Pascals Law: states that in a confined fluid at rest, the pressure is transmitted uniformly in all

directions.
Pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished in every direction throughout
the fluid and to the walls of its container.
Eg: Hydraulic Systems: Pascal's Law is the underlying principle behind hydraulic systems. By
applying a force to a small area (like pushing a piston), it generates pressure in the fluid, which
is then transmitted equally to all parts of the confined fluid, allowing for amplification of force
at another point (e.g., lifting a heavy object with a hydraulic lift).
Hydraulic Brakes, Hydraulic jacks

Laminar Flow (Re < 2000): In laminar flow, the fluid flows in smooth, parallel layers, with no
mixing between the layers. The flow is characterized by a constant velocity profile across the
pipe diameter. Laminar flow typically occurs at lower flow rates and is influenced by the
viscosity of the fluid and the diameter of the pipe. The Reynolds number (Re) is used to
determine if flow is laminar or turbulent, with Re < 2000 indicating laminar flow in a pipe.

Transitional Flow (2000 < Re < 4000): Transitional flow is a mix of laminar and turbulent
flow and is not well-defined. It occurs as flow transitions from laminar to turbulent.
Turbulent Flow (Re > 4000) : In turbulent flow, the fluid moves in an irregular, chaotic
manner, with eddies and vortices forming in the flow. Turbulent flow is characterized by higher
velocities and mixing between different layers of the fluid. Turbulent flow occurs at higher flow
rates and is influenced by factors such as the Reynolds number, pipe roughness, and velocity of
the flow. Turbulent flow can enhance heat and mass transfer but requires more energy to
maintain compared to laminar flow.
The metacentric height (GM) is the distance between the center of gravity (G) of a floating
object and its metacenter (M), which is the point at which its center of buoyancy intersects with
the centerline of the object when it is tilted in still water.
The metacentric height is crucial because it determines the stability of a floating body.
Metacentric height is positive, the body is stable, meaning that when it is tilted, a restoring
moment is generated that tends to return it to its original position.
Metacentric height is zero, the body is in neutral equilibrium, and any tilt will not create a
moment to right itself.
Metacentric height is negative, the body is unstable, and any slight tilt will cause it to capsize.
Buoyancy is the upward force exerted by a fluid (such as water or air) on an object that is
immersed or floating in it. This force is a result of the pressure difference between the top and
bottom of the object.
Buoyancy applications-designing ships and submarines, hot air balloons, and life jackets.

Archimedes' Principle: When an object is immersed in a fluid, it displaces a volume of fluid

Buoyant Force: The buoyant force always acts in the opposite direction to gravity, which is
why objects float in fluids. If the buoyant force is greater than the weight of the object, it will
float; if it is less, the object will sink.
Hydrostatic force is the force exerted by a fluid at rest on an object submerged or partially
submerged in it. This force arises due to the pressure difference between the top and bottom of
the object. The magnitude and direction of the hydrostatic force depend on the shape of the
submerged object and the density of the fluid.
Hydrostatic force applications- designing dams, retaining walls, and submerged structures. It is
also used in calculating the forces on submerged objects, such as ships, submarines.
Euler's momentum equation is a fundamental principle in fluid mechanics that describes the
change in momentum of a fluid element as it moves through a flow field. It is derived from
Newton's second law of motion applied to a fluid element and is expressed in vector form.
Applications- aerodynamics, hydrodynamics, and fluid flow in pipes and channels.

Bernoulli's equation states that the sum of the pressure energy, kinetic energy, and potential
energy per unit volume of an incompressible, steady flow of fluid remains constant along a
streamline.

A Venturi meter is a device used to measure the flow rate of fluid in a pipe.
By measuring the pressure difference between the entrance and throat of the Venturi meter,
the flow rate of the fluid can be determined

The Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics to predict the
flow behavior of a fluid in a given situation.
The Darcy-Weisbach equation is an empirical equation used to calculate the pressure loss
(or head loss) due to friction in a pipe or duct. It is commonly used in fluid mechanics and
engineering to determine the energy losses in a fluid system, such as in pipelines or ducts. It
depends on the Reynolds number of the flow and the roughness of the pipe wall.

Water hammer, also known as hydraulic shock, is a pressure surge or wave caused when a
fluid in motion is forced to stop or change direction suddenly. This phenomenon commonly
occurs in fluid systems, such as pipelines, when a valve is closed abruptly or a pump is
suddenly shut off.
Cause: the sudden change in momentum of the fluid. When the flow of fluid is abruptly stopped
or slowed down, the kinetic energy of the fluid is converted into pressure energy, creating a
pressure surge in the system.
Effects: Water hammer can lead to significant pressure spikes in the system, which can cause
damage to pipes, valves, and other components. It can also produce loud banging or knocking
noises in the pipes.
Prevention: Water hammer can be prevented or mitigated by using various techniques, such as
installing surge tanks, pressure relief valves, or water hammer arresters (also known as shock
absorbers). These devices help absorb the pressure surge and prevent damage to the system.
Eulerian and langrarian approach: In fluid dynamics, both the Eulerian and Lagrangian
approaches are used to analyze fluid motion, but they differ in their points of view and methods
of analysis.
Eulerian approach focuses on fixed points in space and observes how flow properties
(velocity, pressure, and density) change at those points over time.
Application: computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and experimental fluid mechanics to analyze
complex fluid flows
Lagrangian approach tracks the motion of individual fluid particles over time.
Applications: studying particle motion, dispersion, and mixing in fluid flows, studies of
turbulence
Three concepts are often used to describe the trajectory of fluid particles: streamlines,
pathlines, and streaklines
Streamline: is an imaginary line that is tangent to the velocity vector of the flow at every
point.
Streamlines do not cross each other, as that would imply that the fluid at a single point has
multiple velocities, which is not physically possible.

Pathline: is the actual path traced by a fluid particle as it moves through the flow field. It
shows the history of a fluid particle's motion over time, from its initial position to its current
position.
Streakline: is the path that a fluid element follows in a flow as it moves through a particular
point in space over time. Unlike streamlines, which represent the instantaneous velocity field at
a specific moment, streaklines show the history and trajectory of fluid elements that have
passed through a fixed point in the flow at different times.
Streaklines can be used to visualize how fluid parcels move and disperse in the flow field over
time.
In fluid dynamics, source, sink, doublet, vortex, and spiral flow are often used to describe
various flow patterns.
Source: is a point in a flow field from which fluid emanates radially outward in all directions. It
represents a flow pattern where fluid is continuously injected into the flow field from a single
point.
Sink: is the opposite of a source, where fluid flows radially inward towards a single point. It
represents a flow pattern where fluid is continuously removed from the flow field towards a
point.
Doublet: consists of a source and a sink placed close to each other, with equal strengths but
opposite directions. The flow pattern around a doublet resembles that of a line vortex, with fluid
flowing in along one axis and out along the other axis.
Vortex: is a flow pattern characterized by the rotation of fluid around an axis. Vortices can be
either clockwise (negative) or counter clockwise (positive) in direction and can vary in size and
strength.
Spiral Flow: is a combination of radial and rotational motion, where fluid spirals both radially
outward/inward and around a central axis. Spiral flow patterns are often seen in natural
phenomena like tornadoes and hurricanes.

The Magnus effect is a phenomenon in fluid dynamics and aerodynamics where a spinning
object experiences a sideways force perpendicular to the direction of its motion. This effect is
most commonly observed in sports such as soccer, tennis, and baseball, where the spin of the
ball causes it to curve in flight.
Cause: The Magnus effect is caused by the difference in air pressure on the two sides of a
spinning object. As the object spins, it creates a pressure difference between the side spinning
in the same direction as its motion (where the airspeed is increased) and the side spinning
against its motion (where the airspeed is decreased).
Direction of Force: The sideways force generated by the Magnus effect is perpendicular to both
the direction of the object's motion and the axis of rotation. The direction of the force depends
on the direction of spin: topspin creates a downward force, while backspin creates an upward
force.
Applications: The Magnus effect has several practical applications. In sports, it is used to
generate spin and curve in ball sports. In engineering, it is used in the design of rotating
machinery and vehicles to control airflow and improve performance.

The Joukowski theorem relates the flow around a circular cylinder to the flow around an
airfoil shape known as a Joukowski airfoil.
The Joukowski theorem states that the complex potential flow around a circular cylinder in a
uniform flow can be transformed into the complex potential flow around a certain type of airfoil
shape known as a Joukowski airfoil.
Applications: To analyze the flow around airfoils and to design efficient airfoil shapes. Used to
understanding lift generation and flow behavior around airfoils.

The boundary layer is a thin layer of fluid adjacent to a solid surface in which the fluid
velocity changes rapidly from zero at the surface to the free stream velocity away from the
surface. It forms due to the viscous effects of the fluid, which cause the fluid in direct contact
with the surface to come to a stop.
It affects the drag force on bodies moving through a fluid, heat transfer rates, and the
efficiency of fluid machinery.
Application: design of aircraft wings, turbine blades, and ship hulls.
Laminar Boundary Layer: fluid particles move in smooth, parallel layers, with little mixing
between layers. This type of boundary layer occurs at low flow velocities and is characterized
by a gradual increase in velocity from the surface to the free stream.
Turbulent Boundary Layer: fluid motion is chaotic, with eddies and vortices causing mixing
between fluid layers. This type of boundary layer occurs at higher flow velocities and is
characterized by a rapid increase in velocity from the surface to the free stream.
Boundary Layer Separation: Boundary layer separation occurs when the adverse pressure
gradient causes the boundary layer to separate from the surface, leading to flow reversal and
eddy formation.
Boundary layer separation can significantly increase drag and reduce the efficiency of
aerodynamic surfaces.
Bluff bodies have a rounded or square shape with a large cross-sectional area perpendicular
to the flow direction. This shape causes the flow to separate from the body's surface, creating a
region of low pressure behind the body.
A streamline body is a shape that is designed to minimize drag and improve aerodynamic
efficiency by smoothly guiding the flow of fluid (such as air or water) around it.
Application: Aircraft design, where wings, fuselages.
Poiseuille's law, describes the laminar flow of an incompressible, Newtonian fluid through a
cylindrical pipe.
A higher pressure gradient results in a higher flow rate.
The flow rate is proportional to the fourth power of the pipe radius.
The flow rate is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid.
FLIGHT DYNAMICS
Load Factor: The load factor, which is the ratio of the lift force to the weight of the aircraft,
increases in a level turn. The load factor is equal to 1 in straight and level flight, but it increases
with the cosine of the bank angle in a level turn.
The V-N diagram, also known as the velocity-notation diagram, is a graphical representation
used in aviation to depict the relationship between an aircraft's velocity (airspeed) and the
maximum allowable load factor (N) that the aircraft can sustain under different flight
conditions. The V-N diagram is important for understanding the structural limits of an aircraft
and for ensuring safe flight operations.
Load Factor (N): Load factor is the ratio of the lift force acting on an aircraft to its weight. In
straight and level flight, the load factor is 1 (N=1), indicating that the lift force is equal to the
weight of the aircraft. but it increases with the cosine of the bank angle in a level turn.
Maximum Load Factors: The V-N diagram shows the maximum allowable load factors that an
aircraft can sustain without risking structural damage. These limits are typically represented by
two lines on the diagram: the positive limit (n_max) and the negative limit (n_min).
Positive Load Factor: The positive limit (n_max) represents the maximum load factor that the
aircraft can sustain in the upward direction (positive G-force). Exceeding this limit can lead to
structural failure, especially during maneuvers like loops or pull-outs from a dive.
Negative Load Factor: The negative limit (n_min) represents the maximum load factor that
the aircraft can sustain in the downward direction (negative G-force). Exceeding this limit can
also lead to structural failure, particularly during maneuvers like inverted flight or abrupt
descents.
Cornering Speed: The V-N diagram also indicates the cornering speed, which is the airspeed
at which the maximum load factor can be sustained before stalling or exceeding structural
limits. Flying at or below the cornering speed allows the pilot to perform maneuvers safely.
Gust Loads: In addition to maneuvering loads, the V-N diagram may also include lines
representing the maximum allowable load factors in turbulent air (gust loads). These lines help
ensure that the aircraft's structure can withstand the forces encountered in turbulent
conditions.
In steady flight, an aircraft is in a state where all forces and moments acting on it are
balanced, resulting in a constant velocity, altitude, and heading. The equations of motion for
steady flight can be derived from Newton's second law of motion and the principles of
aerodynamics.
Range: Range is the maximum distance an aircraft can travel with its existing fuel load. It is an
important measure of an aircraft's ability to fly long distances without refueling. The range of
an aircraft is affected by factors such as fuel efficiency, cruise speed, and payload.
The range of an aircraft =Endurance× Cruise Speed
Endurance: Endurance is the maximum amount of time an aircraft can remain in the air with
its existing fuel load. It is a measure of how long an aircraft can loiter or remain on station
before needing to refuel. Endurance is affected by factors such as fuel efficiency, fuel capacity,
and cruise speed.
The endurance of an aircraft = Fuel Capacity/ Fuel Flow Rate
Where the fuel flow rate is typically given in units of fuel per hour (e.g., pounds per hour or
liters per hour).
Wing loading is a measure of the amount of weight (or load) that each unit area of an
aircraft's wing must support.
High wing loading indicates that each unit area of the wing is supporting a large amount of
weight, which can result in higher stall speeds and reduced maneuverability.
Low wing loading indicates that each unit area of the wing is supporting a smaller amount of
weight, which can lead to lower stall speeds and better maneuverability.
Wing Loading= Aircraft Weight/Wing Area
The dihedral effect is an aerodynamic phenomenon that occurs in aircraft with wings that are
angled upwards (positive dihedral angle) when viewed from the front. It causes the aircraft to
have a natural stability in roll, meaning that it tends to return to level flight after being
disturbed.
It provides a degree of lateral stability to an aircraft. When the aircraft rolls to one side due to a
disturbance such as a gust of wind, the higher wing experiences a greater increase in lift due to
its increased angle of attack, causing the aircraft to naturally roll back to level flight.
Weather cocking, also known as wind cocking, is an effect experienced by boats or aircraft
that causes them to align themselves with the direction of the wind.
Alignment with the Wind: When the wind blows on one side of the aircraft, it creates a side
force that tends to turn the aircraft into the wind.
Spiral divergence is a loss of visual reference with the horizon (often due to clouds, darkness,
or disorientation), coupled with a turn initiated by the pilot.
Dutch roll is a type of aircraft motion characterized by simultaneous rolling and yawing
oscillations.
Dutch roll is caused by a combination of lateral and directional stability characteristics of the
aircraft. It typically occurs when the aircraft has strong lateral stability (tendency to return to
wings-level flight) and weak directional stability (tendency to return to coordinated flight).
Aileron reversal occurs when the wings of a swept-wing aircraft stall asymmetrically at high
angles of attack. In a swept-wing configuration, the outboard wing section tends to stall before
the inboard section, leading to a loss of lift on the outboard wing and a drop in the wingtip.
THERMODYNAMICS
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third
system, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. This law establishes the concept
of temperature and is the basis for the definition of temperature scales.
First Law of Thermodynamics (Law of Energy Conservation): The total energy of an
isolated system is constant. Energy can be transferred into or out of the system in the form of
heat or work, but it cannot be created or destroyed.

Second Law of Thermodynamics: The total entropy of an isolated system can never
decrease over time. Entropy is a measure of the disorder or randomness of a system, and this
law implies that natural processes tend to increase the overall entropy of the universe.
Third Law of Thermodynamics: As the temperature of a system approaches absolute zero,
the entropy of the system approaches a minimum value. This law establishes the behavior of
entropy at low temperatures and the concept of absolute zero.
The Carnot cycle is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle that provides an upper limit on the
efficiency of heat engines. The Carnot cycle consists of four reversible processes:
Isothermal Expansion (1-2): In this process, the working substance (often a gas) absorbs heat
from a high-temperature reservoir at constant temperature (isothermal process) and expands,
doing work on the surroundings.
Adiabatic Expansion (2-3): The working substance continues to expand without exchanging
heat with the surroundings (adiabatic process) and cools down as it does work.
Isothermal Compression (3-4): The working substance is compressed at a lower temperature,
releasing heat to a low-temperature reservoir at constant temperature.
Adiabatic Compression (4-1): The working substance is further compressed without heat
exchange (adiabatic process) to return to its initial state.
Maxwell's relations are a set of equations in thermodynamics derived from the fundamental
equations of thermodynamics and are used to simplify calculations in thermodynamics and
statistical mechanics.
Thermodynamic systems are characterized by the transfer of energy and matter across their
boundaries.
Isolated System: An isolated system does not exchange energy or matter with its
surroundings. The total energy and mass of an isolated system remain constant.
Closed System: A closed system can exchange energy with its surroundings but not matter.
The total mass of a closed system remains constant, but its energy content can change.
Open System: An open system can exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings.
For example, a steam turbine receiving steam and exhausting it after doing work is an open
system.
Adiabatic System: An adiabatic system does not exchange heat with its surroundings.
However, it may exchange work and matter.
Isobaric System: An isobaric system operates at constant pressure.
Isothermal System: An isothermal system operates at constant temperature.
Isochoric System: An isochoric system operates at constant volume.
The Joule-Thomson effect, describes the temperature change of a gas or liquid when it is
forced through a valve or porous plug while kept insulated so that no heat is exchanged with
the environment.
Expansion of a Gas: When a gas expands without doing external work (such as when it flows
through a valve), it cools down if the gas is below its inversion temperature or heats up if it is
above its inversion temperature.
Inversion Temperature: The inversion temperature is the temperature at which the Joule-
Thomson coefficient of a gas is zero. Below this temperature, the gas cools upon expansion,
and above this temperature, the gas heats up upon expansion.
Critical Point: At temperatures above the critical point and pressures above the critical
pressure, the Joule-Thomson coefficient is always positive, meaning that the gas will always
heat up upon expansion, regardless of the initial temperature.