UNDERGROUND COAL MINING

UNIT I: Introduction

1. Explain the theories of coal formation.

The formation of coal is explained by two primary theories:
A. In-situ Theory (Autochthonous)
• This is the most widely accepted theory.
• It suggests that coal was formed at the place where the plant material originally grew.
• Plant material from dense forests accumulated in swampy, waterlogged conditions.
• The lack of oxygen prevented full decomposition.
• Over time, this plant material was buried under sediments, and subjected to physical and chemical
changes (carbonization), forming peat and then coal.
Evidence supporting In-situ Theory:
• Presence of rootlets and fossilized roots in the underclay beneath coal seams.
• Uniformity and continuity of coal seams.
• Vertical tree trunks found rooted in the strata beneath the coal.
B. Drift Theory (Allochthonous)
• This theory proposes that plant material was transported by wind or water and deposited elsewhere.
• Common in river deltas, lakes, and flood plains.
• After deposition, it was buried and later transformed into coal.
Evidence supporting Drift Theory:
• Presence of mixed plant materials and other impurities in coal.
• Coal seams that show signs of transportation and layering.
• Association with other sedimentary deposits like sandstones and shales.
Both theories may apply depending on the geological settings, and many coal seams show features of both
processes.

2. How is coal classified? Describe coking coal.

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Coal is classified based on its carbon content, calorific value, moisture, and volatile matter.
A. Types of Coal (by Rank):
1. Peat: Lowest rank, high moisture, low carbon.
2. Lignite: Brown coal, more carbon than peat but less energy-rich.
3. Sub-bituminous: Lower heating value than bituminous coal.
4. Bituminous: High carbon, widely used for electricity and steel production.
5. Anthracite: Highest rank, hard and glossy, very high carbon content.
B. Classification by Usage:
• Thermal coal: Used for power generation.
• Coking coal: Used in metallurgical processes.
Coking Coal:
• Coking coal, also known as metallurgical coal, is used in the production of coke, which is a key material
in steelmaking.
• When heated in the absence of air (carbonization), it softens, swells, and then solidifies into a porous
solid called coke.
Characteristics:
• High carbon content.
• Low moisture and ash content.
• Specific plasticity and swelling properties.
Types of Coking Coal:
1. Prime Coking Coal – High-quality, used in making metallurgical coke.
2. Medium Coking Coal – Used with blends for coke making.
3. Weak Coking Coal – Limited swelling properties, not used alone.

3. Describe the structures and abnormalities found in coal seams.

Coal seams often show various geological structures and abnormalities due to tectonic forces,
depositional environment, or post-depositional changes.
A. Common Structures:
1. Coal Seams: Flat or gently dipping beds of coal formed by sedimentation.

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2. Partings: Thin layers of non-coal material (like shale or sandstone) within a coal seam.
3. Bands: Streaks or layers of impurities like clay or mineral matter in coal.
4. Splits and Seams: A single seam may split into two or more thinner seams, or multiple seams may
converge.
B. Abnormalities in Coal Seams:
1. Faults: Displacement of coal seams due to tectonic activity; can cause production difficulty.
2. Folds: Bending of coal seams into anticlines or synclines, which affects mining methods.
3. Washouts: Where coal is eroded and replaced by sediments like sandstone or shale.
4. Dyke and Sill Intrusions: Igneous intrusions that can burn or metamorphose the coal.
5. Rolls or Troughs: Irregular undulations in the seam floor or roof.
Such abnormalities impact the mining methods, safety, and economic value of the seam.

4. Discuss the distribution of coal in India.

India has large coal reserves, primarily of bituminous and sub-bituminous coal. Most of the coal belongs
to the Gondwana age (~250 million years old), and some from the Tertiary age (~15-60 million years old).
A. Gondwana Coal Fields (98% of total reserves):
Located mainly in the eastern and central parts of India:
• Jharkhand: Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih, and North Karanpura – rich in coking coal.
• Odisha: Talcher, Ib Valley.
• Chhattisgarh: Korba, Hasdeo-Arand.
• West Bengal: Raniganj – oldest coalfield.
• Madhya Pradesh & Maharashtra: Singrauli, Wardha Valley.
B. Tertiary Coal Fields:
Located in the north-eastern and southern parts:
• Assam: Makum coalfields.
• Meghalaya: Khasi and Jaintia Hills.
• Nagaland & Arunachal Pradesh: Smaller reserves.
• Tamil Nadu & Kerala: Neyveli Lignite – a major lignite deposit.
C. Features:

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• India has the fifth-largest coal reserves in the world.
• The coal is mostly non-coking, used in thermal power generation.
• Coking coal is limited and often blended or imported for steel plants.

5. What are the criteria for choosing a coal mining method?

The selection of a mining method depends on multiple geological, technical, economic, and
environmental factors.
A. Geological Criteria:
1. Depth of the coal seam:
o Shallow seams: Surface mining.
o Deep seams: Underground mining.
2. Thickness of seam:
o Thick seams favor mechanized mining.
3. Dip of seam:
o Steep seams are difficult for mechanized operations.
4. Faults and geological disturbances:
o Complicated geology requires selective mining.
B. Technical Criteria:
1. Mining equipment and technology available.
2. Roof and floor conditions.
3. Water and gas issues in the seam.
C. Economic Factors:
1. Cost of mining (initial investment and operating cost).
2. Recovery percentage – maximizing coal extraction.
3. Market value of coal – coking vs non-coking.
D. Environmental and Safety Considerations:
1. Environmental impact of surface mining (e.g., land degradation).
2. Worker safety – underground methods require more safety measures.
3. Post-mining land use and reclamation.
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E. Social and Legal Factors:
1. Land acquisition and rehabilitation issues.
2. Local community concerns.
3. Regulatory permissions and clearances.
Based on these criteria, mining methods like open-cast (surface mining), bord and pillar, and longwall
mining are chosen.

UNIT II: Board and Pillar Method

1. What is the significance of pillar design in the board and pillar method?
Answer:
Pillar design is a crucial aspect of the board and pillar method of mining. In this method, coal is extracted in
a grid-like pattern, leaving behind blocks of coal (pillars) to support the roof. The significance of pillar
design lies in its role in maintaining the safety and stability of the mine during and after coal extraction.
Key points:
• Support of Overlying Strata: The primary function of pillars is to support the overlying roof strata and
prevent collapses. Poorly designed pillars can lead to premature failure and roof falls, endangering lives
and equipment.
• Pillar Size and Spacing: The size and spacing of pillars must be optimized based on factors like the
depth of the seam, roof and floor conditions, seam thickness, and nature of the surrounding rock.
Larger pillars provide more support but reduce recovery; smaller pillars increase coal extraction but risk
instability.
• Load Distribution: Proper pillar design ensures that the load from the overburden is evenly distributed
across all pillars, reducing the chances of pillar crushing or squeezing.
• Depillaring Phase: During depillaring (extraction of pillars), the stability of remaining pillars becomes
critical. Well-designed pillars can allow for controlled caving and safe extraction.
• Empirical Formulas and Design Tools: Several empirical methods (e.g., Indian School of Mines formula,
Bieniawski’s formula) are used to determine the appropriate dimensions of pillars.
Conclusion:
In summary, proper pillar design is essential for ensuring the safety, economic viability, and operational
efficiency of board and pillar mining operations.

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2. Explain the panel and non-panel systems of development.
Answer:
In underground coal mining, the method of development significantly affects the efficiency, ventilation, and
safety of operations. The two major systems of development are the panel system and the non-panel
system.
Panel System:
• Definition: In the panel system, the mine is divided into separate working sections called panels. Each
panel is developed and mined out independently.
• Features:
o Fixed boundaries for each panel.
o Better control of ventilation, roof support, and haulage.
o Panels can be systematically developed, worked, and abandoned.
• Advantages:
o Easy control over air currents.
o Effective isolation of fire-prone or gassy panels.
o Easier to plan manpower and machinery deployment.
o Reduced chances of large-scale subsidence.
• Disadvantages:
o Slightly higher development cost due to duplicity of entries.
Non-Panel System:
• Definition: In this system, there is no strict division into panels. Development is continuous across the
mine without designated panel boundaries.
• Features:
o More flexibility in mine layout.
o Continuous development without separation into smaller units.
• Advantages:
o Lesser development work required.
o Reduced initial cost in terms of drivages.
• Disadvantages:
o Difficult to control ventilation and spontaneous heating.
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 o Not suitable for gassy mines.
o Greater risk in terms of fire and water control.
Conclusion:
While the panel system provides better control and safety, especially in gassy or fiery mines, the non-panel
system may be suitable for small-scale or non-hazardous operations.

3. Describe the cycle of operation in board and pillar mining.

Answer:
The board and pillar method follows a specific cycle of operations to systematically extract coal while
maintaining safety and efficiency. The cycle includes the following key stages:
1. Surveying and Planning:
• Initial geological surveys and layout planning.
• Designing the grid pattern for galleries and pillars.
2. Drivage of Main Entries:
• Development of main entries (main dips or levels) to access the coal seam.
• These entries serve as the main haulage and ventilation routes.
3. Development of Galleries:
• Galleries are driven at regular intervals in both dip and strike directions, forming a network.
• The coal left between these galleries becomes the pillars.
4. Formation of Pillars:
• Pillars are formed in rectangular or square shapes.
• Proper dimensions and spacing are maintained based on design.
5. Ventilation and Roof Support:
• Installation of support systems (props, roof bolts).
• Ventilation systems are developed to ensure fresh air supply.
6. Extraction Operations (Depillaring):
• Once development is complete, the coal from the pillars is extracted.
• This is done by systematic retreating or caving methods.
7. Roof Management and Caving:

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• Controlled caving of the roof is allowed after extraction.
• Artificial supports or stowing may be used in some cases.
Conclusion:
The cycle of operation in board and pillar mining ensures a systematic approach to coal extraction,
maintaining a balance between productivity and safety.

4. What are the methods of depillaring by caving?

Answer:
Depillaring refers to the process of extracting the coal left in pillars after the initial development in the
board and pillar method. Depillaring by caving is a method in which the roof is allowed to collapse in a
controlled manner after pillar extraction.
Major methods of depillaring by caving:
1. Manual or Conventional Method:
• Pillars are extracted manually by undercutting and slicing.
• The goaf (extracted area) is allowed to cave naturally.
• Wooden props or other temporary supports are used for roof control.
2. Hindustan Method:
• Developed in India for thick seams.
• Extraction starts from the outermost pillars and moves inward.
• Designed to maintain systematic goafing and control over caving.
3. Split and Fender Method:
• Large pillars are split into smaller units (splits and fenders).
• These smaller units are then extracted one by one, allowing roof to cave.
• Reduces risk by limiting the area exposed at one time.
4. Christmas Tree Method:
• Extraction is done in a pattern resembling a Christmas tree.
• Used to ensure controlled and progressive caving.
5. Arc and Diagonal Method:
• Extraction is carried out along arcs or diagonals from one corner.
• Designed for systematic retreat and controlled caving.
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6. Mechanized Depillaring:
• Use of continuous miners, load haul dump (LHD) machines, and hydraulic props.
• Controlled caving achieved using hydraulic roof supports.
Conclusion:
Depillaring by caving is essential for recovering the remaining coal. The method chosen depends on seam
thickness, depth, gassiness, roof conditions, and available technology.

5. What are the dangers associated with depillaring?

Answer:
Depillaring is one of the most hazardous phases in underground coal mining due to the deliberate removal
of the pillars that support the roof. This can result in several dangers, including:
1. Roof Falls:
• As pillars are extracted, the roof may collapse unexpectedly.
• Sudden roof falls can cause fatal accidents and damage equipment.
2. Air Blasts:
• Rapid caving or collapse may displace large volumes of air, causing air blasts.
• These blasts can throw dust, debris, and cause injuries.
3. Fires and Spontaneous Combustion:
• Depillaring increases exposure of coal to air, promoting oxidation.
• In gassy mines, this can lead to spontaneous heating and fire outbreaks.
4. Gas Emission and Explosions:
• Depillaring disturbs the strata, releasing methane or other gases.
• If not ventilated properly, it may lead to gas accumulation and explosions.
5. Subsidence:
• The collapse of the goaf area may result in surface subsidence, damaging surface structures.
6. Water Inrush:
• Caving can connect to old water-logged workings, causing sudden inrushes of water.
7. Difficulties in Ventilation:
• Continuous changes in working area during depillaring affect the air flow pattern.

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• It becomes harder to maintain adequate ventilation in all parts.
8. Strata Pressure and Rock Bursts:
• Increased stress on remaining pillars may cause sudden bursts or pillar failure.
Conclusion:
Due to these significant dangers, depillaring must be carried out with detailed planning, continuous
monitoring, and strict adherence to safety protocols.

UNIT III: Longwall Mining

1. Define longwall mining and its components.

Answer:
Longwall mining is a highly mechanized underground coal mining method in which a long face of coal is
mined in a single slice. The coal seam is extracted along a straight line (called the longwall face) using
shearers or plows, and the roof behind the face is allowed to collapse (cave) in a controlled manner.
Components of Longwall Mining:
1. Longwall Face:
o The active area where coal cutting takes place, typically 100–300 meters long.
2. Gate Roads:
o Main Gate (Intake): Supplies fresh air and provides access to the face.
o Tail Gate (Return): Returns used air from the face.
3. Powered Roof Supports (Chocks):
o Hydraulic supports that temporarily hold the roof during coal extraction and advance with the
face.
4. Shearer or Plow:
o Mechanized equipment that cuts coal from the seam. The shearer travels along the face on a
track.
5. Armored Face Conveyor (AFC):
o A conveyor system that transports coal along the face to the gate belt conveyor.
6. Face Line Communication and Control Systems:
o For monitoring and remote operation of equipment.

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Conclusion:
Longwall mining is efficient and safe when properly managed, particularly for deep and extensive coal
seams.

2. Compare advancing and retreating longwall methods.

Answer:
Advancing and retreating are two methods of operating a longwall face based on the direction of mining
relative to the development.

Aspect Advancing Longwall Retreating Longwall

Direction of Starts from the main entries and

Face retreats towards the main entries
Mining moves forward

Gate roads are developed as the face Gate roads are developed first, then face
Development
advances is mined back

More difficult to ventilate; air moves Better ventilation; return airway remains
Ventilation
with face intact

Requires more development time before

Face Setup Easier; face can be set up early
face setup

Better roof management as goaf forms

Roof Control Less controlled; unstable roof ahead
behind the face

More common due to better control and

Common Use Less common in modern mining
safety

Conclusion:
Retreating longwall is generally preferred due to better control over roof, gas, and ventilation.

3. Discuss the merits and demerits of longwall mining.

Answer:
Merits:
1. High Productivity:
o Continuous and large-scale extraction increases coal output.
2. Safety:
o No need to enter unsupported areas; use of hydraulic supports reduces risk.
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3. Better Roof Control:
o Powered supports provide reliable roof management during extraction.
4. Low Labor Requirement:
o Mechanized system reduces manpower and manual labor.
5. Efficient Ventilation:
o Designed airways and panel layouts improve airflow.
Demerits:
1. High Initial Investment:
o Requires costly equipment and infrastructure.
2. Complex Planning:
o Needs detailed geotechnical, environmental, and operational planning.
3. Not Suitable for Disturbed Seams:
o Faults, dykes, or seam variability make operations difficult.
4. Subsidence Risk:
o Controlled caving can cause surface subsidence and damage.
5. Maintenance Issues:
o Mechanized equipment needs regular, skilled maintenance.
Conclusion:
Longwall mining is efficient for deep, thick, and uniform seams, but requires significant investment and
planning.

4. Describe the development process of a longwall panel.

Answer:
Developing a longwall panel involves several systematic steps to prepare for production:
1. Selection of Panel:
• Based on seam characteristics, thickness, and geology.
• Typical panel length: 100–300 m; panel length (in the direction of advance): 1–3 km.
2. Drivage of Gate Roads:
• Two parallel roadways (main gate and tail gate) are driven to the extent of the panel.

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• These serve as intake and return airways, as well as transport and service routes.
3. Construction of Face Line (Cut-throughs):
• Cross-cuts are developed to connect the two gates.
• The face line forms the coal face that will be extracted.
4. Installation of Infrastructure:
• Belt conveyors, ventilation systems, and communication cables are installed.
5. Setup of Face Equipment:
• Shearer, AFC, and powered supports are installed and tested.
6. Safety and Support Systems:
• Ventilation plans, monitoring systems, and emergency plans are finalized.
Conclusion:
Panel development is a capital-intensive but essential phase, laying the foundation for safe and efficient
longwall operations.

5. What is a double unit longwall face?

Answer:
A Double Unit Longwall Face is a special type of longwall face that uses two separate shearers or plows
working on the same face, usually from both ends toward the center or in alternating zones. This setup is
intended to maximize coal output and reduce downtime.
Features:
1. Two Extraction Units:
o Two shearers/plows operate independently but in coordination.
2. Increased Production:
o Allows simultaneous coal cutting from two ends.
3. Efficient Use of Equipment:
o While one machine is idle for maintenance, the other continues working.
4. Complex Control:
o Requires advanced coordination and control systems to avoid collision and optimize
performance.
5. Longer Faces:

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 o Common in faces over 250 meters long, where single-unit production becomes limiting.
Challenges:
• Requires more manpower and equipment.
• Needs highly skilled operators and synchronized operation.
Conclusion:
Double unit longwall faces are designed for very high-production mines, enhancing productivity but
needing advanced planning and technology.

UNIT IV: Thick Seam Mining

1. What are the problems encountered in thick seam mining?

Answer:
Thick seam mining involves the extraction of coal seams with a thickness generally exceeding 3 meters.
Mining such seams presents unique challenges and hazards:
1. Roof Control Issues:
• Managing the immediate and main roof over a large excavation height is difficult.
• Chances of roof collapse increase due to wide unsupported areas.
2. High Risk of Spontaneous Combustion:
• Large exposed coal surfaces and slow ventilation flow can lead to oxidation and spontaneous heating.
3. Poor Ventilation:
• Multiple working levels and large voids make it harder to circulate fresh air effectively.
• Gas accumulation becomes a concern.
4. Ground Pressure and Strata Control:
• High vertical stress and rock pressure can cause floor heaving or pillar crushing.
5. Limited Equipment Compatibility:
• Standard mining equipment may not be suitable for very thick seams; requires specialized or modified
machines.
6. Low Recovery in Single Lift Methods:
• If the seam is worked in one lift, significant reserves may be left in safety zones or unapproachable
sections.
7. Subsidence and Surface Damage:

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• Extraction of large coal volumes increases the risk of ground subsidence, potentially affecting surface
structures.
Conclusion:
Thick seam mining requires advanced planning and specialized methods to ensure safe and efficient coal
recovery.

2. Describe the inclined slicing method.

Answer:
Inclined Slicing Method is a technique used to extract thick coal seams by dividing them into slices and
mining each slice along the inclination (dip) of the seam.
Features:
• The seam is divided into several slices, usually 2–3 meters thick.
• Extraction starts from the top slice and proceeds downward (top-to-bottom approach).
• Slices are mined along the dip direction, and each slice is accessed via inclined roadways.
Advantages:
1. Better Roof Control:
o Since only a small height is exposed at a time, it is easier to manage roof stability.
2. Improved Ventilation:
o Each slice can have independent ventilation arrangements.
3. Systematic Recovery:
o Controlled extraction leads to higher recovery rates.
Disadvantages:
• Development of inclined roadways adds to the cost and time.
• Not suitable where the dip of the seam is very steep or irregular.
Conclusion:
Inclined slicing is a systematic and safer method for thick seam extraction, particularly effective for gently
dipping seams.

3. Compare horizontal and diagonal slicing methods.

Answer:

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Both horizontal slicing and diagonal slicing are used to mine thick coal seams in slices, but they differ in
orientation and method of attack.

Aspect Horizontal Slicing Diagonal Slicing

Direction of Parallel to the horizon; slices are Diagonally across the seam; slices are
Mining horizontal inclined at an angle

Slice Slices are cut diagonally from top to

Layers are taken one over another
Orientation bottom or vice versa

Separate roadways or cross-cuts for Inclined drivages used for access to

Access
each horizontal slice slices

Generally better due to horizontal Slightly complex due to angle of

Roof Control
progression extraction

More air crossings required; complex

Ventilation Better airflow in inclined paths
layout

Better for seams with medium to steep

Suitability Useful for flat seams
dips

Conclusion:
While horizontal slicing is simpler for flat seams, diagonal slicing provides better adaptability and
ventilation for seams with moderate dip angles.

4. Explain the blasting gallery method.

Answer:
The Blasting Gallery (BG) method is a specialized mining technique used for extracting very thick coal
seams (typically more than 4.5 m), especially in gassy and deep mines where conventional methods are
unsafe or uneconomical.
Key Features:
• Wide galleries (8–12 meters wide) are developed using continuous miners.
• Large-scale blasting is used to extract coal from thick seams.
• Chambers are left between galleries as support pillars.
• Entire sections are allowed to cave in a controlled manner after extraction.
Steps:
1. Develop galleries in the lower part of the seam.

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2. Drill large diameter holes upward into the roof.
3. Blast upper sections using specially designed explosives.
4. Load blasted coal using LHD or shuttle cars.
Advantages:
• High production rates.
• Safer for deep seams with high gas emission.
• Mechanized and less labor-intensive.
Disadvantages:
• Requires strict control on blasting.
• Possibility of air blast and roof falls if not managed properly.
• High capital investment.
Conclusion:
The Blasting Gallery method is effective for extracting thick seams with safety and mechanization,
especially in difficult geological and gassy conditions.

5. How is cable bolting used in thick seam extraction?

Answer:
Cable bolting is a roof and strata reinforcement technique widely used in thick seam mining to control
large-scale movement of rock strata during or after extraction.
Description:
• Cable bolts are long steel cables (10–25 mm diameter, up to 10–12 m long) inserted into boreholes
drilled deep into the roof or sidewalls.
• Anchored with grout or resin, the bolts bind fractured rock layers together, enhancing stability.
• Often used in conjunction with roof bolts and steel meshes for multi-level support.
Applications in Thick Seam Mining:
1. Support Between Slices:
o Helps stabilize the roof between sliced layers in slicing methods.
2. Goaf Edge Stabilization:
o Prevents collapse of unmined coal and reduces air leakage through goaf.
3. Delayed Caving Control:
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 o Controls roof sagging to allow safe depillaring or completion of extraction.
Advantages:
• Allows controlled roof movement and delays caving.
• Increases the safety of working areas.
• Enhances productivity by reducing unplanned roof falls.
Conclusion:
Cable bolting is a critical support measure in thick seam mining, improving safety and enabling systematic
extraction under challenging strata conditions.

UNIT V: Room and Pillar Mining

1. Explain the Vermelles method of room and pillar mining.

Answer:

The Vermelles method is a modified room and pillar mining technique used primarily in thick and inclined
coal seams, especially in European countries.

Key Features:

1. Inclined Extraction:
o Designed for seams that are thick and have a noticeable dip.
o Rooms and pillars are developed along the dip direction.
2. Division into Sublevels:
o The seam is divided into several horizontal slices or benches (sublevels), often 2–3 meters thick.
3. Staggered Working:
o Pillars are staggered in successive slices to avoid vertical alignment, improving roof stability.
4. Access:
o Inclined galleries and manways provide access to different levels.
5. Extraction:
o Coal is extracted slice by slice, and the worked-out area is allowed to cave.

Advantages:

• Suitable for moderately dipping and thick seams.

• Offers better roof control due to reduced working height.
• Staggered layout minimizes stress concentration.

Disadvantages:

• Complex layout and planning.

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 • Requires skilled labor and good supervision.

Conclusion:
The Vermelles method is efficient for thick inclined seams, offering better control over stability and coal
recovery.

2. How is the slant method applied in coal mining?

Answer:

The slant method is a type of mining system applied to extract coal from inclined or steeply dipping seams,
usually where horizontal methods are impractical.

Application:

1. Inclined Galleries:
o Main and sub-roadways are developed along the dip of the seam, creating a slanted working
area.
2. Slice Division:
o The seam is divided into slices or levels inclined along the dip.
3. Coal Extraction:
o Extraction proceeds in a slant or diagonal direction using manual or semi-mechanized methods.
4. Transport:
o Coal and materials are moved using inclined conveyors, chutes, or haulage systems adapted to
the dip.

Advantages:

• Effective in seams with dips greater than 30 degrees.

• Avoids development of costly horizontal levels.
• Natural gravity assists in coal flow.

Disadvantages:

• Increased risk of roof falls due to steepness.

• Haulage and material handling become challenging.

Conclusion:
The slant method is practical for mining steep seams where horizontal or room-and-pillar layouts are not
feasible.

3. What are the methods used in steeply inclined seams?

Answer:

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Mining steeply inclined coal seams (dip > 35°) is challenging and requires specialized methods for safety and
efficiency. The main methods used are:

1. Steep Inclined Slicing Method:

• Seam is divided into slices and worked from top to bottom.

• Access via inclined galleries.
• Gravity helps in coal flow.

2. Sub-level Caving:

• Sub-levels are created across the dip, and coal is allowed to cave after extraction.
• Used in deep, hard-to-support areas.

3. Horizon Mining:

• Multiple horizontal levels (horizons) are developed in thick seams.

• Suitable for mechanization.

4. Steep Inclined Longwall Mining:

• Longwall face developed along dip direction.

• Specialized roof supports and conveyors are used.

5. Diagonal/Slant Working Method:

• Mining proceeds diagonally along seam dip.

• Useful in seams with complex geology.

Challenges:

• Risk of sliding and uncontrolled coal movement.

• Difficult transport and support system.
• Increased hazard of gas, water, and ventilation problems.

Conclusion:
Steep seam mining demands careful planning and customized methods to ensure worker safety and efficient
coal recovery.

4. Describe the hazards of mining under water-logged areas.

Answer:

Mining under water-logged areas like rivers, lakes, or old water-filled workings poses serious geotechnical
and safety hazards.

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Major Hazards:

1. Inundation:
o Sudden inflow of large volumes of water due to roof collapse or accidental connection with
water bodies.
2. Roof Collapse:
o Water pressure may weaken the roof strata, increasing the risk of collapse.
3. Suffocation & Gas Hazards:
o Inundation can block ventilation, causing gas build-up and risk of suffocation or explosion.
4. Strata Movement:
o Water infiltration may lead to floor heaving or rock deformation.
5. Transport and Equipment Damage:
o Flooding can damage machinery and disrupt transport routes.
6. Environmental Impact:
o Mining-induced subsidence under water bodies can affect aquatic ecosystems.

Conclusion:
Special precautions and continuous monitoring are essential when mining under or near water-logged zones to
prevent accidents.

5. What precautions are taken for seams prone to spontaneous heating?

Answer:

Spontaneous heating occurs when coal oxidizes in the presence of air, leading to a gradual temperature rise,
which may result in self-ignition.

Precautions Taken:

1. Minimize Coal Exposure:

o Reduce exposed coal surfaces and clean loose coal in goaf and roadways.
2. Good Ventilation:
o Ensure sufficient airflow to prevent heat accumulation but not so high as to accelerate oxidation.
3. Inertization:
o Use nitrogen or carbon dioxide to reduce oxygen concentration in goaf areas.
4. Temperature Monitoring:
o Use sensors or thermal probes to detect early signs of heating.
5. Sealing Off Areas:
o Quick sealing of mined-out areas to limit air access.
6. Avoid Delays in Depillaring:
o Rapid extraction avoids long exposure of coal pillars to air.
7. Use of Anti-heating Chemicals:
o Application of chemical solutions (e.g., sodium silicate) to coal surfaces.

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Conclusion:
Preventing spontaneous heating requires a combination of good ventilation, timely extraction, monitoring,
and preventive sealing techniques.

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