Unit-3

Topics – Contour and Remote Sensing

A contour line is an imaginary line which connects points of equal elevation. Such lines are drawn on the plan of an area after
establishing reduced levels of several points in the area. The contour lines in an area are drawn keeping difference in
elevation of between two consecutive lines constant. For example, Fig. 1 shows contours in an area with contour interval of 1
m. On contour lines the level of lines is also written. For example, the line of intersection of the water surface of a still lake or
pond with the surrounding ground represents a contour line. It facilitates depiction of the relief of terrain in a two
dimensional plan or map. The process of tracing contour lines on the surface of earth is called contouring. A contour map
gives the idea of the altitudes of the surface features as well as their relative positions in a plan.

Fig. 1

Contour interval: “The vertical distance between any two successive contours on a given map is called the contour interval”.
Contour intervals usually vary from 25 to 250 cm in engineering work. In rough country, the vertical distance between
contours is kept greater while in flat areas 25 to 50 cm contour intervals are used.

Horizontal Equivalent: The horizontal distance between two consecutive contours is termed as horizontal equivalent. It is not
a constant value and varies from point to point depending upon the steepness of the ground. Steeper the slope, lesser the
horizontal equivalent.

Properties/Characteristics of contours
The contours have the following characteristics:
1. Contour lines must close, not necessarily in the limits of the plan.
2. Widely spaced contour indicates flat surface.
3. Closely spaced contour indicates steep ground.
4. Equally spaced contour indicates uniform slope.
5. Irregular contours indicate uneven surface.
6. Approximately concentric closed contours with decreasing values towards centre (Fig. 1) indicate a pond.
7. Approximately concentric closed contours with increasing values towards centre indicate hills.
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8. Contour lines with U-shape with convexity towards lower ground indicate ridge (Fig. 2).
9. Contour lines with V-shaped with convexity towards higher ground indicate valley (Fig. 3).
10. Contour lines generally do not meet or intersect each other.
11. If contour lines are meeting in some portion, it shows existence of a vertical cliff (Fig. 4).

Methods of Contouring:
1. Direct method 2. Indirect method
Direct Method
The field work is of two-fold Vertical control Horizontal control
Vertical control
• The points on the contours are traced either with the help of a level and staff or with a help of a hand level.
• The staff is kept on the B.M. and the height of the instrument is determined.
• Calculate the staff reading For example if height of the instrument is 101.8m means the staff reading will be 1.80m
• Taking one contour at a time the staff man is directed to keep the staff on the point on contour so that readings of 1.80m
are obtained every time.

Horizontal control
• After having located the points on various contours, they are to be surveyed with a survey control system.
• For small area chain survey may be used and points may be located by offsets.
• In a work of a larger nature a traverse may be used.

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Indirect Methods
In this method, levels are taken at some selected points and their levels are determined.
Thus in this method horizontal control is established first and then the levels of those points are found out. After locating the
points on the plan, reduced levels are marked and contour lines are interpolated between the selected points. For selecting
points anyone of the following methods may be used:
(a) Method of squares, (b) Method of cross-section, or (c) Radial line method.

Method of Squares: In this method area is divided into a number of squares and all grid points are marked. Commonly used
size of square varies from 5 m × 5 m to 20 m × 20 m. Levels of all grid points are established by levelling. Then grid square is
plotted on the drawing sheet. Reduced levels of grid points marked and contour lines are drawn by interpolation.

Method of Cross-section: In this method cross-sectional points are taken at regular interval. By levelling the reduced level of
all those points are established. The points are marked on the drawing sheets, their reduced levels (RL) are marked and
contour lines interpolated. The spacing of cross-section depends upon the nature of the ground, scale of the map and the
contour interval required. It varies from 20 m to 100 m. Closer intervals are required if ground level varies abruptly. The
crosssectional line need not be always be at right angles to the main line. This method is ideally suited for road and railway
projects.

Radial Line Method: Several radial lines are taken from a point in the area. On these lines at selected distances points are
marked and levels determined. This method is ideally suited for hilly areas. In this survey theodolite with tacheometry facility
is commonly used.

Uses of Contour Maps: Contour maps are extremely useful for various engineering works:
1. A civil engineer studies the contours and finds out the nature of the ground to identify.
2. Suitable site for the project works to be taken up.
3. By drawing the section in the plan, it is possible to find out profile of the ground along that line. It helps in finding out
depth of cutting and filling, if formation level of road/railway is decided.
4. Cost estimates can be made with the help of the contour maps.
5. Intervisibility of any two points can be found by drawing profile of the ground along that line.
6. The routes of the railway, road, canal or sewer lines can be decided so as to minimize and balance earthworks.
7. Catchment area and hence quantity of water flow at any point of nalla or river can be found. This study is very important in
locating bunds, dams and also to find out flood levels.
8. Contours may be used to determine area of the catchments and the capacity of the reservoir.
9. In agricultural work, contours maps are useful as guide lines in planning land improvement project. The tile drainage
system can be conveniently planned whit contour maps.

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REMOTE SENSING Remote Sensing is the collection of information relating to objects without being in physical contact with
them. Thus our eyes and ears are remote sensors, and the same is true for cameras and microphones and for many
instruments used for all kinds of applications Or, said another way: Remote sensing is the process of acquiring
data/information about objects/substances not in direct contact with the sensor, by gathering its inputs using
electromagnetic radiation or acoustical waves that emanate from the targets of interest. An aerial photograph is a common
example of a remotely sensed (by camera and film, or now digital) product. Introduction: The sun is a source of energy or
radiation, which provides a very convenient source of energy for remote sensing. The sun's energy is either reflected, as it is
for visible wavelengths, or absorbed and then reemitted, as it is for thermal infrared wavelengths. There are two main types
of remote sensing: Passive remote sensing and Active remote sensing. Passive remote sensing: Passive sensors detect natural
radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding area being observed. Reflected sunlight is the most Passive
1-Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding area being observed.
Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors. Examples of passive remote sensors
include film photography, infrared, and radiometers. Active remote sensing: It is on the other hand, emits energy in order to
scan objects and areas whereupon a sensor then detects and measures the radiation that is reflected or backscattered from
the target. RADAR is an example of active remote sensing where the time delay between emission and return is measured,
establishing the location, height, speeds and direction of an object.

Components of Remote Sensing

i. Energy Source or Illumination (A) - The first requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy source which illuminates
or provides electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.
ii. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) - As the energy travels from its source to the target, it will come in contact with and
interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction may take place a second time as the energy travels from the
target to the sensor.
iii. Interaction with the Target (C) - Once the energy makes its way to the target through the atmosphere, it interacts with the
target depending on the properties of both the target and the radiation.
iv. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - After the energy has been scattered by, or emitted from the target, we require a
sensor (remote - not in contact with the target) to collect and record the electromagnetic radiation.
v. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - The energy recorded by the sensor has to be transmitted, often in electronic
form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are processed.
vi. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - The processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally or electronically, to extract
information about the target, which was illuminated. vii. Application (G) - The final element of the remote sensing process is
achieved when we apply the information we have been able to extract from the imagery about the target in order to better
understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a particular problem.

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 Principle of Remote sensing
Applications of Remote Sensing There are probably hundreds of applications - these are typical:
1. Meteorology - Study of atmospheric temperature, pressure, water vapour, and wind velocity.
2. Oceanography: Measuring sea surface temperature, mapping ocean currents, and wave energy spectra and depth
sounding of coastal and ocean depths Glaciology- Measuring ice cap volumes, ice stream velocity, and sea ice distribution.
(Glacial)
3. Geology- Identification of rock type, mapping faults and structure.
4. Geodesy- Measuring the figure of the Earth and its gravity field.
5. Topography and cartography - Improving digital elevation models.
6. Agriculture Monitoring the biomass of land vegetation
7. Forest- monitoring the health of crops, mapping soil moisture
8. Botany- forecasting crop yields.
9. Hydrology- Assessing water resources from snow, rainfall and underground aquifers.
10. Disaster warning and assessment - Monitoring of floods and landslides, monitoring volcanic activity, assessing damage
zones from natural disasters.
11. Planning applications - Mapping ecological zones, monitoring deforestation, monitoring urban land use.
12. Oil and mineral exploration- Locating natural oil seeps and slicks, mapping geological structures, monitoring oil field
subsidence.
13. Military- developing precise maps for planning, monitoring military infrastructure, monitoring ship and troop movements
14. Urban- determining the status of a growing crop
15. Climate- the effects of climate change on glaciers and Arctic and Antarctic Regions
16. Sea- Monitoring the extent of flooding
17. Space program- is the backbone of the space program.

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