ALTERATIONS

Alterations in questioned documents refer to any changes made to the original content
after the document was created These alterations can vary widely in nature and can be
performed for various reasons, ranging from innocent corrections to fraudulent
manipulations. Here are some common types of alterations:
Textual Alterations: This involves changes to the text of the document, such as adding,
removing, or modifying words, phrases, or entire sentences. Textual alterations can be
made using different writing instruments or techniques, including overwriting,
erasures, or interlineations.
Numeric Alterations: Numeric alterations involve changes to numerical data within
the document, such as altering figures in financial records, dates, or amounts on
checks. This type of alteration is often used to manipulate financial or contractual
documents for fraudulent purposes
Signature Alterations: Signature alterations involve changes to the signatures present
on the document. This can include forging signatures, altering existing signatures, or
adding new signatures without authorization Signature alterations are commonly
encountered in cases of identity theft, fraud, or forgery.
Date Alterations: Date alterations involve changing the dates recorded on the
document. This can be done to backdate or postdate documents for various reasons,
such as extending deadlines, avoiding penalties, or falsifying records
Graphical Alterations: Graphical alterations involve changes to graphical elements
within the document, such as diagrams, charts, or images. These alterations can be
made to misrepresent data or information visually or to conceal existing information.
Physical Alterations: Physical alterations involve changes to the physical
characteristics of the document itself, such as tearing cutting, or pasting sections of the
document. Physical alterations En be used to remove or replace sections of the
document or to alter its appearance.
Concealed Alterations: Concealed alterations involve changes that are deliberately
hidden or disguised to make them difficult to detect. This can include using
specialized techniques or materials to conceal alterations, such as chemical
eradicators, invisible inks, or digital manipulation
Detective alterations in questioned documents often requires a thorough examination
by forensic document examiners using specialized techniques such as microscopy,
ultraviolet imaging infrared photography, and chemical analysis. These experts
analyse the physical characteristics of the document, including ink, paper handwriting
and printing methods, to determine if alterations have declared and assess their
significance in the context of the document's authenticity and integrity.
Alteration is defined as any change to a document which gives it a different effect
from that it originally possessed. If change is made after execution of a document and
without the consent of the other party or concerned person, then such change is called
fraudulent alteration. The alteration can be done by:
 Addition /Interlineations
 Overwriting
Features of fraudulent alteration:
 These alterations are done in such a way that they may pass unnoticed under
regular examination of the document.
 The alteration methods are usually latent or may be so minute that an unskilled
or incompetent examiner may not be able to detect them.

EXAMINATION OF ALTERATIONS
Visual Examination: Forensic document examiners begin by visually inspecting the
document for any signs of alterations. This includes looking for discrepancies in
handwriting, ink color, pen pressure, and writing instrument characteristics. They also
examine the overall layout, spacing, and alignment of text to identify any irregularities
or inconsistencies.
Microscopy: Microscopic examination is used to magnify the surface of the document,
allowing examiners to observe fine details and detect alterations that may not be
visible to the naked eye. Microscopy can reveal differences in ink composition,
texture, and layering, as well as evidence of erasures or tampering
UV and Infrared Imaging: Ultraviolet (UV) and infrared (IR) imaging techniques are
employed to reveal hidden or obscured alterations on the document. UV light can
highlight variations in ink fluorescence, while IR photography can penetrate certain
types of inks and reveal underlying writing that has been erased or covered
Chemical Analysis: Chemical analysis involves the use of reagents and solvents to
detect alterations on the document. For example, chemical eradicators can be applied
to reveal traces of ink that have been removed through erasures or washing Chemical
tests can also differentiate between different types of inks and reveal underlying
layers of writing.
Electrostatic Detection Apparatus (ESDA): ESDA is a specialized device detect
indentations or impressions left on the document by writing instruments. It works by
applying an electrostatic charge to the surface of the document, which attracts toner
particles to areas where pressure has been applied, revealing indentations even if the
writing has been erased.
Digital Imaging and Analysis: Digital Imaging techniques, such as scanning and
image processing software, can be used to enhance and analyse the document
electronically. This includes comparing scanned images of the document at different
stages to identify changes and inconsistencies in the content or appearance.
Historical Analysis: Historical analysis involves researching the provenance and
include history of the document to provide context for the examination. This may
studying previous versions of the document, analysing related documents and records
and consulting with experts or witnesses familiar with the document's creation and
usage
By combining these examination methods, forensic document examiners can
accurately assess alterations in questioned documents and provide expert testimony in
legal proceedings regarding the authenticity and integrity of the evidence.

ERASURES
Erasures are made by three methods: the mechanical removal of the ink by scraping
the surface until all the visible ink has been removed, the treatment by bleaching
solutions that convert the due into colourless compounds, and the removal of the
soluble dyestuffs by suitable solvents. In all these processes it is possible that traces
will remain that will fluoresce or luminesce when illuminated with visible light.
Erasure is a method of alteration of any document. It may be a correction method
made by erasing such as rubbing, scraping, or wiping out. Sometimes the term erasure
refers to an effective revocation of a will or a portion of a will. Erasure is classified as:
 Chemical erasure
 Physical erasure or Mechanical erasure
Erasures can be performed using various methods, each leaving behind different traces
or indications that can be detected by forensic document examiners Here are some
common methods of erasure: -
Physical Erasure: Physical erasure involves using an eraser or abrasive material to
remove ink or Amal mas from the surface of the document, Erasers can be made of
rubber or abrasive materials the sandpaper. Physical erasure often leaves behind fant
traces of removed material, such as smudges, indentations or changes in paper texture.
Chemical Erasure: Chemical erasure involves using solvents of chemical agents to
dissolve or lift ink from the surface of the document, Chemical eradicators, such as
bleach or solvents like acetone, can be applied to the area to be erased. Chemical
erasure may leave behind residual aces of the erased material, which can be detected
through chemical analysis or imaging.
Scraping or Cutting: Scraping or cutting involves physically removing surface layer of
the paper containing the unwanted content. This method is often used to remove
signatures, seals, or stamps from documents. Scraping or cutting can leave behind
visible marks or irregularities on the paper surface, which can be detected through
visual inspection or microscopy
Cover-Up: Cover-up involves obscuring unwanted content by covering it with opaque
or adhesive materials. This can include using correction fluids, stickers, or opaque
tapes to hide text or images on the document. Cover-up methods may leave behind
visible traces of the covering material, such as changes in surface reflectivity or
texture.
Digital Erasure: In the case of electronic documents, erasure can occur through digital
means, such as deleting or editing text or images using word processing software or
image editing programs. Digital erasure may leave behind metadata or revision history
that can be examined to determine if changes have been made to the document.
Photocopying or Scanning: Photocopying or scanning a document can inadvertently
obscure or erase certain types of content, especially if the original document is faded
or poorly printed. The copying process can also introduce art.
PHYSICAL ERASURE OR ABRASION ERASURE
Physical erasure in a part of writing can be done by the abrasion of surface of paper
with the help of rubber, sharp instrument such as razor blade, scalper, knife or Emory
paper etc.
The characteristic feature of physical erasure is removal of surface fibres of paper
make the erased are comparatively thinner and translucent. But if some weak pencil
writing is erased with a soft rubber erasure there is no mark of abrasion the surface
fibres may not be damaged to the appreciable degree and those rubber particles get
embedded in the fibres of paper. If sizing is damaged, the paper surface become
porous and any subsequent writing over the erased area with fluid ink pen usually
shows feathered ink lines.
The application of sharp instrument causes disturbance on the surface finish of paper
which can be detected by examining the document by oblique light i.e by a beam of
light falling at low angle. The soft rubber erasure particles can be detected under
microscope or by subjecting the erased area to iodine vapours.
CHEMICAL ERASURE
Chemical erasure is just a process of bleaching the colour of ink by converting
coloured compound into colourless compounds. And the ink itself remains in the
paper in invisible form. The commonly used chemicals for erasure purpose:
 Sodium hypochlorite
 Potassium permanganate
 Oxalic acid
 Stannous chloride solution
 Sodium tungstate
Chemical erasure can also be done with suitable solvents. Ball-point pen inks can be
partially or completely removed from paper by the application of polar solvents such
as tetrahydrofurane or acetone etc
DETECTION OF ERASURE
Examination of invisible ink can be done by using UV rays. It plays an important role
in detecting and decipherment of chemically erased writing. The action of the
chemical erasure often changes the fluorescence of paper and most of the chemical
erasure can be detected and photographed by UV rays.
Physical erasure – The application of sharp instrument causes disturbance on the
surface finish of paper which can be detected by examining the document by oblique
light i.e by a beam of light falling at low angle. The soft rubber erasure particles can
be detected under microscope or by subjecting the erased area to iodine vapours.
VSC
When a portion of the document has been altered and some portion is not clearly
visible, or some text added. The VSC (video spectral comparator) can be used to
decipher the alteration. The image is examined by viewing on a monitor, and digital
image processing through a computer.
About VSC apparatus: The VSC has an imaging device that includes a colour charge
coupled device (CCD) video camera, a black and white CCD video camera,
excitation/ barrier filter, and various radiant energy sources (tungsten, halogen, and
fluorescent lamps). The software of the VSC allows examiner to record the image of
the document that being examined, to rotate, flip and render negative the picture and
temporarily store and mixing different images, enabling distinct images to be overlaid
or compared side by side.
WORKING: The VSC uses a combination of cameras, light and filters to allow an
examiner to produce each of these effects under certain circumstances. There are some
wavelength such as IR and UV which are not visible to the human eye. When these
wavelengths are used the object which is that is used in visible region and appeared
black, now in IR it appear clear like a piece of glass. For instance, the VSC’s camera
operating in the IR portion of the spectrum can be capture an image lying underneath
an opaque blue ink, similar to the way an X-ray captures image of bones through skin.
There are some changes when light is directed toward an object usually 7 changes
depends on the emitted wavelength: -
 All or most of the light can be reflected off the object making it appear white (if
white light is emitted) or lighter (if only specific wavelengths are emitted).
 All or most of the light can be absorbed by the object making it appear black or
darker.
 Part of the light can be reflected, and part can be absorbed producing colors in the
visible portion of the spectrum. The different intensities of radiant energy can be
displayed using the VSC as shades of gray in the non visible portions of the
spectrum.
 Light can be transmitted through the object.
 Light can strike the object, be absorbed, and then reemitted at a longer wavelength:
an event called luminescence.

OBLITERATIONS
Producing obliterations in questioned documents involves various techniques aimed at
intentionally obscuring or concealing existing content on the document. These
techniques are often used for nefarious purposes, such as altering the document's
original meaning or concealing sensitive information. Here are some common
methods of producing obliterations:
Physical Erasure: This involves using an eraser, abrasive material, pr sharp object to
physically remove or scrape off existing text or markings from the surface of the
document. Erasing can leave behind traces of the original content, such as indentations
of marks, which may still be detectable upon close inspection.
Chemical Erasure: Chemical erasure involves applying solvents or chemical agents to
dissolve or lift ink from the surface of the document. Common chemicals used for this
purpose include bleach acetone, or other ink eradicators. Chemical erasure can
effectively remove ink but may leave behind residual traces that can on detected
through chemical analysis of Imaging techniques.

OVERWRITING
In questioned documents analysis, overwriting refers to writing new text over existing
text or markings on a document. Overwriting can be done deliberately to alter or
conceal the original content, or it may occur accidentally. Various methods can be
used to overwrite text in questioned documents, each leaving behind different traces or
indications that can be examined by forensic document examiners Here are some
common methods of overwriting:
Direct Overwriting: Direct overwriting involves simply writing new text directly over
existing text or markings using the same writing instrument. This method is
straightforward and can be used to correct errors or make changes to a document
quickly. Direct overwriting typically results in a visible layering of ink, with the
overwritten text partially or completely obscured by the new text.
Mechanical Overwriting: Mechanical overwriting involves using a sharp instrument,
such as a pen pencil, to scratch or score through existing text before writing over it.
This method is often used to erase or remove unwanted content before adding new
text. Mechanical overwriting can leave and indentations or scratches on the paper
surface, which may be detectable under magnification.
Chemical Overwriting: Chemical overwriting involves applying a chemical agent,
such as an ink eraser or solvent, to remove or dissolve existing ink before adding new
text. This method is commonly used to erase or conceal mistakes in handwritten or
printed documents. Chemical overwriting may leave behind residual traces of the
erased ink, which can be detected through chemical analysis or imaging techniques.
Digital Overwriting: In the case of election documents, overwriting can occur directly
using word processing software or image editing programs. Digital overwriting
involves editing the text or images directly on the electronic file, new song of
covering existing content with new content. Digital overwriting may leave behind
metadata or revision history that can be examined to determine chances have been
made to the document
Masking or Covering: Masking or covering involves using opaque materials, such as
correction found or adhesive labels, to obscure existing text or markings before
writing over them. This method is often used to hide sensitive information or mote
corrections to printed documents. Masking or covering may leave behind visible
traces of the covering material, which can be detected through visual inspection of
imaging techniques.
The overwriting may be genuine or fraudulent. Sometimes in order to correct a
spelling mistake, to make writing or figures more legible or to correct/change some
writing, the same writer may overwrite the strokes or lines. Such overwriting are
generally made boldly and no attempt is made to conceal the overwritten or
overwriting is the habit of a writer, the strokes are drawn carelessly. The fraudulent
overwriting to change the contents of documents are usually made in a careful manner
and every effort is made by the preparator to conceal such changes made by him.
When the original writing instrument and/ or ink are not available, the preparator tries
to match the colour of inks and nature of stroke. However, mostly he is not aware of
the fact that the inks though of the same colour are always not the same and they may
differ considerably in their dye composition.
Cases related to overwriting
Fraudulent overwriting are generally found in the following types of cases-
 When figures or words are changed to raise their value. E.g. figure 1 to 7, fig 3 to
8, 6 to 16 etc. the preparator may also overwrite the remaining figure or word of
the entry so that the tint of ink may appear the same and the difference of ink may
not be detected.
 When the entire writing or part of document are overwritten to conceal fraudulent
additions made with the ink having different shade other than the original writing.
 When a writer wants to disguise his signature or writing, he may overwrite letters
to conceal their original writing.
 When pencil or carbon outlines are converted to a traced forgery.
 Sometimes overwriting is purposely done to make the original writing unfit for
comparison or to conceal the original writing characteristics.
Examination of overwriting
Most of the overwriting can be detected by examining the document carefully under
direct light, by oblique light and transmitted light to find out any overlapping and
changed intensity of the strokes and under low power microscope to detect careful
joining, traces of original ink beneath the overwritten stroke and for differentiating
inks.
Sometimes an examination with UV rays, IR rays and colour filters may also prove
useful for this purpose. The examiner should never forget to examine the back of the
document, because overwriting are usually made cautiously by applying heavy pen
pressure causing embossing on the back of paper which may help a lot to reveal the
truth.

ADDITIONS
Additions in questioned documents refer to the act of adding new content to a
document after it has been created. These additions can range from inserting
additional text or numbers to including new signatures, stamps, or seals. Additions
may be made for legitimate reasons, such as providing updates or corrections, or they
may be fraudulent attempts to alter the document.
Addition in the document is defined as the insertion of any word, digit etc which
changes the meaning or value of the document. These insertions are made in such
spaces as may have been left blank in the regular entries either in the middle or at the
bottom of the page. If additional matter is written in a small space the size of letters
will be smaller and writing will appear cramped or if space is large enough then letters
are in large size to cover up the remaining space. In addition alteration the
examination can be done to identify the characteristic features of handwriting:
 size of letter,
 spacing and pen-strokes
 Colour ink should be made
Interlineations:
Interlineations defined as the writing between the lines of any instrument for the
purpose of adding to it or correcting what has been written. In examining
interlineations, the tint or colour of ink, quality of pen, size of letters, sequence of
crossing strokes and the parts of letters which come in contact with the originally
written letters should be minutely studied. The fraudulent entries are likely to differ
from the original or adjacent writing in size, slant and spacing and the shade of ink
etc.
Sheet insertion:
It is generally found that the public documents and accounts books, Basis of the
factories or offices are changes by insertion of extra or substituted pages. In such
cases, the paper should be examined with regard to its colour and shade, thickness,
calendar and water- mark. Secondly, the ink of the writing is observed under a
microscope. Thirdly, the line to line space of the line should be compared if the papers
are ruled ones.
The system of binding if damaged will also serve the purpose of detecting the
fraudulent substitution of the leaves.
The removal of a page from any document and substituting another in its place
containing matter having different meaning from that of the page removed is a kind of
fraud. The substituted page may have similar appearance of the colour of paper and its
composition may be different from other pages of the book. If the substituted
document is written by pen and ink the examination and comparison of the colour or
tint of ink, pen and the characters of the letter will reveal the forgery. If the inserted
sheet is a typed matter, the fraud may exposed by the shape, size and design of the
type. The typewriting may reveal that a different type of machine was used.
Some common methods of making additions in questioned documents:
Handwriting: Additions can be made by handwriting new content directly onto the
document using a pen or other writing instrument. This method allows for flexibility
in adding text numbers or other information in various locations on the document.
Typewriting: In documents created using typewriters, additions can be made by typing
new content onto the existing document. This may involve aligning the document
properly in the typewriter and typing the additional text or numbers in the
appropriate location.
Printing: In documents created using computer printers, additions can be made by
printing new content onto the existing document. This may involve editing the
document digitally and printing the revised version onto the original document or
attaching a separate printed page with the additional information.
Stamping or Sealing: Additions can be made by stamping or sealing the document
with additional information, such as a new date, signature, or approval stamp. This
method is commonly used in administrative or official documents to indicate
authorization or approval.
Pasting or Attaching: Additions can be made by pasting or attaching additional
materials, such as sticky notes, labels, or attachments, onto the original document.
This method allows for adding supplementary information without directly modifying
the original document.
Digital Editing: In electronic documents, additions can be made by digitally editing
the content using word processing software or other digital tools. This may involve
inserting new text, images, or other elements into the electronic file