Overview of Special Methods of Mining

Unit 5, Underground Coal Mining

4th Semester, Mining Engineering
Books for reference:
1. Surface and Underground Excavations –
Methods, Techniques and Equipment by Ratan
Raj Tatiya
2. Principles and practices of modern coal mining
by R.D. Singh

Taught by: Dr. Sunny Murmu

Hydraulic Mining Method
Hydraulic Mining setup
Suitability of Hydraulic mining method
❑ Seam Thickness: Hydraulic mining could be done in any seam thickness but in seams of average to
high thicknesses this technology offers better economics.
❑ Seam Gradient: The gradient of the seams should be such that the coal-water slurry can flow out
easily. A practical gradient using steel flumes is about 7°. With special linings of ultra high molecular
weight plastics the fluming could be done on gradients as low as 4°.
❑ Roof of the Seam: The roof of the seam should be sufficiently stable so as to allow extraction of coal
from under it before it collapses. Although below unstable roofs the application of hydro mining is
limited, cutting sequence and geometry of the workings can help.
❑ Floor of the Seam: The seam floor should retain its strengths when wetted. Swelling floors limit the
application of this technique.
❑ Hardness of Coal: The coal seam should be soft or 'ploughable', and be free of dirt bands of any
importance; if present the dirt bands should be friable which can be easily cut allowing the harder
coal to be undercut and fall out. The presence of cleavages can increase hydro breaking productivity
8 times. The hydraulic energy consumption in cleated fissured coal may be half as much as in solid
coal
Hydraulic mining method
❑ Hydraulic mining of coal comprises two operations, i.e.
(i) Hydraulic cutting of coal from the seam, and
(ii) Hydraulic transport of the resultant mixture of coal and water from the mine. In some installations,
however, coal is mechanically cut but it is transported hydraulically.

Hydraulic cutting of coal

The coal is broken down by a high-pressure water jet directed against the face, the pressure being increased or
decreased according to the hardness of the seam. The hardness of the seam is of primary importance. The minimum
pressure, Pef necessary, for effective breaking down of coal can be determined by the following expression:
Pef = 50f/ atmospheres.
Where f = protodyakonov Index
The water pressure of the monitor jet at the nozzle ranges from 10 to 20 MN/m2 (101.9-203.8 kg/cm2) and the water
discharge from 200 to 500 m3/hour depending on the coal conditions and the coal hardness.

❑ The effectiveness of the nozzle depends on the type of material of the nozzle and the stand-off distance.
❑ it will be seen that as stand-off distance increases a high volume of water at a lower pressure exerts a greater force
than does a lower volume of water at a high pressure. It may also be seen that it is better to use a hard metal nozzle
(Tungsten Carbide) rather than soft metal nozzle (e.g., brass) especially as the stand-off distance increases
because the impact force exerted by the hard metal jet is higher than that exerted by soft metal nozzles. In addition,
the useful life of the nozzle also increases with the hard metals.
Hydraulic mining method
Hydraulic transport of the resultant mixture
❑ Hydraulic transport of broken coal is done in the following three ways:
1. Along the floor
2. In flumes
3. In pipe ranges

Hydraulic transportation along the floor

❑ At the face, hydraulic transportation can be carried out along the floor of the working and can, if the face is short,
proceed even though there is no gradient in the roadway. The quantity of water required for floor flushing depends
on the size of the material.
Hydraulic transport in flumes
❑ In the roadways, it is customary to employ flumes, of trapezoidal section for this purpose. These must be laid at a
gradient of at least 7° in the direction of flow.
Pipeline hydraulic transportation system
❑ For pipe line transportation high pressure pumps are used. It has been established that the resistance to be
overcome in the transportation of slurry through piping is governed by the consistency of coal slurry. The friction
losses in the transport of slurry are composed of the friction losses of pure water at an input equal to the input of
the slurry and of a constant gradient depending on the expected slurry consistency, which is as follows (Report of
the Tech Mission of NCB, 1958): For solid/liquid 1: 2.5 the additional gradient will be 0.012; for solid/liquid 1: 4 the
additional gradient will be 0.01; and for solid/liquid 1: 8 the additional gradient will be 0.007.
Advantages
1. It is continuous in character.
2. There are small number of inherent operations and the process is simple.
3. The elements of various mining processes as common with traditional mining are reduced and hence there is reduction in
labour.
4. The system lends well to automation and remote control.
5. As the presence of workers and the equipment is not needed at the working face, the space need not be supported.
6. Coal pulp can be transported if the slope is more than 7°; with special type of lining the angle may be as low as 4°.
7. Hydro transport reduces the volume of roadways in shafts needed for transport purposes.
8. The process of coal breaking is flexible and can be easily adapted to tectonic changes.
9. There is reduced health hazard.
10. The frequency of occupational injuries is 2-3 times lower than with traditional methods because of the absence of workers at
the face and of rolling stock and mobile equipment in the mine workings.
11. Air pollution by coal dust is insignificant not exceeding 0.25 to 0.5 mg/m3.
12. Because of the lower number of main and auxiliary operations and reduced labour consumption, the productivity in hydraulic
mines could be 1.3 to 2 times higher than in traditionally worked mines.
13. The cost of production in hydraulic mines is 10 to 15% lower than in conventional mines in the same coalfield with identical
conditions.
14. The cost of hydro transport within a mine is 10 time less than conventional transport.
15. The cost of fixed assests per ton of coal mined is 25% lower than in the conventional system.
The economic indices of larger new hydro mines can be greatly enhanced. For example, Table 10.5 (Astakhov, 1979) gives the
comparative economic indices of a mine with 3.5 to 4 million tons annual capacity.
16. There is less chance of explosion due to simplified ventilation system and due to reduction in the use of electricity and cutter
bits.
17. The mine nuisance water is dealt with by simply allowing it to enter the flume and flow out of the mine with the coal mixture.
Disadvantages
1. Fuel and electric power expenses are 1.5 to 2 times higher than those of traditional mines.
2. Humidity in the underground mine environment may be high.
3. The strength of weak roof and floors can be further reduced when soaked with water.
Basic underground mining methods

U/G Coal
mining
methods

Longwall Short wall

Bord & Pillar
Mining mining

Longwall
Advancing

Longwall
Retreating
Applicability of shortwall mining method
❑ Deep seated deposit
❑ Seam having faults
❑ Low capital cost
❑ Weak strata
❑ Moderate to thick seam

❑ Bord and pillar mining will not be a suitable

option for developed pillars at higher depth
cover in terms of productivity, safety and
percentage of recovery.
❑ The technology of shortwall mining overcomes
most of the limitations experienced in operating
longwall mining.
❑ In the Indian context, a face length of about 90m
is economically optimum with a moderately
priced shearer and earning per man shift (EMS)
as observed in the Indian longwall mining faces
Shortwall mining method
❑ This method of mining was developed in the late 1960's to take advantage of the then recent
development of suitable hydraulic longwall supports, coupled with the productivity and low capital
cost of continuous miners and shuttle cars. In effect it gained some of the advantages of longwall
mining without the cost of installing a complete set of longwall equipment.
❑ This method is a combination of Longwall and Board & Pillar (B&P) mining which envisages the
extraction of standing coal pillars (formed by development in Board & Pillar layout) with the help of
Self Advancing PSLW equipment.
❑ An installation roadway was driven as for a normal longwall, but only supports were installed. A
continuous miner was then utilised to cut 3.5 m wide open ended lifts off the face, with shuttle cars
being used to transport coal along and off the face to the main gate belt instead of an AFC.
❑ The face length was therefore limited by the length of shuttle car cables then available, but in practice
most shortwall faces were considerably shorter than this (<90m).
❑ Supports were connected to a reference rail which was then utilized to pull the 2 or 3 leg supports
forward, in a similar manner to the use of an AFC to advance longwall supports.
❑ Shortwall faces could be installed between two gate roads as for a longwall face, but in some cases
were mined to a blind end and ventilated by auxiliary fan (not very suitable for gassy seams as the fans
could draw from the goaf).
❑ Shortwalls were used in an endeavour to increase the productivity of continuous miners at relatively
low capital cost, sometimes as a transition stage while changing a mine to full longwall. In some cases,
because they were somewhat more flexible, shortwalls were used to obtain the benefits of longwalls in
mines, or parts of mines, where seam discontinuities or mine geometry made the use of full longwalls
impractical.
Advantages of shortwall mining method
1. Initial investment is less with high productivity
2. Cutting, loading and transporting of coal in extraction of existing pillars is possible with least man power.
3. Possible to achieve continuous flow of coal in the system.
4. Roof fall and other strata problem can be well controlled by this system.
5. Working personnel are more safe in the depillaring operation by using the present system with having this device
and system.
6. It is suitable for wide range of coal seams.

Disadvantages of shortwall mining method

1. The width of the unsupported roof ahead of the chocks is governed by the width of a continuous miner as opposed
to a shearer drum.
2. Personnel have to work adjacent to the face which presents safety issues unless rib support is installed which
would greatly slow production.
3. The use of shuttle cars is by its nature not continuous and brings in all the disadvantages of trailing cables in the
face area.
Continuous miner
Shuttle Car
Introduction to Underground gasification of coal
❑ It is a method of clean coal technology for more efficient combustion of coal with reduced emissions of sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen oxide.
❑ Coal Gasification is another clean coal technology bypasses the conventional coal burning process altogether by
converting coal into a gas. This method removes sulphur, nitrogen compounds and particulates, before the fuel is
burned, making it as clean as natural gas.
❑ The purpose of underground gasification of coal, regardless of method used, is to obtain the energy contained in
the fuel for use on the surface, without mining in the usual sense of the term.
❑ Underground gasification can be described as (1) a process where coal, in place, is consumed by partial
combustion with air, oxygen, steam, or any combination of these to produce a low calorific value gas (3 - 11 MJ per
cu m) or (2) a complete combustion process in which air is used to produce a gas containing carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, and considerable thermal energy.
❑ As such, successful UCG operation relies on the natural permeability of the coal seam to transmit gases to and
from the combustion zone, or on enhanced permeability created through reversed combustion, an in-seamchannel,
or hydro-fracturing.
❑ The potential for UCG to access low grade, inaccessible coal resources and convert them commercially and,
competitively into syngas is enormous, with potential applications in power, fuel, and chemical production.
Suitability of Underground gasification of coal
❑ The coal seam should not have major geological disturbances.
❑ The roof and floor of the seam should have low permeability to gas so that leakage is minimal and the coal seam
should have high permeability.
❑ The seam should be preferably free from water. In case of watery seam, water should be drained off before
commencing gasification.
❑ Quality of the coal is not critical, though coals of low quality are generally preferred for UCG. Use of sub-
bituminous coal for UCG is important for two reasons; its greater permeability relative to high rank coals facilitates
reverse combustion linking, and its tendency to sink and spell when heated aids to providing the 'packed bed'
underground reactor desirable for efficient gasification.
❑ Although gasification has been done in different seam thicknesses, a seam about 6 m thick is considered desirable.
❑ The reserve should be high.
❑ The gasification site should be close to the consumer.
Process of Underground gasification of coal
❑ UCG has been approached in many different ways. The
old technique to gasify the coal in situ uses two-vertically
drilled wells as the Injection and Production wells. The
procedure consists of three steps.
❖ In the first step an injection and production well are
drilled from the surface to the coal seam and highly
permeable path within the coal seams are
established between these two well. Prior to the
gasification step a linkage path is created between
injector and producer. Several techniques can be
used for linking the wells, including the Reverse
Combustion Linking (RCL), Forward Combustion
Linking (FCL), hydro-fracking, electro-linking,
explosive and in-seam linking. Other techniques for
the in situ gasification include CRIPs, long and large
tunnel gasification, and two-stage UCG.
❖ The RCL is a method of linking which includes
injection of an oxidant into one well and ignition of
coal in the other so that combustion propagates
toward the source of oxidant.
❖ In the course of the FCL coal is ignited in the
injection well, and the fire propagates toward the
production well. During forward gasification, the
flame working face gradually moves to the outlet.
Process of Underground gasification of coal
❖ Once a successful link has been established the second step is ignited. The gasification step starts with ignition of
the coal and the injection of air or air enriched with oxygen. Both permeable bed gasification and natural
convection driven surface gasification will occur. When the gas quality deteriorates the injection well is burnt to
allow injection further upstream.
❖ Gasification occurs when a mixture of air or oxygen and steam is forced into the coal seam through injection well
and react chemically with the coal, generating a synthesis gas, which is recovered through product well. At the
surface the raw product gas is cleaned for industrial uses.
❖ As gasification proceeds, an underground cavity is formed. Water from the surrounding strata will enter the cavity
and participate in the gasification process leading to a drop in the local water table. At some point, the coal in the
vicinity of the injection well will be exhausted and steps one and two will be repeated to access fresh coal to
sustain gas production.
❖ Once the gasification operations in a section of coal seam have finished, the third step is to return environment
back to its original state. This is achieved by flushing the cavities with steam and/or water to remove pollutants from
coal seams to prevent them from diffusing into surrounding water aquifers. Over the time, the water table will return
to a level close to that existing prior to the start of gasification.
Advantages of Underground gasification of coal
▪ Elimination of hard and often unhealthy jobs of men underground.
▪ Production of fuel in the most convenient form for transport and use as a combustible gas.
▪ Impact on the environment is far less. The fertile soil layer is preserved, there are no dumps or waste heaps. The
land is returned to agriculture after surface pipes and communications have been dismantled.
▪ Possibility of recovering coal having high ash and sulphur content.
▪ Much shorter time for construction work of underground coal gasification station than for mining of coal and
quarries.
▪ The gas is a potential chemical feed stock.
▪ Ash is left underground and less tipping dirt is produced compared with conventional mining.
▪ Labour intensity is low. Either no men have to work underground or if they do, they are a few in number and
removed from the points of greatest danger.
▪ It provides an indigenous gas source.
▪ It provides a potential method of exploitation of reserves which are not amenable to conventional mining.
Disdvantages of Underground gasification of coal
▪ The gas is costly to pipe much over 16 km and to store.
▪ The extraction of reserve is slightly less than that by deep mining.
▪ Capital input is rather greater than that for deep mining.
▪ The gas produced is dirty, has a low calorific value, and is variable in quality.
▪ The cost of making SNG from the gas would the higher than that for importing liquid natural gas.
Introduction to coal bed methane recovery
❑ In the past decades, a large amount of coal bed methane (CBM) has been emitted into the air with billions tons of
coal production per year around the world, which has caused a serious greenhouse effect.
❑ Therefore, the importance and significance of CBM extraction and utilization is gradually strengthened as
extracting methane from coal beds is conducive not only to the efficient exploitation of coal resources but also to
the recovery and utilization of the clean energy CBM.
❑ Coal seam gas, mostly coal bed methane (CBM), has been recognized as a significant energy resource to provide
supplement for conventional energy such as coal itself and natural gas.
❑ In a CBM reservoir, the gas is mainly adsorbed (bonded to the surface of coal particles) in the matrix, and a few
amount (<2%–10%) of the gas stored in fractures and macropores as free gas in coal, with a further very small
amount of the gas dissolved in water within coal seams. First, the methane in the pores and fissures of coal
generally are present in two states: adsorbed gas and free gas.
❑ In CBM reservoirs generally require that reservoir pressure has to be below some threshold value to initiate gas
desorption. This is because, in a CBM reservoir, a gas molecule must first be desorbed under a critical pressure
and then diffuses through the coal matrix to a cleat so that it can finally move through the cleat or fracture system
and the hydraulic fracture stimulation to the wellbore via conventional Darcy flow.
❑ Apart from limitations of geological settings such as coal thickness and gas content (related to adsorption capacity
of coal), the key factor that affects the CBM production under given operation conditions is transport behavior of
gas in coal, including desorption, diffusion and flow of gas in coal seams.
❑ In CBM recovery, the gas production is usually preceded by water production.
❑ CBM recovery is largely controlled by gas transport behaviors in coal which, in practice, is usually reflected by two
key indexes, i.e. CBM potential or gas content of coal and permeability of coal seam.
❑ The main problem of restricting the development of gas production is associated with strong adsorption of the
methane in coal and low permeability of the coal bed.
Introduction to coal bed methane recovery
Introduction to coal bed methane recovery
❑ A variety of stimulation techniques have been applied for many years to enhance the permeability of coal beds,
including hydraulic fracturing, CO2 fracturing, and steam injection.
❑ All these stimulation techniques have a common feature; that is, some material must be injected into the coal bed
for CBM recovery.
❑ The injected material can be varied with different fracturing techniques, including fracturing water, superheated
water with high temperature, and gases of carbon dioxide or nitrogen. This material injection is an essential
process of energy transport and transition.
Introduction to coal bed methane recovery
Advantages of coal bed methane recovery:
❑ Abundant resource: Coal bed methane is a relatively abundant resource, with large reserves of the gas trapped in
coal seams around the world.
❑ Clean burning: Methane gas burns cleanly, producing less pollution than other fossil fuels such as coal or oil.
❑ Reduced greenhouse gas emissions: Capturing and using methane gas from coal seams can help reduce
greenhouse gas emissions, as methane is a potent greenhouse gas when released into the atmosphere.
❑ Reduced reliance on foreign oil: Using domestically produced methane gas can reduce a country's reliance on
foreign oil and gas.
Disadvantages of coal bed methane recovery:
❑ Water depletion: Coal bed methane recovery requires large amounts of water to extract the gas from the coal
seams. This can lead to depletion of groundwater resources in the area.
❑ Water contamination: The water used in the CBM recovery process can become contaminated with chemicals and
pollutants, which can potentially leak into the surrounding environment.
❑ Land use impacts: The drilling, pipelines, and other infrastructure associated with CBM recovery can have negative
impacts on the land, including habitat fragmentation and destruction.
❑ Methane leakage: The process of CBM recovery can lead to the release of methane gas into the atmosphere, which
is a potent greenhouse gas.
Room and Pillar mining
Room and Pillar mining
❑ Underground methods are traditionally broken into three classes: unsupported, supported, and caving methods.
These classes reflect the competency of the orebody and host rock more than anything else.
❑ This method of mining is used to recover bedded deposits that are horizontal or nearly horizontal when the orebody
and the surrounding rock are reasonably competent.
❑ Applicability condition of room and pillar
▪ Rock strata surrounding the coal seam to be competent
▪ Coal deposit should be tabular
▪ The dip of the seam may be flat to slightly dipping
▪ Thin seams with large deposit preferred
▪ Shallow to moderate depth
❑ In this method, headings are driven into the solid coal which form the pillars between them and subsequently pillars
are extracted either by conventional or continuous mining system.
❑ Since large volume of air is required for ventilation purpose, 5 to 9 main entries or bleeder entries are driven into
the coal seam and cross cuts are driven between the main entries to form pillars.
❑ When the cross cuts are driven at the 90o angle to the main entries the pillars are square or rectangle in shape.
❑ Sometimes to facilitate shuttle car or belt transportation or continuous miner movement, cross cuts are made
between 50-75o angle to the main entries.
❑ From these main entries multiple panel entries are turned at regular interval, but barrier pillars are left between the
panels. The panel entries are typically five in number and are driven to the length of the belt coveyor that will be
used to move coal out of the panel.
❑ In advancing the mine 40-50 % coal is recovered, however, while retreating and extracting the pillars, recovery rate
is around 70-90 %.
Thank you!