UNIT 10 AIR QUALITY

CONTROL MONITORING AND

Structure
10.1 Introduction
Objcctives
10.2 AirQuality
Indoor and Outdoor Air Quality
Air quality
Mcasures ofMunagenient
Air Quality Systen and Standards
10.3 AirQuality Monitoring
National Ambient Air Management
Ambient Air Sampling Progranmme
Methods of Ambient Air Analysis
Analysis of Common Air Pollutants
10.4 Air Pollution Control
10.5
Summary
10.6
Terminal Questions
10.7 Answers

10.1 INTRODUCTION
'Black Taj Mahal - By 2050; a
in the leading newspaper of the recent Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) report
national capital, gives a real gloomy picture of the
state of air pollution today. According
air pollution contributes cach ycar to to World Health Organisation estimates, urban
million life years. You might have approximately 800,000 deaths and a loss of 4.6
can have while reading about it andrealised the devastating effects that air
its illeffects in previous units of this pollution
almost obligatory on the part block. It is
governmental and various nongovernmental agencies
to formulatc the air quality standards, have a reliable monitoring programme and
follow suitable control mcasures to ensure good
over the globe. The consequences of health of million of people living all
implementing
Supreme Court in India have shown some effects in strategies and intervention of
Scope of further iniprovennent is still there. major mctropolitan cities. A

The last unit of Block is dcvoted to the air quality

3
country in abroader perspcctive. In this context, monitoring requirements for our
air quality standards. air quality monitoring etc.,
the meaning of terms like air quality,
associated with air quality
management system have been explained. In order to understand the concept of
monitoring and control, principles of some of the monitoring
most critical air pollutants have also becn described. These methods used for the
would provide the
underlying concepts for the experiments related to air pollution described Block 7.
The next block deals with the pollution aspects of
other two components of
atmosphcre viz.. water and soil.

Objectives
Afier studying this unit you should be able to:
define air quality and explain its significance,
state the air quality standards followed world over and in India,
explain air quality management system,

74
 describe the principles lying under the monitoring methods for comnon air Air
pollutants, and Quality Monitoring and
explain the control measures for conmmon air pollutants. Control

10.2 AIR QUALITY

ln the prcvious unit you rcad about
eflects caused by these on all living various
beings
types of' air pollutants and the adverse
and materials. You would recall that the
major air pollutants wvith severe hcalth cffects The average adult breathes
CO, hydrocarbons and aerosols etc. include, nitrogen and sulphur Oxides, over 3,000 gallons of air
Further, the increasing atmospheric
climatically important gases as CO,, methane and nitrous oxide abundance of cveryday. Children breath
even more air per poundof
greenhouse cflect of the atmosphere and contribute
may lcad to global warming and other
to the bodyweight and are more
climatic changes. The rapidly growing population, susceptible to air pollution.
India has made some of the cities like New
Delhi,
urbanisation and industrialisation in
the world's most polluted ones. Of the 3 Mumbai, Chennaiand Kolkata as
million
occur each year due to outdoor and indoor air premature deaths in the world that
assessed occur in India. It is, therefore,
to pollution, the highest number are
for the desired level of air quality essential to formulate norms or standards
hcalth and property. Air quality is with an adequate margin of safety, lo
defined in terms of air quality standardsprotect public
discussed in sbsection 10.2.2. and criteria,
The causes of air pollution and the air
quality requirements are different in indoor and
outdoor environmnents. Let us learn about the concerns of indoor and
quality. outdoor air
10.2.1 Indoor and Outdoor Air Quality
Indoor air quality refers to the physical,
in the indoor chemical and biological characteristics of air
environment, within abuilding or an
facility. It is a measure of the concentration of institutional area or commercial
that are responsible for pollution. gases or particulates in the indoor air The World Bank in 1992
These may be
temperature and humidity.The lack of ventilationduedoesto not inadequate ventilation, high
let enough
designatcd indoor pollution
indoor sources and also does not carryoutdoor
get in and dilute emissions from air to in the developing countries
the as one of the four most
pollutants out of the building. The developing countries that indoor air critical global
fuels (i.e. solid biomass) for cooking in make use of traditional
indoor air pollution. The indoor pollution60-80% of their households face
is generally due to, maximum environmental problems.

release of gases from combustion within the

release of volatile organic compounds from building premises,
adhesives, paint, cleaning materials etc. building materials like, carpets,
infiltration of gases and particulate matter from outside the
through open doors and windows. building sources
microbes contaminating the building interiors and
ventilation systems.
The indoor air pollution has immediate as well
as long- term effects. The
effects are irritation of eyes, nose, throat,
headaches, immediate
term effects may show up years after the dizziness and fatigue. The long
heart disease and cancer. exposure and include respiratory diseases,

Outdoor air quality also called the

the measure of air pollutants in the ambient air quality on the other hand refers to
components, which are atmosphere. It takes into consideration six main

Suspended particulate matter (SPM) / Respirable suspended

(RSPM) particulate matter
Carbon monoxide
Oxides of nitrogen

75
 Atmosphere
Sulphur dioxide
Ozonc and
Lead

Outdoor air quality is amajor concern as it affects a

wider
of sources of cmission, spectrum
matter and material. The inventory of living beings,
pollutant determinations give the status of local meteorology and air
which could suggest the pollution control ambient air quality. A model is required
standards/goals. However, a better, efficientmeasures
to achie ve ambient
and cost effective approach for
monitoring and achieving the desired
management system. Let us learn aboutambient air quality is to develop an air
the air quality management system in quality
operation in our country. Before proceeding further try to
answer the following SAQ.
SAQ 1
Choose the most appropriate answer in the
following.
Air quality refers to the
a) measure of
b)
concentration of various components in air.
c)
concentration of various components in air causing air pollution.
emissions from various sources.
d) health effects due to air
pollution.
102.2 Air Quality Management System and
Standards
AQMS is a strategy to Air quality managenent system (AQMS) can be
overcoime the problen1 of air amount, location and time of pollutant emissions defined as the regulation of the
to achieve some clearly defined set
pollution and is most of ambient air quality standards or goals. It
effective towards includes the evaluation of various sets of
emission control schedules in operation to determine
continuous improvement of
alternative emissionconsequences
also undertakes the formulation of to air quality. It
air quality especially for control schedules to meet air
regional problems. quality goals subject to some other constraints, e.g.,
economy. technological feasibility or
In order to protect human health,
vegetation and other livin g creatures, property and
environment from the adverse effects of air pollution,
Board, (CPCB),New Delhi has set up and notified Central Pollution Control
Standards (NAAQS) These standards are necessaryNational Ambient Air Quality
term goals for air quality improvem ent and also for to set short-term as well as long
achieving the same. These also serve as indicators informulating strategies for
implementation of these strategies. The monitoring and assessing the
various air pollutants are developed, on National Ambient Air Quality Standards for
the basis of dose-effect or
relationships and are an integral part of air quality nmanagement dose-response
for sulphur dioxide (SO), oxides of system. The standards
nitrogen (as NO,), suspended particulate matter
(SPM), respirable suspended particulate matter (RSPM;
ammonia (NH) are fixed as annual and 24 hourly average< while 10 microns), lead (Pb) and
for carbon monoxide
(CO)one and eight hourly standards are prescribed. The
features of the present set of standards are as follows: rationale and important

Adequate margin of safety is considered while

so as to protect public health, vegetation and evolving the air quality standards
The long-term standards (annual average) areproperty.
prescribed to protect the population
from regular exposure to high levels of pollution.
arithmetic mean of a minimum of 104 These are determined as
measurements
twice aweek (24 hourly) at regular intervals. spread over a year, taken
The short term standards (1/8/24 hours average), on
the
control acute effects resulting from exposure to very highother hand are intended to
levels
short periods. These are expected to be met 98 per of pollution for
should not exceed on any two consecutive days. cent of the time in a year and
76
 Diflerent sets of stundurds are prescribcd for Air Quality Monitoring and
(i) indus trial areas Control
residential, rural and other areas and
(i1)
(i) sensitive arcas, depending on the land use pattern.

Table 10.1l gives the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for SO,, oxides of
nitrogen (as NO;), suspended particulate matter (SPM) respirable particulate matter
(< 10u), carbon monoxide, lead and ammonia for industrial,
other) and sensitive arcas.
residential (rural and

Table 10.1: National ambient air quality standards for

some pollutants
Time weighted Concentration in ambient air
Pollutant average
Industrial Residential, Sensitiye
area rural and area
other areas
Annual Average* 80 ug/m'
Sulphur Dioxide 60 ug/m 15 ug/m
(SO) 24 Hours Average**
120 ug/m 80 ug/m' 30 ug/m
Oxides of Nitrogen as Annual Average* 80 4g/m 60 ug/m' I5 ug/m
NO, 24 Hours Average** 120 ug/m 80ug/m' 30 ugim
Suspended AnnualAverage* 360 ug/m 140 ug/m' 70 ug/m
Particulate Matter
(SPM) 24 Hours Average** 500 ug/m' 200 ug/m 100 ug/m'
Respirable Annual Average* 120 ug/m 60 ug/m'
Particulate Matter 50 ug/m'
(Size less than 10 ) 24 Hours Average**
150 ug/m 100 ug/m' 75 ug/m
(RPM)
Annual Average* 1.0 ug/m 0.75 ug/m' 0.50 ug/m
Lead (Pb)
24 Hours Average**
1.5 ug/m 1.0 u g/m 0.75 ug/m
Carbon monoxide 8Hours Average** 5.0 mg/m 2.0 mg/m 1.0 mgm'
(Co) Hour Average 10.0 mg/m 4.0 mg/m 2.0 mg/m
Annual Average* 100ug/m
Ammonia (NH3)
24 Hours Average** 400 ug/m
Annual Arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year twice a week 24 hourly
at uniform interval.
24 hourly/8 hourly values should be met 98% of the time in a year. However 2% of the
time, it may exceed but not on two consecutive days.

The legislative support for prevention and control of air pollution is provided by a
central legislation called the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981.
The quality of air at a given place is expressed in terms of certain paranmeters like, air
quality index and exceedence factor. Let us understand the meaning and significance
of these parameters.
10.2.3 Measures of Air Quality
You would have observed that the local air quality changes from day to day or even
hour to hour. The weather forecasts and reports are a regular feature of newspapers
and the news on radioand television. The information on daily air quality includes the
data on several air pollutants. The quality of the air can be categorised on the basis of
certain quantitative parameters based on actual and permissible (or standard) values of
the pollutants in the given sample. Two such parameters are:
77
 Atnosphere

Air quality index (AQ)) given by

Environmental
Exccedence factor (EF) given byCentral Protection Agency (EPA), USA
Pollution Control Board, India
Air Quality Index
Il is defined as a
numbcr, cxpressing the actual
sample of air, obtained by assigning a concentration of a given pollutant in a
pollutant. It can be computed as per thevalue of 100 to the permissible value of the
following formula.
Actual concentration of a given
AQI pollutant in air
X 100
Permissible value of the same pollutant
AQI is directly proportional to the
level of air
greater health concern. In the air quality index pollution. Ahigher value indicates a
numbers) represents quality values and the indexgiven by EPA, the air (a
also includes the healthrange
of
with respect to the detected concerns
The AQI contains pollution level and the corresponding
information
part iculate matter, carbon about the five remedial
major air pollutants viz., 0zone,measures.
monoxide,
value is determined for each of the five sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. Once a
pollutants, the highest of the
reported as the pollutant standard index for the day. given numbers is
EPA has divided the AQI into six
categories, which correspond to different level of
health concerns. These are represented by different
with their values, the health
concerns and colour colours. These categories along
indication is given in Table l0.2.
Table 10.2: Various categories of AQI as
per EPA of USA
Category AQI Value
designation Related health effects
Colour code
Good 0- 50
Satisfactory, no risk Green
Moderate 51 00
Acceptable for some pollutants, a
moderate health concern for very Yellow
small number of people unusually
reactive to ozone may experience
respiratory symptoms. General public
not affected

Unhealthy for 101 150 Members of reactive groups may be

sensitive
affeded people with lung disease or Orange
groups heart disease are at greater risk

Unhealthy 200 Health concern for all Red

Very 201 - 300 A health alert

every one may Purple
unhealthy experience serious health effects.

Hazardous 301 - 500

Entire population affected, health Maroon
warnings of emergency condition at
AQl above 400. premature death of
all and elderly persons may result.

78
 Exccedence Factor Air Quality
Monitoring and
In India, CPCB incollaboration witlh State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) bas Control
categorised air quality in terms of exeeedence factor (EF) which is calculaed as
follows,

Observed unnual mcan concentration of criteria pollutant

Exceedence factor =
Annual standard for the respective pollutant and area class
On the basis of exceedence factor the air
quality has been put into four categories.
These are given in Table 10. 3.

Table 10.3: Air Quality categories as per

CPCB, India
Air quality
category Category
Code
Exceedence factor
value
1. Critical pollution
> 1.5
2. High pollution
H 1.0 to 1.5
3. Moderate pollution
M 0.5 to 1.0
4. Low pollution
L < 0.5

An over view of the relative air quality

the country is given in Table 10,4
situation in industrial and residential towns of
Table 10.4: Relative air quality situation in
towns of India industrial and residential

Polluti on Level
Annual mean concentration range (u g/m)

Industrial
Residential
SO, and NO, SPM SO, and NO, SPM
Low (L) 0-40 (-180 0-30 0-70

Moderate (M) 40-80 180-360 30-60 70-140

High (H) 80-120 360-540 60-90

140-210

Critical (C) > 120 > 540 >90 > 210

Once the desired levels of air pollutants are established it

strategies to ensure that such levels are achieved. becomes pertinent to design
Monitoring the air quality is an
integral component of such strategies. Let us understand how the quality of air is
monitored. Answer the following SAQ before proceeding to the next section.

79
 A
tmosphere
SAQ 2
Fill in the blank spaces with appropriate words.
The lon g-term standards of air quality arc
hours
given on the basis of measurements done in
a week in year whereas the shortterm
prescribcd by making measurements for standards are
and hours everyday.
10.3 AIR QUALITY
MONITORING
Increasing air pollution especially in urban areas, necessitates a
schedule assessing the long and shortterm changes constant monitoring
naure and magnitude needs the participation of in air quality. A programme of this
masses. Therefore, we need to raise
awareness amongst them and motivate them to participate. In India
monitoring began in late 1960s. Initially it was done for only few the air quality
sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and suspended pollutants like
particulate matter.
monitoring of respirable particulate matter (RPM) has been started Recently,
but a
comprehensive and systematic monitoring for polynuclear
aromatic
(PAH), ozone, carbon monoxide, benzene etc. is hydrocarbons
still not in place.
In a nationwide programme,called the
Programme (NAMP), CPCB has established National Ambient Air Monitoring
a
quality monitoring stations. This was launched innational network of ambient air
1984 with a network of 28
monitoring stations spread over 7 cities. Today the number of
more than 295 spread over 92 cities stations has increased to
distributed over 24 states and 4 union territories.
Similar to the NAMP, Imany state boards have also set up amnbient air quality
monitoring stations at state level under their Ambient Air Quality Monitoring
(AAQM) programmes. Under NAMP of CPCB, the National
Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) mon itors ambient air Environmental
quality in 30
stations spread over 10 major cities. Some major industries have set up theirmonitoring
own
monitoring stations as alegal obligation.
The NAMP and state level AAQM stations
SPM) and meteorological parameters like wind monitor the pollutants (NO, SO >and
humidity. NEERIon the other hand speed, wind direction, temperature and
HS, RSPM, PAH and heavy metals monitors
also in
certain special parameters like NH,
parameters. CPCB has beenmonitoring lead,addition to these three conventional
PAH and other heavy metals in
particulate matter, benzene, 0zone and CO at some of its
monitoring stations in
The objectives of the air quality
monitoring programmes of this nature are : Delhi.
to strengthen the existing air
art methodologies. monitoring system with the adoption of state-of-the
tomonitor the pollutants depending on the locations.
to determine present air quality status and trend.
to provide background air quality data as
planning and required forindustrial setting and town
to controland regulate pollution from
air quality standards. industries and other sources to achieve the

103.1 National Ambient Air Management

As mentioned above the National Air Programme
Monitoring
wide air monitoring network. Several agencies are Programme (NAMP) is a nation
are: involved in this programme. These
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in Delhi
State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) in different states
80
 Air Quality Monitoring and
in union territorics
Dollution Control Committees (PCCs)
Institute (NEERI) in 10 cities
Control
National Environmental Enginecring Rescarch in Nagpur
Vishveshvaraiya Regional College of Engineering
UniversityofPune
KTHM college in Nasik Most of the monitoring
in Solapur
. Walchand Institute of Technology activities under the NAMP
and AAQM programmes
so as to ensure uniformity,consistency
The job of coordinating with these agencies technical
cntrusted with CPCB. It also provides
are confined to industrjal.
residential and commercial
and compatibility of air quality data is for operating the monitoring stations. The areas. However, the
and financial support tothese agencies pollutants are identified and notified in the monitoring facilities need to
methods of measurement for the criteria document on ambient air quality be se up in the reserved
The
ambient air quality standards by CPCB. pollutants,
forests, wild life sanctuaries
information on air like S0, NO;, SPM, RSPM, and near the monuments
standards contains the basis for protec ting the public
respirable lead and C0. These standards provide limiting
etc.

and these contaminants of air

health from adverse effects of air pollutants
quality data obtained from these
within the adequate margin of safety. The airannually and published for the se of
monitoring stations is compiled in a report
policy makers, researchers and general public.
the quality of air and various
Having learnt about the significance of monitoring
for the same, let us understand how is
programmes being undertaken at different levels
first step in air quality monitoring is the for
this task of monitoring executed ? The understand the methods and apparatus used
collection of air sample. Let us try to read by answering the following
you have
it. Assess your understanding for so far
SAQ.

SAQ3 or institutes at
column A. Incolumn B write the stations
A list of pollutants is given in
which these are monitored.
B
A

level
a) NO, SO, and SPM at state

b) NH, H,S, RSPM. PAH, heavy metals

c) lead, PAH, heavy metals,

0zone and CO

d) NO,, SO, and SPM and meteorological

parameters at national level

10.3.2 Ambient Air Sampling

inherent difficulties
Analysis of ar sample is difficult because of its very nature. The
concentrations to be determined.
are due to varied nature of the pollutants in it, the low
concentration variations with respect to time and location, variations in the
meteorologcal factors like temperature, wind and humidity etc. Another problem is
with the collection of the sample itself as the desired sampling point may well be quite
away from the ground.
General Considerations in Sampling Air
An air sample should be true representative for a particular place and time. Since there
is apossibility of erors being encountered during sampling procedure, some basic
principles should be followed while collecting an air sample. These are as given
below.

81
 analytical determined
Atmosphere mcaningful
Sample sie The sizc of the sample requircd for a being
pollutantTherefore
the the
of
dctcrmination depcnds on the likely conccntration the analysis. pollutant.
and the sensitivity of the techniquc being applicdfor determination ofthe
ilccurate
sample siZe should be largecnough to permit
Usually the sample size is ofthe order of 1- 10m' suchthat it
should be normallydepends
device
Rate of sampling: The rute of llow ofasampling air
The rate of sampling havc a sampling
collection. devces
provides maximum elliciency of
Imost sampling device should
on thesmpler being employcd. Howevcr,to 3 m min. The samplingsampling
rale within the permissible range of 0.003 75%. Thcexperimentally.
an clliciency of at least
determincd
with
collect reproducible sanples device and should be
clliciency is dependent upon the is liableto
vary over a
concentration of pollutants will
Sampling duration: Since the duration (how long ?) of sampling
duration of
time, the time (whe?) and the that the time and However,
period of obtained. Therefore we can
say information required.
influencc the results nature of
on the basis ofthe reflect the average
Sampling can be decided that the results ofair analysis always optimal time for a
Il should be kept in
mind duration. The the
ants over the samplingof three hours. In order to compare
concentration of the pollutsample is of the order averaged tor 24
reasonably representative standard the values are
Concentration with the ambient air quality
hours.
avoided as far as
samples should be
The storage of air to ensure that it
Storage and handling: collecting the sample, care should be taken words the saimpl1ng
possible. Further, while constituents of the device used. In other
pollutants.
does not react with
other properties of the
not change the chemical or physical
process should
Air Samplin g Devices device
choice of asampling
sampling devices are available. The unit or
Different types of air general an air sampling
to be collected. In
depends on the type of sample components:
following basic
device consists of the
sample. The collectors are
used for collecting the
Collector: Asthe name suggests it is collector may be a filter
variety of types depending on the application. A asbestos etc.), a scrubber
available in ceramic, paper, cellulose fiber or collectors is
Impinging also called
impaction isthe separation (made of porous glass or an impinger. Sometimes a combination of
(composed of fritted glass) or made of
of particulates from an air
collector should be of nonreacting nature, these are usually
stream by abrupt collision used. Since the
against a flat surface steel, glass or quartz.
measure the amount of
called flow meter, used to
Meterning device: It is adevice also manometer and
devices are generally fitted with a
the sample collected. Metering temperature of the gas collected. There are
two
thermometer to measure pressure and while the other
measures the rate of airflow
typesofflow meters available. One type case of rate meters we need to measure
sample. In
gives the volume of the collected
time whereas the volume meter directly gives the
two parameters i.e., the rate and
gas meter. The metering
collected sanple volume. e.g., rotameter, dry or wet testuse.
before
device being used should be properly calibrated
a motor or
Suction device It is used for the collection of air samples and makes use of
a hand driven vacuum pump.

The whole sequence of air sample collection devices is called a sampling train. A
typical sampling train is shown in Fig. 10. 1.

82
 Air Quality Monitoring and
\Wembrane (llter Control

Air
pomp

lIpoderunie needle

\loivture trap

Wet impinger í absorher)

Fig. 10.1: Schematicsketeh of asampling train

The collection of a sample containing particulate matter requires filtration, impinging
(for both liquid and solid samples ) or precipitation whereas for gases and vapours,
sample is collected by adsorption on asolid surface, absorption in a liquid or by
freezing (or condensation) or filling in an evacuated container. Let us learn about the
methods used for ambient air sampling. These are given under two heads.
Collection of particulate matter
Collection of gas or vapour samples
Collection of Particulate Matter
The particulate matter (liquid or solid) can be collected by a number of methods. Some
of the commonly used methods are given below:
Filteration: It is one of the most commonly employed technique for collecting
particulate matter from an air sample. A variety of filters are employed depending on
cellulose filter
the nature of the particulates. Metals and anions are filtered through
of glass fibres or silica
papers while organic compounds are collected with the helpthrough
felts. Trace inorganic species on the other hand are filtered silica felts.
However, now a days the membrane filters are a general choice because of high flow
rates. A high volume sampler used for collecting large volume of particulate matter by
filteration technique is shown schematically in Fig. 10.2.

Fig. 10.2: Schematic diagram of high volume sampler used for collecting SPM

83
 Atmosphere Inertial method: In this method a strcam of air saiple containing particulate mattcr s
collided (inpingcd) against a flat surlacc. There are two types of inpingers i.c., the
wet type and dry impingers or impactors. In wet impingers the air stream is collided
against a flat surtace that is iMinerscl in some liquid whercas the impactors use dry
surfaces, The efticiency of this method depends on the size of the particles being
collected. These collectors are good for particles of diameter> lu. For smaller particles
the velocity of the streamis suficicntly increased.
Centrifugal method: In this mcthod the air sample containingparticulate matter is
passed with high velocity through a cylindrical ghss chamber. It creates a kind of
separate due to centrifugal field and get
cyclonic nnotion in which the particles to the particles of a
collected in the sedinmentation chamber. This method is limited
sample.
diameter of Su or above but gives a dry and chemically pure
physical properties (electrical
Gradientmethod: This method makes use of different
matter and collects particles of 0.001 to
mobility, thermal and diffusion) of particulate electrostatte
samplers are used for this pur pose. In
0.0lu m. Electrostatic and thermal electric discharge between two electrodes
sampler the particles pass through an pick
the order of 30.000 V). The particles
maintained at a high potential difference (of opposite charge where they lose their
the electrodes of
up charges and move towardselectrode. then be
These accumulated particulates can shown in
charge and get struck to the diagram of an electrostatic sampler is
recovered and analysed. The schematic
Fig. 10.3.
through a temperature
the particles are made to pass
In case of thermal samplers regions of low temperature. These get
gradient and tend to move towards the samplers are good for aerosol
regions. These
accumulated in the low temperature are used to
larger versions of these samplers
particles of 0.00Iu dimensions. The
control theemission of particulates.

Srgatlr diwhatg
clertruelk

Psilig Nurlace

Chargl
Jpurticlrs

Pariruluir mattur

SPM
Fig. 10.3: Sehematic diagram of electrostatic sampler used for collecting
Collection of Gas or Vapour Samples
Gas sample collection is done by a different way and involves the following processes.
Absorptivn: In this method the gases are passed through liquid absorbents where
these get absorbed. Absorption depends upon the surface arca of the absorbent, time
of absorption, and rate of the reaction between absorbent and gas. This process is
suitable for the absorption of oxides of carbon, sulphur and nitrogen besides some
others. For example COis absorbed in ammonical cuprouschloride; SO, in hydrogen
peroxide; CO, in alcoholic potash and ozone in potassium iodide.
84
 Adsorptivn: In this method the gas sample is adsorbed over solid surface in adsorption Air Quality Monitoring and
columns containing silica gel, alumina, activatcd charcoal, molecular sieves or some Control
other suitable agent. The air is passed through an adsorption column or tube
containing the adsorb ing material. After collecting the sample for asuitable duration
the adsorbent is collected and washed with a suitable solvent like CS,. This brings the
pollutants in solution which can be analysed by gas chromatography. This process is
applicable toozone and light hydrocarbons.
Condensation or cold trapping: This method makes use of coolants to condense the
volatile substances in the given sample. Different coolants like ice, liquid air, liquid
nitrogen etc., are used for cooling the gas. Since these coolants cool to different
extents (tenperatures). these separate different volatile components leading to
fractional condensation.

A
schematic sketch of devices used for collecting gaseous pollutants is given in
Fig. 10.4.

Air out)ct

Air inlet

G'ass voul ilug

uction
Collecting
liquid
Glaw IriI

Curcoal granuks

(b)
(a)
in an air sample
Fg. 104: Devices used for collecting gaseous pollutants
tube
a) scrubber b) chareoal adsorption
collected samples of ambient
Let us discuss the methods employed for analysing the
air.

10.3.3 Methods of Ambient Air Analysis

various components to
The actual air auality analysis is done after the collection of the
be monitored or analysed. For some pollutants it is advisable to first carry out a
qualitative analysis so that it is ensured that the component we want to estimate is
present in the sample collected. This is then followed by a quantitative analysis in
which different methods are used for analysing the amounts of different pollutants.
You willbe performing both qualitative and quantitative analysis for the main
pollutants in your lab work. These experiments are given in Block 7 of this course and
give a detailed procedure for the estimation. Here, we will be discussing only the
principle involved in the most common method used for a particular pollutant. The
estimations are given for suspended particulate matter, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides and oxides of carbon.

In general., methods for analysing an air sample can be put into three types. These are
chemical methods, instrumental methods and biological methods. A brief description
is given below.

85
 mosphre Chemical Methods
You may be familiar with these methods and would have used these in your previous
chemistry labs.Thcse involvc some chemical reaction between the pollutant being
determincd and a suitable reagent and includc the following techniques.
Volumetric measurements: These arc related to volume mcasurement and may be
any of' the following typesdepending on the type of reaction involved like,
ncutralisution, oxidution, reduction or precipitation ctc.
Gravimetric determ inations: These are related to mass measurements. These involve
convertingan analyte ( the pollutant to be analysed) to a solid precipitate and
mcasuring its mass. The mass of the precipitate so obtained is a measure of the
Concentration of the pollutant.

Colorimetric determinations: These are related to optical determination of

concentration of coloured components. Here, the analyte gives a coloured productwith
concentration of the
the reagent. The optical density of the solution is a measure of the
product.

Turbidinmetric and nephelometric determinations: These are based on optical

measurement of light passing through the suspension.

Chromatographic determinations : These are based on adsorption and absorption

phenomenon using paper, column etc.
Instrumental Methods
techniques. The basic
These methods make use of a number of spectrophotometric 19
below in brief The details can be found in Unit
principle involved in these is given
of Block 6.
subjected to suitable excitation
Emission Spectrometry: The metallic clements when characteristic wavelengths.
emit radiation of
by imeans of heating at high temperatures
correlated with the quantity of the element
The intensity of radiation emitted can be
some wavelength in the spectrum of a given element is
present. The energy emitted at concentration of the
proportional to the number of excited atoms and thereby to the
spectrometry both qualitative and
element in the sample. Thus using emission
quantitative estimation can be done.
where
Absorption Spectrometry: It is based on absorptionspectrometric method ultraviolet and
absorption of a certain range of electromagnetic radiation in visible,
radiation absorbed is
infrared regions of thespectrum takes place. The amount of
directly proportional to the concen tration of the absorbing species.
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS): The principle is quite like atomic emission
spectrometry. Here the radiation is absorbed by atoms in ground-state (vapour) by
atoms at a specificwavelength. The atoms in excited state emit radiation to come to
ground state. The amount of energy absorbed and emitted is a function of the number
of atoms present. Thus the method gives a quantitative estimation of atoms in trace
amounts and is a sensitive method for pollution analysis.

Biological Methods
These methods are of indirect nature. Here the pollutant which has infected a plant or
an animal can be extracted from the source and be analysed. Both suspended
particulate matter and gaseous pollutants can be estimated using this method.

86
 for different pollutants urc compiled in
Air Quality Monitoring and
The monitoring methods used by NAMP Control

Table 10.5.
gmethods used by NAMP
Table10.5: Air pollution monitorin
Serial Pollutant Method employed
No.
SPM High volunme sampler
RSPM High volume sa1pler with an ttached cyclonc
Colorimetry
3 SO:
4 NO: Colorimetry
CO Non-dispersive IR spectroscopy
Pb Acid digestion followed by AAS analysis
analysis
7 PAH Solvent extraction followed by GC-FID
H,S Colorimetry
8

NH; Colorimetry

analysing some of the common air pollutants.

Let us learn the possibk methods of following SAQ.
Before proceeding try to answer the

SAQ4
mark in front of wrong statements given
Tick (V) mark in front of correct and (x)
below.
not possible
difficult because achemical reaction is
a) Analysis of an air sample is
with it. filtration methods.
b) Particulate matter tobe generally collected by absorption ofa particular
based on the principle of
c) Emission spectrometry
radiation by an air pollutant. oxidising
analyss in an air sample makes use of its
d) Titration method for SO,
nature.
Pollutants
103.4 Analysis of Common Air
methods of
you willbe studying the detailed
Besides some meteorological parameters Block 7 of this course pertaining to the
in
analysis of some common air pollutants performed during your laboratory work at the
experiments. The experiments are to be below.
for a few of the pollutants are given
study centre. Some methods in general
Suspended Particulate Matter
method. It is called so because it makes
Analysis of SPM is done using high volume volume of air containing
collecting large
use of ahigh volume sampler (Fig. 10.2) for preweighed filter for 8 hours. The filter is
particles. The sample is collected through a of particulate matter is
reweighed to findout the weight of particulate. The amount
calculated by the following equation:

SPM= x10ug/m'
Where, w, =initial weight of filter in g
W, =final weight of filter in g
V =volume of air sampled in m
87
 Atmosphere J0 conversion factor for g to u g

CarbonMonoxide
Since carbon monoxide absorbs infrared radiation at wavclength ncar 4.7u, the CO
estimations are done using non-dispersive infrared spectroscopy (NDIR). When
infirared radiation is passcd through a long cell (100 cm) containing ambient air in
absence of water vapours (which also absorb infrared radiation) part ofit is absorbed.
The degree of absorption of radiation is ameasure of the amount of carbon monoxide.
The proccss can be depicted as follows.

Relerenec cell
çontaining air

IR
Soure
T

Sample cell conalnlog

R
polluted air

a
Alternatively, CO can also be measured with the help of gas chromatography using
flame ionisation detector.
determination, a chemical method
Though these are commonly used methods for CO instrument. In the chemical method
can also be used in case of non- availability of the
solution of silver nitrate. The
the CO detection can be done using ammonical
precipitated silver gives an indication of the presence of this gas.

CO + 2 OH CO, + HO+ 2e

2Ag + 2e 2Ag
CO +2Ag + 20H 0, t Ho+ 2Agy

The details of thechemical method are given in Experiment 16 ofBlock 7.

Nitrogen Oxides
There are two methods which are in use for the analysis of nitrogen oxides as NO,.
These are given below.

1) Chemiluminescence: The phenomenon of chemiluminescence results from the

emission of light from electrically excted species arising out of a chemical reaction
and is the standard method for the determination of nitrogen oxides. The basic
principle here is that the NO interacts with O, to yield electronically excited NO,
molecules which emit radiation in the range of 600- 3000 nm.
NO + O, ? NO, + O,
NO, ? NO, + h?

The emitted radiation is measured with the help of a photomultiplier, the intensity is a
measure of theconcentration of NO,. Since nitrogen oxides include NO and NO,, a
88
 given air sample may also contuin NO, which will not be mcasured as such because Air Quality Monitoring and
se moleculcs are in ground state. Theretorc, these are converted to NO by passing Control
the air sanple over a thernal convertor. Fig, I0.5 showsa diagran1matic sketch of
chemiluminescence detcctor.

Plotunuultiplicr tub

Lighe filter

Tu pump (0zone

Fig. 10.5: Schematic diagram of a chemiluminescence detector

a solution
2) Spectrophotometry: In this method, the sample of air is bubbled through The
produced.
of sodium hydroxide and sodium arsenite so as to collect nitrite ion
NO; ion are determined colorimetricallyby reacting with phosphoric acid, The
sulphanilamide andN{1-nap hthyl) ethylenediamine dihydrochloride (NEDA).measured on a
absorbance of the highly coloured azo dye ( reddish purple) formed is
measured by this
spectrophotometer at 540 nm. The range of concentrtion of NO,
method at a sampling rate of 200 cm min- for 24 hours is 0.01-0.40 ppm.

Sulphur Dioxide
of the amount of SO, like
There are a number of methods used for the determination
are given below.
titration, reduction, gravimetry and photometry. Two of these
SO: is bubbled through hydrogen peroxide
1) Titration: A sample of air containingmeasured
where it produces HSO, which can be by titration with a standard alkali.

SO, + H, 0, H,SO4
conductometrically also because the
This reaction can be used to determine SO, sample
air
formation of acid would increase the conductance. Alternatively, the
solution of KI and liberated iodine is titrated with
containing SO: is bubbled through a
titration.
a standaradised solution of sodium thiosuþhate in a redox
passed through a
2) Spectrophotometry: This is the most reliable method. Here SO is
solution of potassium tetrachloromercurate, K,HgCl; (TCM), resulting in the
formation of highly stable complex. The complex is made to react with pararosaniline
and formaldehyde to form an intensely coloured pararosaniline methylsulphonic acid.
The absorbance of the solution is measured by means of a suitable speclrophotometer
at a wavelength of S60 nm. Concentration of sulphur dioxide in the range of
25 - 1050 ug/m' can be measured by this method. Concentration below 25u g/m
can be measured by sampling larger volumes of air. The details of this method are
given in Experiment 18 of Block 7.

89
Atmosphere
Air sample Formaldehyde
Pararosaniline
containing SO, TCM methvlsulphonic acid Colorimeter
(560 nm)

10.4 AIR POLLUTIONCONTROL

Afer monitoring and finding out the levels of air pollutants in atmosphere, the next
ahvious step is to initiate control measures. The strategy for air pollution control
entails amultpronged approach including legal, technological and economic
components. If the concentration of the pollutants is within the desired limits then we
have to take measures to maintain these and in case these are higher then we need to
take suitable damage control measures. It is difficult to have controlon some natural
phenomeon like volcanoes or spread of pollens etc., however control of air pollutants
which are anthropogenic in nature can be done at the source itself. There are a number
of ways, some of which are as follows.

Placing a control equipment at source so as to reduce the discharge of pollutant.

Change in process by changing raw material, operation or the equipment.
Change in fuel so as to reduce emission.
Increasing stack height to reduce the discharge.
Removal of pollutant; though complete removal of pollutant is a tough task.
Relocating industries causing pollution.
Of these, reduction of the pollutant discharge at the source by using control equipmet
is the most effective method. General methods of control of SPM and gaseous air
pollutants by control equipment is given in the following paragraphs.
Suspended Particulate Matter
SPM can be controlled by following methods.
Using filters: The filters can be cloth, screen or felt pad to remove SPM. These can be
gravitational setting or thermal precipitators. As discussed earlier, thermal
precipitators work on temperature gradient.

Using electrostatie precipitator (ESP): These can work at high temperatures also and
ideal to remove SPM. However, it is useless for combustible particulates.
Inertial collection:This is the cheapest method. Acyclone device is used to collect
large particles of 10u msize. The change of radius of curvature, particle size and
diameter and gas flow influence working of cyclone. Wet collection is also possible
using wet scrubberS.

Gaseous Air Pollutants

Conversion to a non-polluting form is the best method for control of gaseous
pollutants. However, the sampling methods, generally used for these pollutants, are
also appropriate for their control. These are as follows.
Absorption: the gaseous pollutants are absorbed in wet scrubber using a suitable
liquid. SO, HS, HCI, Ch nd NH, are collected by absorption in a suitable liquid
while for halogens water can also be used.

Adsorption: the pollutants are adsorbed on surface of solids. Porous materials like
alumina, silica and activated coal are generally used for absorption. There can be
regenerated on heating.

90
 be controlled happen to be organic in nature, Air Quality Monitor
Combustion:ifthe gas or vapours to
proccsses like, flame combustion or catalytic combustion are the
the combustion
then ofchoice.
methods
condensed. this method is
Cdousation : In case of acrosols and gases which can be
using a coolant.
Ised by reducing the temperature
solutions UIsed for the control of
Some commonly used adsorbents and the absorbing in Table 10.6.
gaseous pollutants like SO,, HS, and HF are given
for gaseous
Table 10.6: Commonly used adsorbents and absorbing solutions
pollutants
Adsorbent
Gaseous pollutant Absorbing solutions used
employed
dimethyl aniline,ethanolamine,
pulverised limestone sodium sulphite, suspension of
SO, or dolomite Ca(OH) or water etc.
mixture of NaOHand phenol (3:2
HS iron oxide in mole ratio )soda ash, or
ethanolamines etc.

water, NaOH
HF limestone lumps

water, dilute nitric acid

Oxides of nitrogen silica gel

Vapours of organic activated carbon

solvents

emissions from automobile sources is to use

The best control method used for exhaust by using
ised before emission
an alternate fuel. The exhaust gases are burned and oxidway to reduce hydrocarbon
petrol is another
a catalytic converter. Use of unleaded the level of CO and NONO,
emissions in the control of these emissions. It reduces
formation.
gases which are responsible for photochemical smog

10.5 SUMMARY
becomes essential
In the wake of air pollutants affecting living and non-living imatter it
to be aware of the quality of air we breathe daily. Both the indoor and outdoor air
quality are important. Indoor air quality refers to the physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of air in the indoor environment within a building or an institutional
area or commercial facility. The outdoor or ambient air quality on the other hand
refers to the measure of air pollutants in the atmosphere. The qualiy of air is
ascertained by some criteria and standards defined for different regions. The standards
for both indoor and outdoor air quality are important and required to be met.
Air quality management system (AQMS) provides an efficient and cost effective
approach for monitoring and achieving the desired ambient air quality. In India,
Central Pollution Control Board, CPCB is responsible for carrying out the monitoring
and control of ambient air quality. For this purpose it has set up and notified Nationa l
Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for short term as well as long term goals.
The air quality is also expressed in terms of parameters like air quality index (AQI)
and exceedence factor (EF).
 The quality of ambient air is monitorcd by national netw ork of ambient air qualjity
monitoring stations established by CPCB, under a programme called the National
Ambient Air Monitoring programme (NAMP), In addition, a number of State
Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs), rescarch institutes, NGOs and industries are
contributing towards ambicnt air quality monitoring. The monitoring of air quality
involves collecting appropriate samples and analysing them using chemical,
instrumental and biological methods. Once the status of air quality is determined,
suitable control measures are initiated to ensure the desired levels of air quality and a
clean air expericnce.

10.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by air quality? State the major air quality concerns.
2. Which agency at national level is responsible for the air quality monitoring? What
are its main objectives?
3. What are the various air components monitored by various monitoring agencies?
4. What are the basic methods used for particulate matter sampling and gaseous
pollutants sampling?
5. What is the best method used for

i) CO analysis ii) S0, analysis and ii) NO, analysis.

6. List various methods of controlling SPM and gaseous air pollutants.

10.7 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
I. b)

2. 24, twice, one, one, eight, 24

3. a) AAQM, SPCB
b) NEERI, Nagpur
c) CPCB, Delhi
d) NAMP,CPCB
4. a) (X)
b) (V)
c) (X)
d) (V)
Terminal Questions
1. Air quality is defined by the
criteria, standards and criteria ascertained for the air
pollutants, which is required to be such that it does not cause too many ill-effects
for living and non-living matter. The
two major concerns are indoor and
air quality. outdoor
2. Central Pollution Control Board at national
level is responsible for air quality
monitoring. Its main objectives are to strengthen
monitor the pollutants regularly on location basis, the air monitoring systems,
status and trend and control and regulate air deter1mine present air quality
Sources. pollution from industries and other
 The uir components monitored are SO:, CO, NO2,
ozone, heavy metals and meteorologcal parameters.SPM, RSPM,
3.
benzene, PAH, Air Quality
Monitoring and
4 For particulate matter Control
inertial, centrifugal and
pollutants are collected by ways of adsorption,gradient methods are used, gaseous
absorption andcondensation,
5. ) Non-dispersive infrared spectroscopy
ii) Spectrophotometer
ii) Chemiluminescence

6. SPM can be controlled by using filters, ESP and inertial collection. For gaseous
pollutants absorption, adsorption, combustion and condensation methods are used.
FURTHER READINGS
1. Environmental Chemistry, A.K. De, New Age International (P) Ltd, New
Delhi 1995.

2. Air Pollution, M.N, Rao, HV.N. Rao, Tata Mc

Graw Hill, New Delhi 1992.
3. Environmental Chemistry, Stanley E. Manahan, Lewis Publishers 2000.