Rated current means if it is 20 Amp rated current you can adjust the field current. So, that
this current are really 20 Amp. So, armature currents will be rated current, but the current
drawn from the source will be only very little, that is the advantage.

So, this is how elaborately you can calculate. But only thing I must tell that this assumption
that the rotational losses are same is not exactly correct. But any way that will cause a little
error, at least you get this performance of the machine temperature rise etcetera will be can
be well documented by really passing directed currents to the machine armatures, that is
the greatest advantage. But another thing is you must have two machines together which
are mechanically coupled. Otherwise you cannot do it. So, this is how it can be done
sometimes what people say.

882
(Refer Slide Time: 14:48)

So, in this experiment you must understand that; if you connect you have to connect several
meters you know. Suppose you connect an ammeter here this ammeter. Connect an
ammeter there this is this records will currents of the generator connect a voltmeter there
to record the volt meter those meters connections, I have not shown you can connect a
meter here to record the field current of the motor this that. But the interesting thing is that;
when the setup is running with all meter showing I can conclude that the read from the
readings of the motor and generator field current whichever field winding is carrying
higher current that will be acting as a generator.

See after you have parallel them you can do it like this. I will reduce the field current
increase the field current of this one, then this fellow will start acting as a generator and
this fellow will act a act as a motor got the point. It is the fight between 𝐸𝑚 and 𝐸𝑔 , who
is larger. That will decide whether this fellow is motor or generator. Generally the field
current of the machines whose field current is larger that will act as a generator whose
field current is small it will act as a motor.

And finally, one thing is I will tell that in this experiment people say that, so motor is
driving the generator as a prime mover and generator will see that it is supplying a load to
a motor like that it is happening. One interesting way for quick calculations people
sometimes use this.

883
(Refer Slide Time: 17:01)

That, suppose let the efficiencies of both the machines are same. Suppose efficiencies
because they are similar machine I assume the efficiency of the machine they are same
here coming back suppose efficiencies are same. Then what I am planning to do is this,
that what is the output of the generator? Output of the generator is how much? 𝑉𝐼𝑎𝑔 . Let
the efficiencies are same.

What will be its input? Input must be divided by efficiency are same and equal to 𝜂
suppose.

𝑉𝐼𝑎𝑔
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝜂

So, this is output of generator; output of generator that divided by efficiency this quantity
is input to the generator is not, this must be the input to be generator. Now, input to the
generator is coming from where? Input to the generator is coming from the output of the
motor ok.

So, what is the output of the motor I want to calculate? What is the input to the motor input
to the motor is armature input to the armature is 𝑉𝐼𝑎𝑚

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑉𝐼𝑎𝑚 × 𝜂

Or I will say that

884
 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑉𝐼𝑎𝑔
= 𝑉𝐼𝑎𝑚 × 𝜂
𝜂

𝐼𝑎𝑔
𝜂2 =
𝐼𝑎𝑚

𝐼𝑎𝑔
𝜂≈√
𝐼𝑎𝑚

Efficiency of each machine very quickly if you want ok detail actual calculation I do I can
get the correct efficiencies, no doubt about that. But only what I am telling is if you have
connected all the meter readings you know 𝐼𝑎𝑚 you know 𝐼𝑎𝑔 suppose you have connected
an ammeter here also.

Then you see the efficiency of each of the machines will be under root approximately the
armature current of the generator by armature current of the motor, approximately as a first
calculations you can say like that. So, anyway read about it particularly the connections is
very interesting armatures are connected in parallel, field windings are also connected in
parallel.

So, it will give you a fair idea. It will further strengthen your operations of Dc machines
either as a motor or generator whatever it you can do it. In this context I will just point out
one thing you must have solved problems in the mean time. Suppose you have a machine,
ok; you have a, which is separately excited.

885
(Refer Slide Time: 21:38)

Try to; I mean with this you can now say that; suppose, here is a machine, separately
excited machine ok, you run with a prime mover. Then here you will get voltage is not.
Generated voltage 𝑘𝜑𝑛 prime mover it is driven by them. Now, suppose hear you have a
supply say 𝑉 volts. And I have planned to connect this to this supply.

So, before connecting of course, you must connect a just like Hopkinson test only thing
this is not coming from the armature of another machine. This supply is there here is a I
am running it as a generator first, adjusting the field current. I will also make this voltage
to be plus 𝑉. Then what will be the voltmeter reading? Zero. If it is 220 volt supply adjust
the field current and speed whatever it is rated speed you are running, adjust the field
current. So, that this voltage is also 220 Volt with this polarity and connected ammeter
here.

And the if I now close the switch; if I now, close the switch, what will be the ammeter
reading? Zero, because the equivalent circuit of this is this one. Here is some generated
voltage 𝐸𝑔 , here is some 𝑟𝑎 and here is your supply. Is not? And the value of 𝐸𝑔 depends
on this flux or the field current 𝐼𝑓 .

So, I can if I wish increase this 𝐸𝑔 above 𝑉. I will increase after connecting successfully
connecting in parallel with this supply I will play with this field current I will increase this
field current. If I do that, then the current will be like this separately excited machine mind
you. Current will go to the positive terminal of the battery.

886
So, here is a dc bus dc supply plus minus. Therefore, if you increase the field current 𝐸𝑔
will win over 𝑉 and it will start delivering current in this direction. That is it will pump
power on to the bus and on the bus if it is dc bus you dont worry there must be load already
connected some other fellows are using the dc supply.

Therefore, your generator will deliver power to the bus. What is the DC bus? To where
supply is available fixed voltage who had several other loads are connected you have now
made this DC machine a member of this bus by doing this ensuring that the voltmeter
reading is zero, parallel did it comes like that.

If 𝐸𝑔 is exactly equal to 𝑉 then this 𝐼 will be zero. So, your this machine is neither acting
as a motor nor as a generator it is just floating in the bus. If you seen nah this generator let
it contribute some power to the bus where already load is present some other generators
are maintaining those loads. Then what you do? You increase this voltage.

Then 𝐼 will be flowing from left to right ok, got the point. Therefore, by adjusting this field
current I can do it like that. What will happen if this prime mover is disconnected? It is
connected parallel separately exited field is supplied. Suppose, because of some reason, it
is prime mover means what some other engine it is driving the generator. Suppose the
prime mover is detached then what is going to happen? Then this machine armature is
already connected across this supply field is there, there is no prime mover. Therefore, it
will run as a motor.

And, obviously; it will draw current from the supply. You may then say it was running as
a generator, because 𝐸𝑔 was greater than 𝑉 I have disconnect that the prime mover then
how it can run as a motor still will it not supply power there. Yes; it will for this for
sometime it will supply power. But if it supplies power that opposing torque is present,
but there is no prime mover torque, so speed will fall.

So, it will come to such a speed. So, such that it can draw enough power from this bus. So,
that it will run as a motor and supply whatever no load power is present I mean shaft power
is present like friction and rotational loss. Got the point, in case of generator
electromagnetic torque and prime mover torque are in the opposite direction this is prime
mover torque for this generator this is the electromagnetic torque.

887
Now, what I am telling suddenly I said 𝑇𝑝𝑚 goes disconnected, no prime mover. Then
what will happen? Electromagnetic torque it was doing. So, it will decelerate speed will
fall 𝐸𝑔 will fall. So, that then 𝑉 will become greater than 𝐸𝑔 at some time and then it will
draw, drawing current from the bus.

So, these are some interesting observations. So, I stop here today you solve some
interesting problem from Parker Smith’s book; a machine connected to bus. This why I
have discussed after the Hopkinson test is similar to this only instead of supply.

So, I hope it will enhance your understanding of dc machine, particularly its operation
when it is connected to bus another supply whether it is running as a motor or generator
things like that. So, that you can decide on your own. Yes under this condition it may
supply power to the bus or the other conduction it will draw power from the bus and so
on, so.

Thank you.

888
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture – 92
Field Test on D.C Series Motor

Welcome to the next lecture on Eelectrical Machines – I. And, we were discussing about
testing on D.C machines. So, we discussed with Swinburne test that is essentially a no load
test from that we try to predict the efficiency and performance of the machine.

But Swinburne test is a light load test no load test practically therefore, it will not really
give you the correct temperature rise and whether the at the commutator segment and
brushes, when it carries full load current everything is fine those things you cannot
observe. For that we another test was suggested, which is close to load test, that is you take
two similarly rated machines which are mechanically coupled and one machine will
operate as a shunt motor another will operate as a generator.

And, by controlling the field current of each of these machines, you can produce different
level of load currents and that is armatures will carry rated currents it is possible. However,
the power drawn from the supply will be only the total losses that is taking place in the
machine. So, it is equivalent to some Sumpner testing transformers sort of phantom
loading, that is motor will guide the generator generator will give supply to the motor in
that principally to works we discussed that.

889
(Refer Slide Time: 02:11)

I will just mention another test that is called field test and it is carried out for D.C series
motor fields test, fields test ok. Here, test field test on series motor. Here once again you
require two similarly rated machines. For example, you have a series motor here, this
armature, this is the field of the first machine ok, this will be connected like this.

And, you have the second machine, whose armature is here and whose field winding is
here. Series field machine minimum number of turns very less resistance of these coils,
comparable to that of armature. Now, what is done? Since series motor cannot be started,
under no load condition. So, what is done you must ensure, this machine I will make it
operate as a motor and this one this armature I will connect it like this got the point.

And, here this machine will act as a generator and that is the field of the second machine
is connected in series with the first machine. And, you can connect them in series, because
the resistances are very less. And, then this generator you must make an arrangement, such
that it is loaded, load resistance.

And, these two machines are mechanically coupled M and G are that I am not showing are
mechanically coupled, which essentially means that speed of the both the machines will
be in the same direction, if it is 𝑛 this will be also of same value m in the same direction.

Therefore, here you give the supply voltage, supply 𝑉𝑠 ok. Therefore, you will see when
you switch on the supply it is connected like this, is there is load and then both field current

890
and armature current exist for this machine, when it is switched on. Therefore, it will start
running field of the second machine is also energized. And, it starts rotating therefore, it
will generate voltage and it will deliver load current 𝐼𝐿 with time of course, things will
increase.

And, therefore, and the electromagnetic torque developed by the machine is opposite to
the direction of rotation for a generator we know this is the electromagnetic torque. For
the first machine that is electromagnetic torque of the generator and for the first machine
electromagnetic torque for the motor is in the same direction of rotation like that.
Therefore, on the shaft of the generator a torque appears which is opposite to 𝑇𝑒𝑚 . This
machine will treat that torque as load torque, opposing torque. Therefore, that the motor is
loaded from the very word go when you switch on the supply is the ensured.

So, and I should not connect a switch here, which is which will be opened, then ensure
that some voltage is developed, then you close this switch I will not do that, I will
permanently connect it without any switch, because let us try forget to close the switch;
that means, this motor is under no load condition, that is no opposing torque opposing
torque will be there very little friction. So, these things we have learned.

So, M and G are mechanically coupled and this. Now, calculations are very simple. In this
case as you can see the current drawn from the supply is suppose 𝐼. Now, what will be the
power drawn from the supply, this is the only source of power here. So, power drawn very
simple calculations power drawn from the supply is equal to your

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼

𝑉𝑠 is the supply voltage ok.

And, this is suppose the resistance 𝑟𝑠𝑚 series motor there will be the resistance of the
armature resistance 𝑟𝑎𝑚 . And, here there will be an armature resistance 𝑟𝑎𝑔 this will be the
thing. So, this is the power drawn from the supply. And, from this supply this power drawn,
I will subtract the ohmic losses of this machines ok.

So, what will be the ohmic losses of the machine? Total ohmic loss will be

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼 2 𝑟𝑠𝑚 + 𝐼 2 𝑟𝑎𝑚 + 𝐼 2 𝑟𝑠𝑔 + 𝐼𝑙 2 𝑟𝑎𝑔

891
Same 𝐼 is flowing, because of my connection in this way This is the total ohmic losses.

Because, all these losses has to come from this supplypply apart from rotational loss that
is this thing. So, total ohmic loss taking place in this whole circuit at these this loss here
lost there loss here, loss here, that is all is not that is the thing. And, I will connect a
voltmeter here 𝑉2 suppose.

Now, power delivered to the load is equal to

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑉2 𝐼𝐿

This much power is delivered. Therefore,

𝑉𝑠 𝐼 − 𝑉2 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑊0

And, this total losses will comprise of total ohmic loss plus, the rotational loss of both the
machines of both the machines is not this must be total loss total ohmic loss this I have
already calculated. Therefore, 𝑊0 will be is equal to total losses, I am rewriting the same
equation total losses minus total ohmic losses. Now, both these machines are running at
same speed is not and their field currents are same, they are similar machines.

Therefore, I will then approximate that rotational loss of each machine; of each machine
𝑊0
will be equal to that is how I will approximate. And, so essentially you will be assuming
2
𝑊0
you are estimating 2
. Therefore, the efficiency of the motor I will be able to calculate and

efficiency of the generator also I will be able to calculate, how?

892
(Refer Slide Time: 14:06)

So, efficiency of the motor will be equal to for calculating efficiency of the motor the input
power is easy to calculate. So, for efficiency of the motor you would note down this voltage
connect a voltmeter here call it 𝑉𝑚 got the point field and armature supplied with 𝑉𝑚
voltage and this motor is drawing a current of 𝐼. So, this is the input power; so I will say.
So, input power of the machine is 𝑉𝑚 𝐼, , but on the top I must write output so input minus
the losses

𝑊
(𝑉𝑚 𝐼 − 𝐼 2 𝑟𝑠𝑚 − 𝐼 2 𝑟𝑎𝑚 − 20 )
𝜂𝑚 =
𝑉𝑚 𝐼

𝑊0
what are the losses field loss that is 𝐼 2 𝑟𝑠𝑚 , armature loss 𝐼 2 𝑟𝑎𝑚 and the rotational loss ,
2

this will be the output and input is 𝑉𝑚 𝐼, I quickly draw the circuit here, so that you can
understand what I have done.

So, this is the field and this is another machine, this is the armature. So, these two are
connected in series and here is the load, this is the circuit for field test is not plus minus 𝑉,
so 𝐼. And, this this voltage I am calling it as 𝑉𝑚 voltage applied across the motor and this
is generator. So, 𝑉𝑚 𝐼 is the input power to the motor from this if you subtract all the losses
this current is 𝐼.

893
 𝑊0
So, (𝑉𝑚 𝐼 − 𝐼 2 𝑟𝑠𝑚 − 𝐼 2 𝑟𝑎𝑚 − ), that will be the net output of the machine, this divided
2

by the input part which is the 𝑉𝑚 𝐼. Similarly, you can calculate the efficiency of the
generator. As the output power this I told you as 𝑉2 and this is 𝐼𝐿 , this is 𝑅𝐿 . So, output
power of the output of the generator is easy to calculate.

So, first calculate the output of the generator 𝑉2 𝐼𝐿 divided by the output plus the losses of
the generator.

𝑉2 𝐼𝐿
𝜂𝑔 =
𝑊
𝑉2 𝐼𝐿 + (𝐼𝐿 2 𝑟𝑎𝑔 + 𝐼 2 𝑟𝑠𝑔 ) + 20

Losses of the generator will be plus, this is these are the losses that is 𝐼𝐿 2 𝑟𝑎𝑔 copper loss
here plus it is field generator field each copper loss is of course, 𝐼 2 𝑟𝑠𝑔 generator field ok
𝑊0
and plus the rotational loss .
2

Therefore, at various degrees of loading you will be able to calculate the efficiency of the
of both the machines and you can plot in fact, that is I will different degree of loading. But,
I will never make 𝑅𝐿 open, infinity I will not make if you make this motor will have
problems under no load you should not allow any D.C series motor to run.

But, in the field test mind you the power drawn from the supply will be large, but the only
advantage of this method is I have avoided that the mechanical loading system with pulley,
belt arrangement, those becomes very difficult. And, those spring tensions 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 on
the shaft of the machine they will vibrate when it will rotate correct readings are not easy
to get.

But, in the simple experiment where the field of the second machine is connected in series
with the first machine, then it is energized by noting down appropriate readings you will
be able to calculate the efficiency of the machine. So, this is a very interesting test and it
is of course, not true that you are drawing very little power only supplying the losses.

This machine is really acting as a motor and it is driving the generator, which is as if
separately excited and it is delivering load. That is there, but anyway this is a very good
test where you can observe how the machines are behaving, without any mechanical load
and calculate it is efficiency and also observe how commutation takes place, physically

894
looking at the commutator segments and brushes when it carries a rated currents and things
like that ok.

So, this is the field test. I will rather close this chapter only making another small
comments that for example, so, we have studied D.C separately excited machine, series
motor, there may be compound machines also. In the notes you see you will able to
understand what it all means. But, essential thing is the voltage generated in a machine is
𝐾𝜑𝑛, where 𝜑 is the net flux per pole, if it is compound machine both shunt series DC
filters there they will decide what is the flux per pole together.

And, torque equation is 𝐾𝜑𝐼𝑎 where 𝜑 once again is the net flux per pole that will take
place. Now, another comment I want to make is that for example, this I will only show for
a shunt motor, that in case of for example, a transformer. See, the losses that take place in
any machines 1 part of the loss is called fixed loss.

For example, in case of transformer iron loss is fixed loss is not. And, another loss depends
on the degree of loading. For example, in case of transformer what are the currents in the
windings, what percentage of rated current is flowing. This ratio of these two currents is
essentially is the degree of loading 𝑥.

And, we found that maximum efficiency in a transformer will occur when the variable loss
that is 𝑥 2 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝑓𝑙 , copper loss full load is equal to peak core loss, at that time maximum
efficiency occurs look at the transformer note. Similarly, in case of DC machines also the
if you do not touch the field circuit; take the case of shunt motor. Condition for maximum
efficiency is just few lines I will tell condition for maximum efficiency 𝜂, you considered
suppose there is a shunt motor.

895
(Refer Slide Time: 22:17)

And, this is the field winding. And, it is suppose supplying some mechanical load such
that it carries armature current. This armature current may be rated current, if your
mechanical load on the shaft is sufficient, this is 𝑛, this is electromagnetic torque, always
draw like that and this is the load torque.

Because of some load torque steady state operations it draws some armature current and
this is 𝐼𝑓 . What, I have decided I will not vary the field current. Although, I will vary the
load torque so, that different armature current flows. And, try to find out what is the
variable loss here. Variable losses is equal to copper loss in the armature, copper loss in
armature, that is equal to 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑟𝑎 this is the copper loss.

Because, 𝐼𝑎 will depend upon 𝑇𝐿 . So, 𝐼𝑎 will be varying as 𝑇𝐿 varies opposing torque you
put different values more and more 𝑇𝐿 = 0 shunt motor will run at no load finite speed
shunt motor has got a finite number speed series motor does not happen anyway. So, it
will draw that and variable loss is this. Core loss will it change from no load to full load
not really, why? Because, the speed regulation of a shunt motor from no load to full load
condition is only very little and here I am telling I will not touch field current.

So, 𝜑 is constant eddy current hysteresis loss depends upon the relative speed between this
𝜑 and the rotation 𝑛 does not change much, recall that speed will fall very little slope is
decided by 𝑟𝑎 . This is the no load speed, this is the full load speed, only little change and
this side is armature current, we have seen that. Now, in this case so let us calculate when

896
the machine is loaded to carry an armature current 𝐼𝑎 . So, what will be the efficiency of
the machine?

So, efficiency of the motor will be

𝑉𝐼𝐿 − 𝑉𝐼𝑓 − 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑟𝑎 − 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡

𝜂𝑚 =
𝑉𝐼𝐿

Mechanical power output I how I am calculating? I will subtract the losses from this input
power. So, input power is 𝑉𝐼𝐿 minus the losses that is 𝑉𝐼𝑓 field copper loss here, minus
𝐼𝑎 2 𝑟𝑎 armature resistance loss minus rotational loss. These are the three things; this is how
I will be able to do it ok.

Now, this one is nothing, but

𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑓

So,

𝑉𝐼𝐿 − 𝑉𝐼𝑓 − 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑟𝑎 − 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡

𝜂𝑚 =
𝑉𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝐼𝑎 − 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑟𝑎 − 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡
=
𝑉𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝐼𝑎 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑟𝑎 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡
= − −
𝑉𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐼𝐿

This will be the thing. Now, in a shunt motor the rated value of the armature current is
much higher than the field current.

𝐼𝑎 ≫ 𝐼𝑓

𝐼𝐿 ≈ 𝐼𝑎

Therefore, what you can assume is this that 𝐼𝐿 is approximately equal to armature current,
what is the order of this current drawn from the supply is surely decided by this at least at
near at full load conditions. Light load condition these armature current will be quite small,
but at in the vicinity of the rated current it will be somewhat like this.

So, if that be the case, then this will be approximately equal to

897
 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑟𝑎 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡
𝜂𝑚 ≈ 1 − −
𝑉𝐼𝑎 𝑉𝐼𝑎

𝑟𝑎 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡
𝜂𝑚 ≈ 1 − 𝐼𝑎 −
𝑉 𝑉𝐼𝑎

This will be the efficiency of the motor as a function of Ia.

Therefore, efficiency will be maximum if you differentiate this with respect to armature
current 𝐼𝑎 , efficiency will be maximum, when

𝑑𝜂𝑚
=0
𝑑𝐼𝑎

𝑑𝜂𝑚 𝑟𝑎 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡 1
=− + × 2=0
𝑑𝐼𝑎 𝑉 𝑉 𝐼𝑎

𝐼𝑎 2 𝑟𝑎 = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡

This is the condition, that is once again variable loss is equal to fixed loss that is taking
place in a shunt machines. So, 𝜂𝑚 occurs when efficiency will be maximum
approximately, when fixed loss. That is 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑟𝑎 = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡 , this is the variable loss is equal to
armature copper loss got the point.

So, anyway go through this carefully motor operation generator operation, then in the next
class, what I will be doing one leftover thing, while I told you about the windings. I
discussed the lab winding most probably at length, but I told at that time that way winding
I will discuss at the later time and that I will do in the next class.

Thank you.

898
 Electrical Machines - I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 93
Simplex Wave Winding

(Refer Slide Time: 00:22)

Welcome to lecture number 93, and as I told you; I will spend some time on armature
winding of which lap winding we have discussed earlier. Let me quickly go through that
and the convention that I will follow. So, that windings can be done with ease. For
example, in case of say lap winding, suppose there are number of slots are suppose 𝑆 =
16. What are the things I will be using? Double layer winding, double layer winding. DC
machine always double layer and suppose number of poles of the machine is 𝑃 = 4.

And suppose and number of commutator segments, number of commutator segments is

equal to 𝐶 which is equal to 𝐶 = 𝑆 = 16. Now this diagram is what, these diagram is there
I have drawn two vertical lines side by side. They are nothing but, coil sides in a particular
slot this is suppose some slot number 1. This is slot number 2 which will also carry 2 coil
sides. Coils of course, they will be coil, but to begin with let us imagine in this way, in
each slot there will be 2 coil sides on the upper deck there will be a coil side on the lower
deck there will be a coil side.

899
So, that way if you call this is slot number 1, this is 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
slots are there. And it is in each slot there will be 2 coil sides ok. Now, while making a
winding two things are important in case of dc machine windings particularly.

What are the two things? Each coil will have two coil sides. And, they will be separated
in space in terms of slot numbers the coil span is a term coil span should be how much? It
16
should be number of slots per pole always. So, that full pitched coil 𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛 = = 4.
4

We are just revisiting some of the things we have discussed earlier so, that we can also
discuss about wave winding fruitfully.

Therefore, this is the coil span and each coil at the end we will have two terminals. And
these two terminals are to be terminated on these copper strips. These vertical lines are
mica insulations. So, in case of in case of he this is the thing these are these slots armature
ok. These are the teeth. This portion is teeth ok. And in these slots the conductors multi
turn coils are placed and this is the commutator segment which is connected on the shaft.
Both armature and commutator segment will rotate.

And brushes will be in space they will touch different commutator segment that we have
discussed earlier. So, this is the arrangement mind you. And so, commutator segments will
be nothing but, a replica of these slots only at a lesser diameter at a distance from this.
Now, the thing is that the induced voltage it depends on the coil sides. Flux will be present
only in this portion.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:10)

900
Now, let us see how to start the lap winding. So, coil span is 4. Suppose I say that this is
commutator segment 1, and this is commutator segment 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15.

Once again 16 understood because it is I have developed the diagram, now this coil sides
I will number in a interesting way the upper coil side this is suppose slot number 1. And I
will number the coil sides as 1 and 1’ top one is 1 below one is 1’. This is 2-2’. This is
mind you 1 slot number 2. This is slot number 1 like that, 3-3’ 4-4’ 5-5’ 6-6’ 7-7’ 8-8’ this
is slot number 8. This is 9-9’ this is 10-10’. This is 11-11’ 12-12’ 13-13’ 14-14’ 15-15’
and this is 16-16’. After that this slots will be once again 1-1’ like that ok.

So, now where is the first coil first coil if suppose it is this one what will be its end it ends
will be on 5. So, coil span is the word coil span all coils fortunately they are identical. If
you understand 1 coil other coils are same. So, first coil it is this coil side is 1 on the upper
deck of this slot number 1. It is return is on slot number 5 and that is 5’. So, if you now
complete this coil it is 5’. So, it will be like this and it will go like this 5 and it will come
here.

Now, the question is these are the 2 terminals of this coil. Where should I terminate here
on the commutator segments? In case of lap winding; if you the coil side 1 terminate it 1.
And its return finish of this coil that is 5’. You terminate it suppose on 2, got the point.
This is how the coil sides are terminated.

This is coil number 2. In case of series motor we know I am in dc motor, we know that all
coils are to be connected in series and the circuit should be closed. And we will tap the
voltage intelligently by putting some brushes on the commutator segments that is what I
told. So, this is coil number one is over. So, coil number one is if I draw it like this I will
draw like this 1 and 5’ 1-5’.

In case of dc machine another it is better to keep track of that, this coil ends are terminated
in which commutator segments. I will write side by side 1 has been terminated to
commutator segment 1 and 5’ has been terminated into commutator segment 2.

Now, these two ends where they are terminated the difference in the number of this
commutator segment is called commutator pitch. So, 𝑌𝑐 which is called commutator pitch,
commutator pitch is equal to we say it is 𝑌𝑐 = 1. Next commutator segment. Now this

901
thing then what I will do. I will start the next coil I am drawing with a other colour. So,
that it you can easily distinguish.

So, it should be connected in series. So, I have started my journey from this come here
then I will connect it like this and this 2 will be returning through 6’. Therefore, it will go
like this it will go like this and come back to 6’ here. And then this 6’, I will terminate it
on next commutator 𝑌𝑐 = (3 − 2) = 1. And then I will further proceed. Do not consider
it to be R-Y-B no just to distinguish. So, that I can trace this is the second call that is all
and then you connect the third coil in series it goes like this. It will come back through
dashed 7’ here and it will be terminated on 4 then 4 starts got the point. And this way it
will continue I will not draw further

4 then 8’ it will go this last one let me draw 8’ it will return and it will be terminated of
this. In this way I will go on completing the winding diagram and you will find the winding
diagram will be completed. And so, with this in mind. So, I have to calculate what will is
the coil span coil span is this length mind you, take any coil say coil number 1 this is the
coil span. This is coil span and what is this? This is 𝑌𝑐 commutator pitch which is 𝑌𝑐 =
+1. They say ±1 you could also terminate it to this terminal winding will be happily
progressing no point.

But let us restrict to discussion on +1. So, it is called a simplex lap progressive lap winding
progresses from left to right. If 𝑌𝑐 is assumed to be -1 it will progress in the opposite
direction. These things in this way this elaborate diagram instead of drawing I also told
you.

902
(Refer Slide Time: 14:20)

So, let us go to next idea, that I have taken 𝑆 = 16 number of poles 𝑃 = 4 coil span should
be 1 pole pitch, because of to maximize the induced voltage in a coil if one coil side is
under north pole other coil side you try to see it is under south pole center of the south
pole, like that. Coil span is equal to 4 and winding commutator pitch is 𝑌𝑐 = +1 that is
what +1 I have taken.

Now, this thing I will draw in this way. I now know what it is. Suppose I will make a
winding table now. Winding table and say that the first coil I will draw it like this 1 and 5’
is not. And then as I told you, it is better you keep track of where these two ends are
terminated. So, here you write commutator segments on which on which ends of a coil are
terminated.

So, where this 1 is terminated at 1 and 2 and where 5’ is terminated in commutator segment
2 go back here one is terminated on one then it comes out from 5, but you are bringing it
back to 2 to commutator segment 2. Then the next coil you have to connect it in series.

So, what you will be doing? The next coil, second coil, second coil is which coil? 2 and 6’
red one. So, 2 so, commutator segment 2. So, from 2 this is 6’ and 2 is this coil ends are
terminated between which two points 2 and what 3 look here. 2 it goes it comes back to 6’
it is terminated on 3. And this way it will produce it will go on this will be three.

903
So, coils span is 4 write a 4 here and here it is plus one only commutator segment. So, 3 +
4 → 7′. So, this will be 3 and 4 these two ends where they are terminated. In this way I
will proceed and then all the coils I have connected them in series is not. I will go like this.

So, this is how we discussed about lap winding now in a much visually attractive way this
is how things will go and doing like this and then the last job that will remain is on which
commutator segment brasses are to be placed. I told you. So, the polarity of the voltages
where plus sign will converge there you put a positive bar.

And where the negative voltages will convert put the negative brush. And in case of lap
winding if the number of poles are 4 you can put 2 positive brushes and 2 negative brushes
and that will divide the armature into as many parallel paths as the number of poles of the
machine that I am not going to discuss.

But why I have once again discussed this lap winding is simply because to understand
what we are going to do in wave winding. One thing you must understand, after you
complete this winding put the brushes separation between the brushes in terms of
commutator segments it should be how many commutator segments separation.

We have seen this separation between positive and negative brush in terms of commutator
segments number. Commutator segments should be equal to how many 𝐶 = 𝑆 that is ok.
But, so a positive slot is somewhere here. Because, it depends upon which are plus which
are minus. So, we have discussed this earlier.

So, if it is 5 see the earlier notes on the lap winding. Then in terms of commutator segments
this 16. This is also in terms of this brushes in terms of these you count if it is plus here.
𝐶
then after is the number of poles of the machine that is there 360°.
𝑃

So, 180° apart it should come. So, in terms of commutator segments. If it is positive
𝐶
brushes here in space negative brush will be 𝑃 after that, that is all. And, we have seen that

in case of lap winding number of you know parallel paths equal to number of poles of the
machine.

Now, I will discuss about the wave winding ok. Lap, we have understood earlier I have
just reviewed that. Now, in the wave winding; what we will be doing. So, please complete
this complete it is your job. Complete this table. See in fact, after you have drawn several

904
things it becomes a simple number game. That is why where the coil sides are numbered
in that way ok.

1-5’ 2-6’ 3-7’. I will not now refers that is sign. I will simply say ok. Then it will be 4 and
4 + 4 → 8′ that is all. Next one will be 5-9’ and so on. There will be 16 coils and all of
them are in series. And assume coil sides 1 2 3 4 under north pole put plus here and so on
we have discussed that. Now let us come to wave winding here.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 say 16 slots are there. Now, I will just mentioned

before that in world what this winding lap winding and wave winding in which particular
in which particular way they are different really.

What happens is this all the coils are identical it has got a coil span the difference in
different types of windings that is lap wave etcetera is that; how the ends of the coils are
terminated on the commutator segment in case of lap winding you terminate the two ends
of a coil in the consecutive commutator segments ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:09)

For example, what I am trying to tell is this; suppose the same problem 𝑆 = 16, 𝑃 = 4 ok.
16
Coil span is equal to say = 4. And winding pitch I have not yet decided a commutator
4

pitch means what you start with slot number one this is commutator segment.

905
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 and after that once again 1 will come. And we have
seen that this numbering I will do like this 1-1’ two coil sides will be there in each slot
then 2-2’ 3-3’ 4-4’ 5-5’ 6-6’ and so on 7-7’ 8-8’ you may feel slightly bored, but better do
it like this 9-9’ 10-10’.

Each slot this is slot number 10, two coil sides 11-11’ 12-12’ 13-13’ and they are
occupying same position dotted line, because it is below the upper coil side. 14-14’ 15-15’
16-16’. Now the first coil you have started with this one commutator segment 1 and its
coil span is 4. I must see to maximize the voltage. So, it should be 5’.

So, you go to 5’ its return must be 5’ it comes here and then it comes here. So, these are
the two terminals of the coil which this terminal I have terminated on commutator segment
1. In case of lap winding I was terminating it in commutator segment 2. Now what I am
telling the ends of a particular coil I will terminate in a different way in case of wave
winding. What they say you terminate this end at 2 pole pitch apart in terms of commutator
segment number, got the point. So, I will do that, that is this one, I will once again another
is there 16 same thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:26)

So, suppose what I am telling is; suppose, I say that, you just be with me and try to
understand what I am telling. That is suppose, I say that this is I can arbitrarily number
them it does not matter 1-1’ 2-2’ 3-3’ 4-4’ 5-5’ 6-6’ 7-7’ 8-8’ 9-9’ 10-10’ 11-11’ 12-12’.

906
This is slot number 12. This is 13-13’ 14-14’. This is 15-15’ is not. Then this should be
numbered as 16-16’ is not.

There are sixteen slots got the point. 1 2 3 4 5 6 15 16 once again 1-1’.

Here what I will do is this. Suppose this is slot number 1 and I will start my winding like
𝑆
this 1. Then its return is 5’ 𝑃 = 4. So, slot per pole is 𝑃 = 4. So, its return will be from 5’

no doubt. Now this one of what I am telling I will terminate it 𝑌𝐶 . I will terminate it after
two pole pitch apart.

𝐶
So, what is one pole pitch a part 𝑃 same number of commutator segment is equal to 𝐶. So,
𝐶
= 4 1 pole pitch and 2 pole pitch apart I will. So, what is this number? This will be
𝑃

𝐶 16
𝑌𝑐 = 2 =2 =8
𝑃 4

So, this commutator segment number this 5’, I will terminate it after 2 pole pitch apart
means since slot in commutator segment number 1 + 8 = 9.

So, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16. This will be once again 1 this is not there this
slot is not there 16 slots. So, these I will terminate it on this segment 9. Will it change the
induced voltage magnitude? No. Induced voltage takes place only in the coil sides. These
are outside the magnetic field north south here these are overhang of the coil.

So, it will be terminated here. That is the commutator pitch this is 𝑌𝑐 this is 2 pole pitch
apart. This is the first coil then the next coil I will connected in series where should I start
the next coil from this commutator segment dictates me the slot number I will go. So, 9, I
will connect it to next coil.

I will connect it here and each span is 9 + 4 → 13′ is not. It will come over here and then
it comes over here. But I am not going to terminate it on 10. This time commutator pitch
is 8. So, 9 + 8 is how much.

9 + 8 = 17. 17 means 1. So, it will be terminated on 1. 1 means here right. So, after tracing
2 coils you have finished I mean what to do winding is closed. Therefore, you see in case
of lap winding number of coils between two consecutive commutator segments is equal to
always 1.

907
But in case of wave winding I am trying to do using a full pitched coil and I find that if I
𝐶
plan to choose my commutator segment 𝑌𝑐 to be equal to two pole pitch 𝑌𝑐 = 2 𝑃. Then

after tracing two coils you come back to the same starting point here this was 1. Here, we
started from here place these two coils and come back here and two coils are in series and
closed.

But so, many slots are still remaining to be made use of it cannot do anything. Therefore,
we will see that, we have to make a little bit of a compromise to implement the wave
winding, when we when we shall try to use full pitched coil span is this pole coil span.
That is 4 we chose coil span. At least we conclude that this way if somebody tell me to
complete the winding is known not a better solution. Only two coils everything is over.
So, we will continue with this in the next class.

908
 Electrical Machines – I
Prof. Tapas Kumar Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 94
Wave Winding (Contd.)

So, we have been discussing with Wave Winding of the armature of a DC machine, ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:23)

So, in my last lecture what I was trying to tell? There are two things coil span and each
coil has got two terminals, they are to be terminated on definite commutator segments. In
case of lap winding termination of the; of a particular coil ends are in the consecutive
𝑆
commutator segments. Now, suppose I plan with 𝑆 = 16 and 𝑃 = 4; coil span is =4
𝑃

and I say that commutator pitch which gives me the difference of the commutator segment
numbers where the coil ends are connected. Suppose I choose it is equal to 2 pole pitch
𝐶 16
apart 𝑌𝑐 = 2 𝑃 = 2 =8
4

So, you start with 1; 1 its return is 5’, coil span is 4. So, 5’, but then 5’ I am not terminating
on 2, where I am terminating is that is 1 + 8; next termination that is at 9. You come at 9,
then the next coil is to be connected in series all the coils have to be connected in series;
be it lap or be it web it does not. So, next coil I will start from 9, it goes to 9 slot number,

909
returns from 9 + 4, 13’ and this end of this coil one is terminated on 9 and the second one
will be terminated on 9 + 8 = 17; but there is no 17, what is there? 1, once again.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:50)

So, so it is terminated on 1, this 1 is same as previous to 1 here. So, after tracing only two
coils winding cannot progress. So, if you want to have another alternative winding other
than lap with this sort of idea; then you see you have to make some compromise
somewhere. The compromise which is made is this one that is what we will do; what we
will do is this we will make S equal to I will make that is the coil span I will not insist on
let it be perfectly one pole pitch apart. Let it be a little bit this way that way we lost some
little bit of voltage that can always be compensated by increasing the field current etcetera.

So, the idea is the commutator pitch 𝑌𝐶 what you do you. So, slot number even multiple of
number of poles will not do after tracing only two coils everything goes I mean no further
progress. So, suppose I say 𝑆 = 17, total number of slots is 17 and 𝑃 = 4. So, coil span is
17
equal to is not an integer; so I take it be 4.
4

So, I am not using to be very correct I am not using a full pitch coil one slot less got the
point? So, this is how I choose the coil span and winding pitch a commutator pitch I will
do it like this

2(𝐶 ± 1) 2(17 + 1)
𝑌𝑐 = = =9
𝑃 4

910
(Refer Slide Time: 08:04)

this is suppose 1’ got the point? 2-2’ this numbering is arbitrary you start from here to 3-
3’, 4-4’, 5 I will do quickly, 6-6’, 7-7’, 8-8’, 9-9’, 10-10’, 11-11’, 12-12’, 13-13’, 14-14’,
15-15’ and this is 16-16’ and this is 17-17’. This is the scenario and let the commutator
segment be numbered as this is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 like
that its numbered.

17
Coil span I cannot make full pitched coil; 17 slots ≈ 4. So, first coil if I start it is I will
4

start with coil side 1 and I will start from commutator segment 1; this is the first coil where
will be it returned? (1 + 4) → 5; so 5’. So, it will come here please follow me carefully,
it is 5’.

This is a 1-1’; thank you. So, this will be 1, it will goes like this then comes back to 5’. So,
2𝐶
it comes here and this is the other end. This other end I will now not do alone which
𝑃
2(𝐶±1)
will not be integer. So, for that I added ±1 and suppose I have taken +1; so 𝑌𝑐 = =
𝑃
2(17+1)
= 9. So, this is commutator pitch where the other coil ends will be terminated.
4

It will be then terminated at where? (1 + 9) that is in commutator segment 10, is not? So,
I will take it here and I will terminate it there this is how the first coil is there in the slots
physically. Then what I will do? Next coil this commutator segment will give you the

911
number here. So, I will then connect this to 10, coil number 10 and (10 + 4) that is 14’.
So, it will come to 14’ and then the other end where it should be connected? 10+ 9.

Then it will come to 2 is not? So, this ends goes here and comes here I have not used a
different colour for the second coil, let it be like this. So, it will come now like this, it will
be finished here; got the point? So, trace the two coils and it will go to commutator segment
2 that is what here it is, 2. Then which coil I will start? Coil 2.

So, start of the next coil will be now this is 2. So, it will I will start with this 2; 2+4, 6’.
So, I will go there and come to 6’ this is the end of this coil where it should be terminated
2+9→11. So, it will come to 11 and then you start from 11; 11+ 4, 15’ is not? 15’ and
where this fellow should go? This 11+ 9 that is 20; 20 means 3, it will come here.

So, winding never stops it now progresses that you started with 1, then the next coil then
another next coil and so on. I hope you have understood, so to make a wave winding this
number; the total number of slots should not be an even multiple I mean an multiple of the
number of poles, you cannot then progress. After only tracing number of coils which is
after two coils for example, for 4 pole everything will be over.

So, you have to connect several coils in series, all the coils in series for that matter. So,
you have to sacrifice the coil span. So, I have sacrificed it is not a full pitch coil; I am now
17
sure ≈ 4 close to a that is what I believe. Similarly the commutators pitch 𝑌𝑐 I will; so
4
2
that it gives you an integer value I will multiply with 𝑃; approximately two pole pitch apart

and (𝐶 ± 1) 2; it is 9, you can take also the minus sign, ok.

So, it was giving you a progressive winding that is time it will give you a progressive
winding, you can easily verify that; got the point? Therefore, in the wave winding; so far
as the coil span is concerned it is close to full pitch coil and it is a commutator pitch which
makes the difference with lap winding. In case of lap winding lap winding 𝑌𝑐 is always
equal to plus minus 1; simplex lap winding.

2(𝐶±1)
In case of wave winding; 𝑌𝑐 should be equal to where 𝐶 is equal to the number of
𝑃

slots which should not be an multiple of the number of poles of the machine and then you
can proceed to calculate the; proceed to complete the winding diagram.

912
So, in in terms of winding table what I am telling with this parameters; I will do now like
this.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:07)

Let me come to this winding table wave winding table. For what I am doing the table? 𝑆 =
17
17 which is equal to 𝐶, 𝑃 = 4, coil span is ; I have to get an integer otherwise I cannot
4

do anything approx chosen 4 and winding commutator pitch is 2𝐶 I have taken plus for
the earlier plus 1 by 2 I have taken which has come out to be 9.

So, how do I do the winding table? I will do like this. First coil where from I started? I
started from commutator segment 1; 1 what will be where it will return? (1 + 4) that is 5’
this is the first coil, ok. If this is the first coil then I will ask commutator segments where
the ends of a coil are terminated where the ends of a coil terminated where the ends? So, I
started from commutator segment 1 only. So, 1 and 1 end its end should be terminated
(1 + 9); commutator segment 10 got the point? That is what we got.

Still I am showing 1-5’, these are the coil span and 5’ is terminated in commutator segment
10, then I start coil number 10. So, and these are to be in series. So, next coil is 10; it
should start from commutators this will dictate where from this coil side will come and
(10 + 4); so 14’. So, the commutator segments to which these are terminated this is of
course, 10 and 10 + 𝑌𝑐 is equal to 9; 10 plus 9 is 19; 19 which means 2 because 17 at the
slot; so this is nothing but 2.

913
Then the next coil is I will start from 2 and 2 plus 4 that is 6’ and 2 is 2 and 2 plus 9 is 11;
11 is a valid number, so 11. Then I will take the next coil as 11; 11 plus 4 15’ no problem
and 11 is 11 and it will be 11 plus 9; that is 20 that is 3 and so on, then I will start from 3
7’.

So, you can find a pattern of the numbers; I do not have to refer back to that diagram after
few steps I know what is the weight of this. So, 3 and 3 is 3 here and 7’ 3 plus 9 that is
12’; 12 and of course, I will connect all of them in series like this dot dot dot dot; I am not
completing this you please complete, ok.

So, conclusion is in case of lap wave winding; in case of wave winding number of coils
between this is very important statement between any two consecutive commutator
𝑃
segment will be always equal to 2, where 𝑃 is the number of poles. In this case 𝑃 was 4,

you can easily see this diagram refer to this diagram. Between commutator segment 1 and
2; how many coils are there? Trace one coil and then the next coil in series and it goes to
commutator segment 2.

So, between 1 and 2; two coils are there, had it been a 6 pole machine you would have
would have got 3 coils and in case of lap winding between any two commutator segments
how many coils are present? Only one, got the idea? So, this is the thing important thing
which will; so, number of coils between any two consecutive commutator segment will be
𝑃
always 2. In this case 𝑃 equal to 4 that is why that is two coils will be present, all said and

done. So, this way I can complete the winding and I will close the winding.

Then I will decides about the plus minus voltages, the same way as I have done in case of
lap winding and will perhaps put the brushes. But one thing is certain the separation
between a positive and negative brush; separation, separation between positive and
𝐶
negative brush will be 𝑃; what else. Because if we have identified that plus brush should
𝐶
be where the negative brush must be separation after is not plus voltage polarity and
𝑃
𝐶
negative voltage polarity it depends upon nothing else that is also true in case of lap
𝑃

winding, ok.

So, separation between positive and negative brush in terms of number of commutator
𝐶
segment should be 𝜋 that is 𝑃. Now, if that be the case then I ask how many coils are

914
present between positive and negative brush? How many? Between two consecutive
𝑃 𝐶
commutator segment it is 2. So, between 𝑃 commutator segments how many coils? It will
𝑃 𝐶 𝐶
be (2 × 𝑃) = 2; no matter what is the number of poles.

If you have identified the positive and negative brush, separation between them has to be
𝐶
in any case no matter whether it is lap, wave whatever way you think. In case of lap
𝑃
𝐶
winding between positive and negative brushes; how many coils were present? coils
𝑃
𝐶 𝐶
were present, 𝑃
× 1 in case of lap is not; one positive and negative brush coils will be
𝑃
𝐶
there, but in this case it is 2 coils.

𝐶 𝐶
Therefore, this coils where are the other coils that is from the other side if you look.
2 2

Therefore, armature is divided into only two parallel paths; no matter what is the number
of poles of the machine that is what is important. Therefore, number of parallel paths in
wave winding will be always 2 because 𝐶 by that is these are the two brushes; from this
𝑃
end if you see between two commutator segments coils like that if you proceed; you get
2
𝐶 𝐶
coils here. If you have proceeded in this direction, you would have got same 2 coils here
2

and these are the positive and negative brush, is not?

𝐶
Between two commutator segments if you proceed in one direction you will get 2 coils. If
𝐶
you have proceeded in the other direction same 2 coils that is fine total number of coils is

𝐶; same as the number of slots it is a double layer winding number of slots equal to number
of coils. Therefore, armature will be always divided into two parallel paths, no matter what
is the number of poles of the machine.

But in case of lap winding; it is not to be like that because number of coils present between
two consecutive commutator segments is 1, lap winding. How many coils are present
𝐶
between two commutator segment? It is 1, separation between the brushes is 𝑃. So, how
𝐶
many coils will be present between a pair of brushes? 𝑃 coils will be present.

Then this plus and negative brush in case of lap winding armature will be un even with
𝐶
respect to this pair of brush. On one side there will be coils and on the other side there
𝑃

915
 𝐶
will be (𝐶 − 𝑃) coils; that is why another pair of positive negative brushes will be required

if it is a pole machine, to make it symmetric about the positive and negative brushes.

But in case of wave winding only two brushes minimum will do; it will be evenly divided
always. Hopefully you have understood it with some you please complete this winding
table and try to understand that a simplex wave winding and simplex lap winding we have
discussed and why this winding is called wave, we have we can easily understand because
it progresses like a wave. And in case of lap why it is lap because the first coil will be like
this, second coil will be on the lap of the first coil and so on.

Therefore, in case of lap winding; the number of parallel paths happens to be equal to
number of poles of the machine that we have earlier discussed at length. In case of wave
winding number of parallel paths is always equal to 2, that is why lap windings are adopted
for large voltage, for small voltage large current machine; outside current may be made
larger so that it will be divided into several parallel paths within the armature. Wave
winding is generally adopted for high voltage and low current machine.

Anyway I conclude this lecture today, I will take only one concluding lectures or perhaps
in the discussion of the course; I will conclude everything, but please go through this notes
carefully whatever has been uploaded and try to understand the essential things which I
have told. And of course, we will have some open session where I can discuss the points
you will be raising. And hopefully you have enjoyed the course I wish you all the very
best and do the tutorials properly.

Thank you.

916
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