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 Electromagnetism
GENERAL
-Static machine: Transformer, inductor etc, opposite to linear motion machine
-Flux lines of magnetic fields never intersect and always form a closed loop
-Italic indicates magnitude without italics is vector, lower case indicates dc quantities or
instantaneous value of AC signal
-When asked to determine the percentage change, take (Q2-Q1)/Q1 where Q is any quantity
-u0= 4*pi*10^-7
-e0= 1/(36pi*10^9)
AC signals
● Vpeak/sqrt(2) = Vrms
Hand rules
-Right hand
● CW or ACW dir of magnetic field given current
○ For solenoid:

○
○ *Magnetic flux
○ make sure backhand is facing face
-Left Hand:
● Force of magnetic field given field and speed of charged particle/current.
B-H relation
-H = Magnetic field intensity, B= magnetic flux density aka magnetic field
-H= NI/L where L is mean length
-Hu= B (when the B-H curve is in the linear region). If the curve is not within this region, use the
BH graph
-u= u0*ur where u0 is the permeability of free space and ur is the relative permeability of the
core i.e the material enclosing the wire. If there is a space of air between the conductor and
magnetic core (which have high ur)
-Iron has one of the highest relative permeability
-B = magnetic field density aka magnetic field unit of T

-Flux = BA = ∫ 𝐵𝑑𝐴
𝐴
-B-H curve / magnetization curve
● When a magnetic core is used, the relationship between H and B might no longer be
linear, instead each material will have a different relationship between magnetic field
intensity and magnetic field density

●
● Description
○ Start: The dipoles of the core are unaligned.
○ Linear region: In response to magnetic flux the poles start to become aligned.
The permeability (u0*ur) is constant. In this region B= H*u*N
○ Knee Region: The permeability (u0*ur) changes rapidly.
○ Saturation region: All dipoles (domains) are completely aligned. Further increase
in H via increase of current will not result in any increase to B.
● The B-H curve of cast iron is almost completely linear.
● As u changes, there is likewise a graph which describes the changes of u wrt to H:
 ●
● When permeability is constant, there will be less leakage flux, i.e flux which is imparted
to the medium surrounding the core (i.e the air)
Ampere's law

∮ 𝐵𝑑𝑙 = 𝑁𝑢𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝑙

∮ 𝐻𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝑙
-Where H is the magnetic field strength (A/m) and B is the magnetic flux density (aka the
magnetic field). N is the number of turns of the solenoid. As per B-H curve, the relationship
between H and B is not always linear
-Note that close loop integral is just the parameter of the magnetic field
● Inet enclosed=net current enclosed within the given parameter
● N= number of conductors within the enclosed loop (if one wire N is 1)
-Special case for solenoid
● 𝐵 = 𝑁𝑢𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑒𝑛𝑐
● Flux emitted from the solenoid is non-zero from its core (the material which it is wrapped
around) and zero (near-zero ideally) everywhere else.
Magnetic circuits (not synonymous with transformers)
-Instead of current, flow of magnetic flux is analyzed
-Derived from maxwell’s equation
Relies on two fundamental assumption:
● Flux is restricted to magnetic core i.e no leakage flux
● B is uniform within the magnetic core, i.e flux density along the mean path. Note that
there are many paths in which flux travels through the core, the mean path is the path
which is the center most of the paths.
-Flux in such a circuit is defined as the flux entering the cross section of any given section of the
core.
Magnetic equivalent circuit
● Only applicable when the B-H curve is linear.
● Note that the length of the core material is important in calculations, this is the MEAN
length which is the distance passing through the middle of the core. I.e do not consider
the edges of the length around the bends of a square core for instance:

●
● A variation of ohm’s law can be used to analyze these magnetic circuits, however first
the circuit device need to be transformed into an equivalent circuit wherein:
○ Voltage equivalent magnetomotive force:
■ MMF= N*I
𝑛
■ MMF= ∑ 𝐻𝑖𝐿𝑖
𝑖=1
● N= turns of solenoid flux source
● I= current entering solenoid
● mmf= units of At
● Li= section of that part of the circuit
● If relative permittivity is unknown, and you are given a table of B
vs H, and region is linear then you can either:
 ○ use the table to find an approximate solution via B/H
(which assumes that ur*u0 is constant throughout the
circuit which IS NOT TRUE) NOT RECOMMENDED FOR
CHECKING ONLY
○ use the table to negate the need to calculate reluctances.
The table can only be used in reference to the CORE
reluctances of the circuit, Thus, if there are airgaps within
the circuit then they are not affected by the table. Thus,
calculate the reluctances of the air gaps without any
reference to the table
○ if non linear integration. Where Lt is the length and Ht the
intensity of the entire circuit and Hi and Li the equivalent of
all individual elements of the circuit.
○ current equivalent flux
○ R = reluctance. = L/uA
■ L = mean length of section
■ u= u0ur and A is the cross sectional area of the core section. U may not
be constant throughout the circuit. Take this value as a constant only if
explicitly stated.
■ Reluctance= H^-1
■ Fringing aka leakage is ignored in this course
■ Reluctances can arise from the following sources:
● Core:
○ ur is the relative permittivity of the core
● Air gap:
○ Air gaps are introduced to bring the circuit back into the
linear region in the B-H curve
○ u of air gap is almost always u0 and will only change if the
relative permittivity of air changes (it won’t). Thus the
permittivity of the air gap = permittivity of free space.
● Reluctance is purely a factor of the magnetic core material. Magnetic equivalent circuit
for transformer/coupled inductor
○ The coils can be converted to a MMF source. Use the Right Hand rule to
determine the direction of the flux
○ Each section which has a different cross sectional area or is on a separate
branch (i.e parallel) will have its own reluctance.
 ○
● Power in linear magnetic circuits
○ AC elements will store energy in their electric (capacitor) or magnetic
(coil/inductor) fields. This energy is given by:
1 2 1 1 2 1
○ 𝑊𝑓 = ∫ 𝑖𝑑λ = ∫ 𝑁𝑖𝑑Φ = 2
Φ𝑅 = 2
λ𝑖 = 2
𝑖𝐿 = 2
𝑁Φ1𝑖1

𝑊𝑓 1
○ 𝐴𝑙
= ∫ 𝐻𝑑𝐵 = 2
𝐻𝐵

○ 𝑑𝑊0 = 𝐹𝑚𝑑𝑥
○ 𝑑𝑊𝑖 = 𝑖𝑑λ
■ 𝑊𝑓 = energy stored in the field. Is also equal to the area of the Φ and Ni
graph
■ w= energy density. The ratio of power over volume of the magnetic
material. Aka the energy per unit volume
■ A= cross sectional area, l= length
■ i1= current at point 1 where electromechanical work is required to be
done
■ Φ= flux at point 1
■ Fm= mechanical force. Assume to be constant
■ Wi= input energy
 ■ Note that current is proportional to air gap of armature
○ Note that when calculating energy for an electro-mechanical circuit, the
reluctances of the air gap, and thus the circuit, will change as the circuit moves
closer or further away and the air gap decreases or increases.
○ Total energy stored = ½*I^2*L where L is the inductance of the coil and i is the
current flowing through it.
○ Note that the simplifications can only be made if the circuit is linear i.e u is
constant
○ Conservation Of electromechanical energy
■ Use of magnetic circuits to provide mechanical movement
■ Wi= Wo + Wf + Wl (definition is used later on)
● Wi= input energy
● Wo= output aka mechanical energy
● Wf= energy stored in field (magnetic)
● Wl= energy lost to the system (through heat, eddy current etc)
■ dWi = dWo + dWf (if loss is ignored)
■ From this equation the following expression and 𝑑𝑊0 = 𝐹𝑚𝑑𝑥 the
following expression for electro mechanical force can be derived which is
known as the incrementally storage of energy:
● 𝐹𝑚𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑊𝑖 − 𝑑𝑊𝑓 (if loss is ignored)
■ Recall that energy is the area of the Ni vs flux graph, thus if flux remains
constant i.e if input energy remains constant then:
𝑑𝑊𝑓
● 𝐹𝑚 =− 𝑑𝑥
1 2
○ Wf= energy stored in the field. Use 2
Φ 𝑅 where R will vary
with time (as I(t) varies). Note that flux here refers to
TOTAL FLUX (passing through the coil) and R to total
reluctance of the magnetic circuit
● This result implies that, the electromechanical force is equal to the
rate at which the field releases its stored energy
■ If current remains constant
𝑑𝑊𝑓
● 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑑𝑥
1 2
○ Wf = 2 𝑖 𝐿 where L will vary over time as Φ varies. I refers
to total current passing through the coil and L to the
inductance of the coil.
● This result implies that, the electromechanical force is equal to the
rate at which the magnetic field stores energy

Magnetic losses
-aka iron losses or core losses
-Present in AC magnetic circuits. This loss is constant irrespective of the input voltage
-Consist of hysteresis loss and eddy current loss (constant losses)
-Hysteresis
● After crossing the knee region (only knee?) When magnetic flux decreases back below
the knee region it will NOT follow the initial path it took to past the knee. This is because
the core has retained some flux density (i.e a bias). Thus even when magnetic field
intensity (H) has reduced to 0, B might not be 0. This residual B is known as remanence
● Note that this will occur when the field intensity is negative and positive (as long as it
passes the knee?)
● The negative magnetic field intensity used to force B back down to 0 at H=0 is known as
Hc (coercive force)
● The graph of B-H graph when it travel past the positive knee and then past the negative
knee is known as the hysteresis loop and its shape depends on the material of the core
(i.e cast iron have have a “fatter” curve than steel)
● Power Loss due to hysteresis (FOR AC SOURCE):
𝑛
○ 𝑃ℎ = 𝐾ℎ𝐵𝑚 𝑓
■Bm= max flux density
■Kh= experimental constant
■f= freq of source
■n= Steinmetz index 1.5~2.5 for common core materials. For the case of
transformers, n is usually taken as 2.
● Note that despite the linear relationship with f, Ph might increase when the f of the AC
source decreases. This is because the ratios of final freq and initial are inversely related
Eddy current loss
● Consequence of faraday law. An emf is generated to oppose the change in flux (i.e in
opp dir). In a magnetic circuit flux flows along the mean path of the core, thus the
generated current will circle the cross section of the core (in the dir of basis dphi)
● Power Loss due to current (FOR AC SOURCE):
2 2
○ 𝑃𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒𝐵𝑚 𝑓
■ Bm= max flux density
■ Ke= experimental constant
■ f= freq of source
● To reduce eddy current loss, the core is separated into sections separated by insulating
material in a method called laminations. This prevents current from traveling to other
sections. Each cross section is heavily rectangular and made as thin as possible to
increase the resistance to current. (as V^2/R)
Electric circuit
-Magnetic circuits can be analyzed in terms of voltage and current as in AC circuit analysis
2
λ 𝑁
● 𝐿= 𝑖
= 𝑅
-The coil in this case will introduce a resistance (usually given) as well as a inductive impedance
(L*w*j)
-Since there is a relationship between electric and magnetic circuit, both can be designed to
account for the other
-Values not in time domain are likely RMS
-vmax= 2*pi/sqrt(2)*N*Φmax*f (for analysis of AC inputs)
-Thus the rms current in an AC circuit is:
● Irms= Vrms/|R| = Vrms/sqrt(L^2w^2 + r^2)
○ L= inductance
○ w= 2pif
○ r= real resistance
○ sqrt= square root. I.e to find the magnitude of the impedance

Faraday law
-When flux passes through the coil, it will “link” with the coil. Flux will be created in such a way to
reduce the change in flux.
-Self-inductance
● Occurs when the flux linking the core is generated by the core
● Lambda = flux linkage (Wb-t)
○ λ = 𝑁Φ
−𝑑λ 𝑑Φ
○ V= emf= 𝑑𝑡
=− 𝑁 𝑑𝑡
(For magnetic equivalent circuit)
𝑑𝑖
○ emf=− 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
(For electric/normal circuit)
● Negative sign indicates the polarity of the induced voltage. Negative sign is dropped
from electric circuit many times
● Formula for vmax is derived from assuming first that because input is sinusoidal, so too
must flux be sinusoid, then using the formula for magnetic eq circuit to find emf.
● Thus L= lambda/i
-Can be used to derive Vrms= 4.44*N*A*Bm*f
● N= turns
● A=area
● Bm= max magnetic field
● f= freq
Transformer
-Two coils which share the same core. The first is the input (primary) coil and the other is the
output (secondary).
-The frequency of input to the input winding does not change at the output winding
-The same flux is shared by both coils and thus their current flows in opposite directions. Thus,
total flux= flux input - flux output where the total flux flows through both coils. This is the
operating principle of a transformer. The flux is dependent on the voltage input and number of
windings at the primary side via the following relation:
● Vrms=4.44*N*A*Bm*f
○ N= turns of primary or secondary coil
○ Vrms= voltage at primary or secondary coil
COMPLEX POWER
● S= Vrms*(Irms*)
● |S|= apparent power
● pf= P/S = cos(thetaV- thetaI)
● P= S*cos(theta)
○ P= total REAL power i.e power absorbed by resistors. Unit in watts
○ S= apparent power. Units in VA
○ thetaV= phase shift of reference voltage, usually 0
○ thetaI= phase shift of current
○ ThetaV- thetaI = power factor angle= load impedance angle = pfa. The power
factor angle characterizes the load in the following way:
■ pfa= 0, purely resistive
■ pfa = 90 or -90, purely reactive
■ pfa > 0, lagging-inductive
■ pfa < 0, leading capacitive.
■ Note that the negative sign in a capacitive load can be transferred out of
the cos function when trying to work backwards to find the angle given the
power factor.
○ pf= power factor, the ratio of real power over complex/apparent power. Inductors
lag pf while capacitors lead pf.
○ Power factor calculated for no load and full load conditions will be different!
-Name plate
● <apparent power>, <input/output rms voltage>, <freq>
○ Apparent power= the power which the transformer can deliver on a continuous
basis. To find reactive power, you need the power factor, then:
■ P= VIcos(theta)
■ Q= VIsin(theta)
● P= real power
● Q= reactive power
● theta= the angle between Voltage and current. Vtheta - I theta
○ Freq= input/output freq of the voltage
Dot convention
 ● Defines the polarity
● Place a dot to represent the positive terminal of the induced voltage and the other is the
negative terminal

●
● Current enters dot on the source side, exits dot on the secondary side.
Analysis
● When dealing with voltage and current quantities ensure that the values are phasors.
● Total power for phasors given by VI*= S where S is apparent power and * is the
conjugate of the output. Thus I= S*/V*
● The phasor which is set as reference will have a phase shift of zero. The reference is
usually chosen to be secondary winding
● Impt relations
○ S= VI*
○ I1= I2/a = I2’
○ V1= a*V2= V2’
○ Z1= a^2*Z2= Z2’
○ I2= a*I1= I1’
○ V2= V1/a = V1’
○ Z2= Z1/a^2 = Z1’
■ The ‘ prefix specifies that the value is a referred value which is the
secondary or primary equivalent of the primary or secondary respectively.
■ Impedance/resistance conversion operation (i.e divide or multiply) same
as voltage (except of course for resistance a is squared)
■ a= winding/turns ratio aka turns of primary / turns of secondary
■ I*= conjugate of Irms
■ Recall that multiplication of complex var requires conjugation
Ideal transformer:
● Conditions
○ Windings have negligible resistance / no copper losses in the windings. Copper
loss are also known as variable losses or I^2R loss
○ Flux is confined to the core (no leakage?)
○ Very little current (almost infinitesimal) is required to create flux.
○ No hysteresis or eddy current loss
● Ideally, if there are no core or copper losses, the turns ratio (a) can relate the input and
output quantities in the following way:
○ V1I1*= V2I2*
 ○ N1i1 - N2i2 = 0
○ v1/v2= i2/i1 = N1/N2= a.
○ V1I1 = V2I2 (aka input power = output power)
Non-ideal transformer (single phase)
● Windings have resistance. Thus voltage input != voltage at the winding. The model
below is the exact equivalent circuit used to model these losses. Thus a no longer
directly relates V2 to V1 and I2 to I1, instead turns ratio (a) relates E2 to E1 and I2 to
Ip (see diagram below)

●
● The winding losses (copper loss) due to the coils can be modeled by a resistor in series
with the windings (R1 in series with V1 and R2 with V2). The leakage flux outside the
core can be modeled as a coil in series with the input/output coil which has an
impedance of jX.
● Furthermore, hysteresis and eddy current losses can be represented by an inductor and
resistor respectively (note that this is only an approximation). The current flowing through
these components are Im and ic (aka no-load current) respectively and power lost in
these components (only from Rc1) are known as the core losses which will not change
despite the input. These components can also be represented as a section in the middle
known as the shunt bunch. The:
○ Ic (core loss current)= E1/Rc1. Only Ic needs to be considered when calculating
total core loss. Core loss includes hysteresis and eddy current loss
○ Im (magnetizing current)= R1/jXm1. Since it is derived from an inductor, current
lags voltage by 90 deg. Does not need to be considered in total core loss as this
component of power is reactive.
○ Iphi= Ic + Im
● Thus now:
○ V1= E1 + I1(R1 + jX1)
○ E2= V2 + I2(R2 + jX2)
● Approximate equivalent circuit (used alot)
● Simplifies the analysis of non-ideal transformers. Ignores the winding resistance
and leakage flux but includes an error term to compensate. As such some
inaccuracies may be introduced. The equivalent circuit below is taken with ref to
primary side:
 ●
● Re1= R1 + a^2R2 = effective resistance
● Xe1= X1 + a^2X2 = effective inductance
● Thus the voltage at the core (Rc1 and Xm1) is equal to V1
● To summarise:
● If secondary side used as the basis (the core resistances are changed):
○ V1= V1’ = V1/a
○ V2= V2
○ I2= I1’ = I1*a
○ Re’= R1/a^2 + R2
○ Xe’= X1/a^2 + X2
○ Rc’= Rc1/a^2
○ Xm’=Xm1/a^2
● If primary side used as the basis (the core resistances are unchanged):
○ V1= V1
○ V2'= V2*a
○ I1= I2’ = I2/a
○ Re’= R1 + a^2*R2
○ Xe’= X1 + a^2*X2
○ Rc’= Rc1
○ Xm’=Xm1
● The copper loss for such a circuit is the power in Re1
● The core loss for such a circuit is the power in Ic. Core losses include from
hysteresis as well as from eddy currents. Sometimes denoted as Pm. Does not
change with changing input
Voltage regulation:
● Quantitative figure of merit which describes the performance, input loss compared to
output, of a transformer. The lower the better
● VR= 100*(V1’-V2)/V2 = 100*(V1-V2’)/V2’
○ V2= magnitude of the output
○ V2’= magnitude of output wrt to primary
○ V1’= magnitude of input wrt to secondary coil
○ VR= percentage of losses in the approx equivalent circuit. The lower this value
the better as V1’ = V2 when there are no losses. Aka V1’ = no load condition, V2
= full load condition
 ● Not affected by shunt bunch (as the shunt bunch has the same voltage as that of input)
● Note that VR is only a function of magnitudes NOT angles
● For lagging power factor (i.e mostly inductive) the VR will be positive, but if VR is
negative, VR could be leading (capacitive)
Transformer power analysis
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥
● 𝑃𝐿 = 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑓𝑙

𝐼2
● 𝑥= (at full load x= 1)
𝐼2,𝑓𝑙
2
● 𝑃𝑐𝑢 = 𝑥 * 𝑃𝑐𝑢,𝑓𝑙 (at max efficiency x, core loss= copper loss)
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
● 𝑁= 𝑃𝑖
● V1*I1_fl = V2*I2_fl= Sfl
○ Val_max= The value i.e current or pwr when maximum efficiency is achieved
○ Val_fl= The value i.e current or pwr at full load copper loss
○ PL= The percentage of the max_val at which the maximum efficiency will occur.
The percentage of power which is used.
○ Pcu,fl= the copper loss at full load. Knowing this value and x, the power at all
other loadings can be found.
○ Sfl= Full load power = V*full load currents (only used for power calculation?).
Where S is the magnitude of apparent power
○ Pi= Pout+Pm+Pcu.
■ Pout= Real output power
■ Pm= Core loss, constant at all input or output voltages
■ Pcu= copper loss, changes with input and output voltages
● Thus why transformers don't usually operate at their full load, to increase efficiency.
● Steps to find n
○ Find Power at full load (Sfl). Note that I2^2*Re = Pc_fl, not Sc_fl, this is because
(although the current might have a complex component), as long as only its
magnitude is taken and the impedance is completely real (i.e only resistive) the
output will also be real
○ Find x ratio at full load (will be 1 at full load?)
○ Find Copper loss and core loss. Use S_fl= V2*I2_fl= V1*I1_fl. Copper loss will
2
change at different inputs and this must be recalculated using 𝑃𝑐𝑢 = 𝑥 * 𝑃𝑐𝑢,𝑓𝑙 but
core loss will remain the same at full load as at other loads. Core loss is given by
2
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 * 𝑃𝑐𝑢,𝑓𝑙 where x_max_eff is the value of x at max efficiency.
𝑒𝑓𝑓

Efficiency is defined as the highest N. Note that core losses are always real
○ Recall that P is the real component so use multiply apparent power at this value
by power factor to get P0. Pcu = xnew^2 * Pcu_fl. Xnew is the new percentage of
total power which is being used i.e if half load, xnew= 0.5. Pcore= Pcore_fl.
P0/(P0 + Pcu + Pcore)= n
Open Circuit test
 ● Determines the shunt parameters i.e Rc and Xm
● Based on an physical circuit test wherein the high voltage side of the transformer is left
open and a coil is attached to the low voltage side (usually). Note that this means the
shunt parameters will need to be multiplied by a^2 to obtain the HV shunt parameters:

●
● Equivalent

●
● All parameters obtained are with reference to the low voltage side usually. To get with ref
to high voltage, use RcL*a^2 and XmL*a^2
● Note that power readings can only be real and that current = sqrt(Ic^2 + Im^2)= Ioc.
Short Circuit test
● Determines the Xe and Re parameters
● In physical test, the low voltage side is short circuited while an ammeter, volt meter and a
measuring coil (power) is attached to the high voltage side.

● Readings are with reference to the high voltage side. To get with ref to low voltage, use
ReH/a^2 and XeH/a^2
● The aim is to obtain Vsc, Psc and Isc.
● Equivalent circuit
 ●
○ Psc = Isc^2*ReH
○ ZeH= Vsc/Isc
○ XeH= sqrt(ZeH^2 - ReH^2)
-Auto-transformer
● When the primary coil is connected to the secondary via a conductor I.e wire. Thus
isolation is lost between the two coils. Each coil has two terminals, any two of which can
be the input and any two can also be the output. Thus there will be both inductive (due to
flux flowing through the coil) and conductive (due to the current traveling through the
wire) energy
● Dot convention is impt, current enter dot in source winding and leaves the dot at the
output winding
● Depending on where the input is connected, and where the output is taken the
autotransformer can either be a step-up or step-down transformer (using the ideal
model, thus E1I1=E2I2).
● Turns ratio now relates the auto transformer quantities v1a/v2a= i2a/i1a
● Current at output (for both step up or down is larger than input current)
○ Step up:
■ The input is across one of the coils, while the output is across two coils.
Thus voltage output is increased
○ Step down:
■ The input is across the two coils but output is only across one.
○ Sliding point
■ Requires one coil
■ The load is a sliding point across this coil
● Power
○ Because of the link between the two coils, pwr for the input is increased by a
secondary factor. i.e for a step down transformer, E1a*I1a=(E1+E2)*I1 likewise,
for output E2a=I2a= E2*(I1+I2), thus there is pwr from induction E2*I2=S and pwr
from conduction, E2*I1 = S/a thus total pwr is S1a=S2a= S + S/a. Note that the
term S/a will change depending on the type of connection unlike S which is
specific to the transformer. The conduction pwr is the pwr not accounted for even
after induction has been considered see S1a and S2a pwr eq
Three-phase transformer
● Transformer bank: The input and output coil can be connected in different configurations
i.e input coils in wye and output in delta. Unlike with three-phase transformers, these
banks are made from three different transformers, thus allowing for different
configurations. The nameplate of a transformer bank describes the power for only one
transformer and the phase voltages. The power which the total bank can deliver is 3*pwr
rating single
● Three-phase transformer: The input and output coils have defined windings which
cannot be easily modified. The nameplate describes the total three-phase power and
line voltages
● IMPT: If given total per phase impedance as in tut 7 q3, I.e if given a transformer in
Y/Delta, the arrangement (I.e star or delta) of the impedance is the same as the
arrangement of the low side if the lower voltage was taken as ref and as such the
arrangement is in Delta (thus divide the whole resistance by 3 to find Yphase eq). If
however the resistances were obtained wrt to high side, the impedance will match the
high side arrangement and be Y (thus no change is required when converting the given
impedance to Y)
● Analysis
○ Delta:
■ Line_delta_voltage= Phase_delta_voltage
■ Line_delta_current = sqrt(3) * phase_delta_current
■ To convert voltage, current, power quantity to Wye phase divide by sqrt(3)
■ When converting resistance to wye format divide by 3
○ Wye
■ Line_wye_voltage= sqrt(3)* Phase_wye_voltage
■ Line_wye_current= phase_wye_current
■ Convert Wye to delta = sqrt(3) * Wye quantity?
○ Convert both sides to Wye formation (divide impedance by 3 if delta, and
voltages by sqrt(3) (divide wye line by sqrt three to get phase and divide delta by
sqrt(3) to be wye phase)
○ Draw any 1 input and output coil pair in exact equivalent format.
○ Convert to approximate eq circuit.
○ Analysis as per normal
○ Turns ratio
■ The turns ratio of the resulting three phase transformer may NOT be the
same as that of the three-phase circuit. To find the new equivalent turns
ratio (ap), find the approximate equivalent Y-Y circuit, take note of the
transformations which occur to V1 and V2 then take V1/V2. Note that ap
= a sometimes if input and output have the same arrangement (i.e both
delta or both wye). Thus pls note that the turns ratio will change based on
the arrangement of the input and output three phase circuit and use this
turns ratio for further calculation.
● Feeders
○ In the Y-Y eq circuit, it can be thought of as the line connecting V1 to the approx
eq circuit (the line just before the shunt impedances).
 ○ Does not need to be transformed in any way
Induction motors
● Aka rotating transformer If unstated, is Wye connected.
● Three phase power is provided to the stator a stationary cuff surrounding the rotor, the
stator uses induction to move the rotor. The stator and rotor are separated by an air gap.
The magnetic field of the rotor generates a torque to align the rotor with the magnetic
field of the stator. Since the magnetic field of the stator is moving, this will cause
continual motion in the rotor. The speed at which the stator magnetic field changes is the
synchronous speed (nsync) and the rotor (rotor speed= nm) will follow this speed very
closely but never match it. Since it can only come close to the speed/freq of the stator,
this type of motor is known as asynchronous.
● There are three windings in the stator. Each will have an input and output terminal, the
direction of its corresponding magnetic field will follow the right hand rule.
● For every three coils, two additional poles will be added
○ nsync= 120fs/p
○ s= (nsync - nm)/ nsync = nslip/nsync
○ fr = sfs
○ Tload * omega_m = Pout
○ 1hp= 746w
■ nsync= synchronous speed in rpm.
■ nslip= slip speed = nsync - nm.
■ fs = freq of the generated sinusoid i.e stator freq. usually attached to the
label of the motor. Since fs also affects flux (V/4.44Nf), when changing fs
to reduce Nsync, the input voltage must also be decreased to prevent
excessive flux and thus heating. This process is known as derating or
variable voltage method.
■ p= number of poles
■ s= slip speed ration. -0 < s < 1, if s = 0 the rotor turns roughly at
synchronous speed, if s= 1 the rotor is stationary. Slip speed= nsync - nm
units in rpm
■ nm = speed of motor (i.e rotor speed). Under no load condition, nm ~=
nsync.
■ fr= frequency of rotor rotation.
■ omega_m= angular freq of motor
■ Pout=output power. Alternatively, the power can be changed to Pdev to
find the torque generated at developed power.
■ Tload= torque generated by load. Tdev= Tind
● Rotating Transformer analysis:
○ Vout is 0 when nm = nsync
○ In the approx eq circuit, the primary side represents the stator and the secondary
side the rotor.
○
○ Note that Usually Rc is not included unless specified otherwise. it is grouped with
the rotational resistances. Thus the voltage across Xm is Ero
○ The circuit above is referred to the primary (i.e stator) side. Thus input is as
stated on the label
○ The term R2/S can be broken into two real resistor loads with values of R2
and R2(1-s)/s
○ Explanation:
■ Er= 4.44*fr*Nr*flux_max = s*Er0, whr Er0 = rotor induced voltage at
locked-rotor cond (fs=fr,s=1)
■ And the resistances are Xr =omega_r * L_r = s*Xr0 , whr Xr0 =
blocked-rotor reactance and Rr
■ Er= input to approx eq circuit. Xr= complex impedance. Rr = real
impedance. can be represented as Er0 and Xr0. Since it may be
inconvenient to analyze the resulting circuit as the input will continually
change with s, all s terms can be collected in Rr/s or R2/s, thus Xr= Xr0j
and Er= Er0, thus only Rr/s will change.
○ Alternatively, using thevenin equivalent circuit, the following circuit can be
derived:

■
 ■ Vth is the open circuit voltage across Xm i.e the voltage at Xm when X2
and R2/S have been removed
● Rth = real part of the thevenin eq looking in from R2/s and X2
● Xth = img part of the thevenin eq
● I2= the current in rotor, equivalent to the current flowing the in
thevenin eq circuit
○ Note that unlike with regular transformers, the no load resistances are very high
so the error factor cannot be introduced unlike those models (i.e the shunt bunch
cannot go all the way to the left)
○ As all real components of the rotor are made to be affected by s, if it is the case
that power without rest to s is required, then R can be divided into Prcl =
3*I2^2*R2 and Pconv=R2*((1-s)/s)
● Power flow diagram

●
○ Note that the diagram above is based on line values
○ Power losses in order from Pin to Pout:
■ PscL= copper loss. From eq circuit is 3*I1^2*R1
■ Pag = between Air gap. Power of Rr:
● 3*I2^2*(Rr/s)
■ PrcL= rotor copper loss. After this state the power is known as developed
power. Can be found via:
● 3*I2^2*R2 = s*Pag = PrcL
■ Prot = rotational losses, including core loss
■ Pin= sqrt(3) * VL*IL*cos(theta)
■ n= Pout / Pin
■ By rearranging, the following can be obtained:
● Tdev= Pdev/Wm = Pag/wsync
 ○
○ The power at any point can be found by subtracting the two previous power
stages, i. Power at AG = Pin - PscL, Pout= Pdev - Prot
● Torque-speed characteristics
○ Torque-speed curve:

■
■ Regions in graph
● Plugging region:
○ When S > 1, this implies that the motor is running in the
opposite direction. The main use for this region is to bring
the motor to a quick stop
 ● Generation region:
○ When S< 0, emf is generated in the stator and can be
harvested as in power generators
● Motoring region
○ When 0<S<1
● Pull Out Torque aka max torque occurs at max power of the real
component R2/S (Tmax= Pmax/w). Using the thevenin equivalent
circuit, this max power will occur when:

○
○ Solving using the Rth eq circuit above, it can be found that
T max is only affected by supply voltage where it is
proportional to the square of the supply voltage. Tmax is
NOT affected by anything else including R2.
● Starting torque is torque when s= 1. At starting torque, Pdev =
Pag, Wm = Wsync. Current is larger for starting conditions and
torque is lower than full load
○ As mentioned in the description for Nsync, varying the frequency can vary the
speed of the motor. If the motor is run at a speed higher than the default, the
graph on the right is obtained, if lower, the graph on the left is obtained:

○
● Motor tests
○ Since it is difficult to gain access to the insides for motors, all results from test
unless otherwise specified refers to line quantities and all power values refer to
line power I.e 3X phase pwr
○ NO LOAD TEST
■ Nm ~= Nsync
■ Rotor spins freely while two wattmeters are connected to the line and a
voltmeter is connected across the terminals of a watt meter.
■ Used to find Prot (which includes hysteresis current) and Xm.
■ Rt = total resistance = X1 + XM
 ■ R2 can be approximated as open circuit (as s ~ 0), thus the total power
detected at no load = Prot+ Pscl
○ DC Test

■
■ Apply DC voltage (Vdc) to the motor and adjust I1 up to rated current
(Idc). Place a voltmeter across any two phases and an ammeter in series
with any line.
■ Used to find R1 = Vdc/(2*Idc)
○ Blocked-rotor test
■ Xm is bypassed
■ Used to find R2, X1 and X2
■ only X1 + X2 can be obtained. No further separation is possible beyond
this point, thus it is not uncommon for motors to be designed such that X1
= X2
■ P = 3*Ibrt^2(Real_resistances)
■ X1 and X2 WILL CHANGE BASED ON FREQ, to find the magnitude at
new freq do Fnew/Fold * Xold = Xnew (I.e the ratio of freq is same of ratio
of inpedances) but if the freq of this test is not known, then assume that it
was conducted at rated voltage.
● Starting motors
○ At startup current is high. To minimize this effect:
■ Use autotransformer
■ Change connection i.e delta to wye or vice versa then change the
connection back to normal when the motor is running.
 DC machines
● Still work with AC
● EMF induced in both stator and rotor. As the motor rotates, a squarish wave is produced.
To convert this voltage to DC, a commutator is first used. Communicators are two halves
of a semicircle which are close but not touching. This will generate a rectified (negative
flipped upwards) square wave.
● Current is electron current in this case :/
● Total DC (square wave) voltage induced in loop
● Like AC also has two windings:
○ Armature windings
■ On the rotor
■ Both motor and generator mode below use DC sources. This DC source
can be generated via commutator.
○ Field windings
■ On the stator
■ The magnetic field is called the pole
● Emf_ind = K*phi*wm = wm*phi*2/pi (pole face)
● Emf_ind = 0 (beyond pole edge)
● T_ind = phi*iI2/pi=k*phi*i (pole face)
● T_ind = 0 (beyond pole edge)
● Speed regulation
○ Defines the slope of the torque speed curve
○ SR= 100*(wm_nl - wm_fl)/wm_fl= 100*(nm_nl - nm_fl)/nm_fl
● Motor mode
○ Current causes armature to rotate
○ Use left hand rule
○ Induced torque = Sum of the torque at all the line segments
○ Flux is the same throughout?
○ Motor losses

■
 ● Prot = Pmechanical + Pcopper (unless no load, in which case Prot
= EaIa)
● Pdev = Ea*Ia
● Pin = Vt*IL
● Pout = Tload*wm = Pdev - Prot
● Generator mode
○ Rotation generates EMF
○ Use right hand rule
○ Steady state speed
■ The speed of the motor when Tind = Tload
■ v= velocity of moving conductor in magnetic field
● v= r*wm
○ r= radius from axis of rotation to edge of loop
○ wm= angular velocity of loop
■ l= length of conductor
■ B= magnetic field
■ Phi = flux per pole = BAp. Affected by field current, thus if two circuits
have the same field current (current flowing through Rf) they will
have the same flux
■ Ap= area per pole, pi*r*L
■ K= mechanical construction of machine
■ Ea= emf of armature, internal generate voltage
○ Generator Losses

■
● Prot = Pmechanical + Pcopper
● Pdev = Ea*Ia
● Pin = Prot + Pdev
● Pout = Vt*IL
● Commutator complications
 ○ Armature reaction
■ Running a current through the armature will cause that armature to
generate its own magnetic field which opposes that of the stator
● Magnetic neutral plane shift

○
○ Normally, the plane which is perpendicular to the poles is
known as the neutral plane and should experience no flux.
This is where the brush is usually placed
○ Due to the generation of magnetic fields in armature
however, the neutral plane will be shifted to a new location,
thus the position below the brush will not be neutral and
sparks may occur at that location
○ Solutions:
■ Commutating poles/intepoles:
● Creates a voltage which directly opposes
that of the armature at the brush
● Flux weakening effect
○ Decrease total average flux, which reduces voltage
produced in generator mode and increase rotor speed in
motor mode
○ Solution
■ Compensating windings:
● Positing some windings at the poles which
cancel the field of the armature (soln to this
or Magnetic neutral plane shift)
○ Ldi/dt voltages
■ Cause by stay inductances which will cause sparking at brushes
● Losses
○ Copper loss
■ Occurs in windings
■ Armature loss: Pa= Ra*Ia^2
■ Field copper loss: Pf = Rf*If^2
○ Brush loss
■ Usually ignored
■ Pbd = Vbd*Ia
 ● Vbd = brush voltage drop approx 2V
● Ia = armature current
○ Core loss
■ I^2R loss
■ Hysteresis and eddy current
○ Mechanical losses
■ Friction loss: Friction between brushes and commutator
■ Windage loss: air inside motor casing has friction
○ Stray/misc loss
■ Approx 1% of full load
■ Usually neglected
● Equivalent circuit

○
■ Field circuit on the left, armature on the right
■ Ea= Emf_ind = K*phi*wm
■ T_dev= T_ind = K*phi*i
● DC motors
○ Separately excited DC motor

■
■ The field windings are connected to an external supply
■ Ra= includes compensating resistances
○ Shunt DC motor
■ Field is supplied directly from armature, thus VL = Vf?
 ■
■ Ra= includes compensating resistances

■
○ Both motors are the same IF the supply voltage is constant i.e Vt= Vf
○ Nonlinear analysis
■ Necessary when armature reaction is present
■ Use the Ea - If graph for given speed. All other speeds may produce diff
Ea-If graph but they are related via Ea = K*phi*n
■ Mmfnet = Nf*If - mmfar = Nf*If*
● If*= equivalent field current: If - mmfar/Nf, the current that will
produce the same output voltage as the combination of all mmfs in
the machine
■ Steps (finding speed):
● Find If
● Find MMF using If, with reference to the Ea-If graph, find Ea0
● Using equivalent circuit analysis, find Ea
● Use Ea= K*phi*wm for both Ea0 and Ea, to find wm (knowing the
speed at which the Ea-If graph was taken)
○ Speed
■ wm= Vt/(k*phi) - Tind*Ra/(K*phi)^2 (derived from torque vs speed
graph)
■ Field resistance control
● Increasing Rf increases steady-state speed (and slope of speed)
● Pmax is constant
● Controlling of speed above the base speed
■ Armature voltage control
 ● Increasing Ea but keeping Vt steady will increase speed. This can
be done by placing a variable voltage controller in series with the
armature half of the circuit
● Inserting a resistor in place of the voltage controller will achieve
the same effect but this will incur large losses in the added
resistor. Thus this method is usually avoided
● Tmax is constant
● Controlling speed below the base speed.
○ Current control
■ Resistors connected in parallel to capacitors in series with armature. As
current decreases, these components are decoupled from the circuit.
● DC tests
○ Open-circuit test
■ To obtain the magnetisation curve
■ Ea = Vt
■ Separately excited connection. Armature circuit is open-circuited.
■ Run the machine as a generator at wm, measure the terminal voltage as
If changes
■ Plot Ea against If
○ Blocked-rotor test
■ Ea= 0, wm = 0
■ Separately excited connection. Ra= Vt/Ia, Rf = Vf/If
○ No load test
■ Vt and Ia are measured
■ Ea= Vt - IaRa
■ Prot= Pdev = EaIa