 Module 3 Properties of Fresh and Hardened Concrete – (Continues)

Strength
The strength of the concrete is the maximum amount of load it can carry
without failure. Concrete is designed according to the strength required for the
structures. High quality concrete provides high strength.

Factors Affecting Strength of Concrete

Concrete strength is affected by many factors, such as quality of raw materials,
water/cement ratio, coarse/fine aggregate ratio, age of concrete,
compaction of concrete, temperature, relative humidity and curing of
concrete.

Quality of Raw Materials

Cement: Provided the cement conforms with the appropriate standard and it
has been stored correctly (i.e. in dry conditions), it should be suitable for use in
concrete.
Aggregates: Quality of aggregates, its size, shape, texture, strength etc
determines the strength of concrete. The presence of salts (chlorides and
sulphates), silt and clay also reduces the strength of concrete.
Water: frequently the quality of the water is covered by a clause stating “..the
water should be fit for drinking..”. This criterion though is not absolute and
reference should be made to respective codes for testing of water
construction purpose.

Coarse / fine aggregate ratio

Following points should be noted for coarse/fine aggregate ratio:
 If the proportion of fines is increased in relation to the coarse aggregate,
the overall aggregate surface area will increase.
 If the surface area of the aggregate has increased, the water demand
will also increase.
 Assuming the water demand has increased, the water cement ratio will
increase.

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  Since the water cement ratio has increased, the compressive strength
will decrease.

Age of concrete
The degree of hydration is synonymous with the age of concrete provided the
concrete has not been allowed to dry out or the temperature is too low. In
theory, provided the concrete is not allowed to dry out, then it will always be
increasing albeit at an ever reducing rate. For convenience and for most
practical applications, it is generally accepted that the majority of the strength
has been achieved by 28 days.

Compaction of concrete
Any entrapped air resulting from inadequate compaction of the plastic
concrete will lead to a reduction in strength. If there was 10% trapped air in the
concrete, the strength will fall down in the range of 30 to 40%.

Temperature
The rate of hydration reaction is temperature dependent. If the temperature
increases the reaction also increases. This means that the concrete kept at
higher temperature will gain strength more quickly than a similar concrete kept
at a lower temperature. However, the final strength of the concrete kept at
the higher temperature will be lower. This is because the physical form of the
hardened cement paste is less well structured and more porous when
hydration proceeds at faster rate. This is an important point to remember
because temperature has a similar but more pronounced detrimental effect
on permeability of the concrete.

Curing
It should be clear from what has been said above that the detrimental effects
of storage of concrete in a dry environment can be reduced if the concrete is
adequately cured to prevent excessive moisture loss.

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Elastic behavior of concrete
Like many other structural materials, concrete is, to a certain degree, elastic.
A material is said to be perfectly elastic if strain appears and disappears
immediately on application and removal of load .This does not imply a linear
stress-strain relation. Concrete behaves nearly elastically when load is first
applied.
Concrete is not a perfectly elastic material. The stress-strain behavior of
concrete is bit complex. It depends on the magnitude of load, rate of load
application, and time of loading. Modulus of elasticity of concrete indicates
stiffness of the concrete that has an impact on the strength.

Shrinkage of concrete

Creeping of concrete
Creep Definition Concrete creep is defined as: deformation of structure under
sustained load. Basically, long term pressure or stress on concrete can make it
change shape. This deformation usually occurs in the direction the force is
being applied. Like a concrete column getting more compressed, or a beam
bending.

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Factors Affecting Creep of Concrete
Concrete creep is influenced by several factors that can significantly impact
its long-term performance. Understanding these factors is important for
designing and constructing durable concrete structures. Here are six key
factors that affect the creep of concrete:

1. Water-cement ratio: The water-cement ratio is a crucial factor that affects

the creep of concrete. Higher water-cement ratios lead to increased creep
since it results in more water available for chemical reactions and increased
pore space within the concrete.
2. Humidity: The humidity levels affect the drying process of concrete, which
influences its creep behavior. Higher humidity levels slow down the drying
process, resulting in reduced creep, while lower humidity levels accelerate
drying and increase creep.
3. Age of concrete: The age of concrete at the time of loading has a direct
impact on its creep behavior. Younger concrete tends to exhibit higher

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 creep due to its higher moisture content and ongoing hydration processes,
while older concrete generally experiences lower creep.
4. Aggregate: The type and characteristics of the aggregate used in concrete
construction can influence its creep behavior. Aggregates with higher
porosity or different thermal expansion coefficients can result in increased
creep.
5. Admixtures: The use of chemical admixtures in concrete can affect its
creep behavior. Some admixtures, such as shrinkage-reducing admixtures,
can reduce creep by minimizing shrinkage and cracking in the concrete.
6. Environmental Exposure and Curing: Curing conditions and environmental
exposure during and after the concrete placement can impact its creep
behavior. External factors like temperature, humidity, and exposure to
chemicals, as well as concrete mix design, can influence its creep behavior.

Durability of Concrete

The ability of concrete to withstand the conditions for which it is designed

without deterioration for a long period of years is known as durability.
OR Durability of concrete may be defined as the ability of concrete to resist
weathering action, chemical attack, and abrasion while maintaining its
desired engineering properties.

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Factors Affecting Durability of Concrete

Following are the factors affecting durability of concrete.

1. Cement Content
2. Aggregate Quality
3. Water Quality
4. Concrete Compaction

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 5. Curing Period
6. Permeability
7. Moisture
8. Temperature
9. Abrasion
10. Carbonation
11. Wetting and Drying Cycles
12. Freezing and Thawing
13. Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
14. Sulfate Attack
15. Organic Acids

1. Cement Content
 Quantity of cement used in concrete mix will also be a factor affecting
durability of concrete.
 If cement content used is lower than the required, then water cement
ratio becomes reduced and workability also reduced.
 Adding more water to this mix results in formation capillary voids which
will make concrete as permeable material.
 If excess cement content is used, problems like drying shrinkage, alkali-
silica reaction may occur which finally effects the durability of concrete.

Fig 1: Cement Content

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2. Aggregate Quality
 Use of good quality aggregates in concrete mix will surely increase the
durability of hardened concrete.
 The shape of aggregate particles should be smooth and round. Flaky
and elongated aggregates effects the workability of fresh concrete.
 For better bond development between ingredients rough textured
angular aggregates are recommended but they require more cement
content.
 Aggregate should be well graded to achieve dense concrete mix.
 Aggregates should be tested for its moisture content before using. Excess
moisture in aggregate may lead to highly workable mix.

Fig 2: Aggregates

3. Water Quality
 Quality of water used in concrete mixing also effects the durability of
concrete. In general, potable water is recommended for making
concrete.
 pH of water used shall be in the range of 6 to 8.
 Water should be clean and free from oils, acids, alkalies, salts, sugar,
organic materials etc.
 Presence of these impurities will lead to corrosion of steel or deterioration
of concrete by different chemical reactions

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 Fig 3: Adding Water to Concrete Mix
4. Concrete Compaction
 While placing concrete, it is important to compact the placed concrete
without segregation.
 Improperly compacted concrete contain number of air voids in it which
reduces the concrete strength and durability.

Fig 4: Compacting Fresh Concrete

5. Curing Period
 Proper curing in initial stages of concrete hardening result in good
durability of concrete.
 Improper curing leads to formation of cracks due to plastic shrinkage,
drying shrinkage, thermal effects etc. thereby durability decreases.

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 Fig 5: Drying Shrinkage due to Poor Curing
6. Permeability
 Concrete durability gets affected when there is a chance of
penetrability of water into it.
 Permeability of water into concrete expand its volume and lead to
formation of cracks and finally disintegration of concrete occurs.
 Generally concrete contains small gel pores and capillary cavities.
However, gel pores do not allow penetration of water through them
since they are of very small size.
 But, capillary cavities in concrete are responsible for permeability, which
are formed due to high water cement ratio.
 To prevent permeability, lowest possible water cement ratio must be
recommended.
 Use of pozzolanic materials also helps to reduce permeability by filling
capillary cavities.

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 Fig 6: Capillary Absorption in Concrete Block

7. Moisture
 Moisture present in the atmosphere will also affects durability of
concrete structures.
 Efflorescence in concrete occurs due to moisture, which will converts
salts into soluble solutions and when it evaporates salts become
crystallized on the concrete surface.
 This will definitely damages the concrete structure and durability will be
reduced.

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 Fig 7: Efflorescence in Concrete
8. Temperature effects
 Concrete is heterogeneous material, when fresh concrete is subjected
to high temperature rate of hydration gets affected and strength and
durability becomes reduced.
 Concrete ingredients have different thermal coefficients, so at higher
temperatures, spalling and deterioration of concrete happens.

Fig 8: Thermal Cracks in Concrete

9. Abrasion
 Deterioration of concrete also occurs due to severe abrasion.
 When concrete is subjected to rapidly moving water, steel tires, floating
ice continuously wearing of surface occurs and durability gets affected.
 Higher the compressive strength higher will be the abrasion resistance.

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 Fig 9: Abrasion of Concrete
10. Carbonation
 When moist concrete is exposed to atmosphere, carbon dioxide present
in atmosphere reacts with concrete and reduces pH of concrete.
 When pH of concrete reaches below 10, reinforcement present in the
concrete starts corroding.
 Corrosion of reinforcement causes cracks in concrete and deterioration
takes place.

Fig 10: Carbonated Concrete

11. Wetting and Drying Cycles
 When concrete is exposed to alternate wetting and drying conditions
such as tidal waves from sea etc. secondary stresses are developed in
concrete.

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  Due to these stresses cracks will form and reinforcement is exposed to
atmosphere.
 When chlorides or sulfates from sea water meets reinforcement corrosion
occurs and durability of concrete is reduced.
 Use of low-permeable concrete, proper cover for reinforcement can
prevent this type of problems.

fig 11: Concrete affected by alternate Wetting and Drying

12. Freezing and Thawing

 When fully saturated concrete is exposed to repeat cycles of freezing of
thawing, it is deteriorated by the action of freezing and softening of
water in it.
 It causes cracking on concrete surface in the form of maps which is
called map cracking and effects durability of concrete.
 The coarse aggregate present the concrete also effected by freeze and
thaw cycles, spalling of concrete may occurs.
 In this case, durability of concrete can be achieved by adding air-
entraining admixtures to the mix and also reduce the maximum size of
coarse aggregate.

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 Fig 12: Concrete affected by Freezing and Thawing

13. Alkali Aggregate Reaction

 Alkali-aggregate reaction or alkali-silica reaction, takes place between
alkali content of cement and silica content of aggregates is also a major
factor effecting durability of concrete.
 Due to this reaction, Concrete expansion occurs which finally lead to
severe cracking and concrete gets deteriorated.
 Use of cement with less alkali content, Non-reactive aggregates,
pozzolanic materials like fly ash or slag cement, Lithium-based admixture
in concrete will help to overcome this problem.


Fig 13: Alkali-Aggregate Reaction

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14. Sulfate Attack
 When concrete structures are attacked by sulfates like sodium sulfate,
magnesium sulfate etc. concrete disintegration happens.
 This reaction is due to the chemical reaction between hydrated cement
products and sulfate solutions.
 Sulfate attack generally happens when water used for concrete mix
contains high sulfate content, Due to unwashed aggregates, when soil
around the concrete structure contains sulfates in it etc.
 This can be prevented by using sulfate resisting cement, by adding slag
cement, by decreasing permeability etc.

Fig 14: Spalling of Concrete due to Sulfate Attack

15. Organic acids

 When concrete surface is subjected to organic acids like acetic acid,
lactic acid, butyric acid etc., concrete durability gets affected severely.
 Formic acid on concrete surfaces can lead to corrosion of concrete.

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 Fig 15: Acid Attack on Concrete Floor

Chemical and physical attacks on concrete

When a concrete structure is prone to chemical actions, its durability gets
affected. The chemicals may cause cracking of concrete, volume change
and deterioration of structure. The life of structure reduces and it can lead to
failure of structures. Different types of chemical attacks and their effects on
concrete structures are explained below.

Concrete is vulnerable to multiple mechanisms of physical attack that may lead to

deterioration over time and potential failure1. Physical processes that can cause damage to
concrete include1:
 Non-structural cracking
 Salt crystallization
 Freezing and thawing
 Abrasion and erosion
 Thermal exposure

Types of chemical attacks on concrete structures

Following are the different chemical actions on concrete structures
 Sulphate attack
 Chloride attack
 Alkali aggregate reaction
 Carbonation
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  Acid attack

Sulphate attack on concrete

Most of the soil types contains sulphates in the form of calcium, magnesium,
sodium, ammonium and potassium. They occur in soil or ground water. When
a concrete structure is built on these types of soils, they may attack the
concrete. Generally, sulphates in solid form do not attack the concrete
severely but when they are in liquid form, they pass into the voids of concrete
and react with hydrated cement products. Calcium sulphate causes minimum
damage because of its low solubility while magnesium sulphate causes
maximum damage. Most of the sulphates attacks calcium hydroxide and
hydrated calcium aluminates present in the concrete and results in changing
the volume of cement paste in concrete. Hence deterioration of concrete
structure takes place. Along with calcium hydroxide, Magnesium sulphate also
reacts with hydrated calcium silicate and makes concrete into powdered
mass

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Precautions
Concrete with low water cement ratio is less affected by magnesium sulphate
while high water cement ratio concrete is highly affected. Sulphate-resisting
Portland cement should be used where sulphates are present in the soil, water
or atmosphere and come into contact with the concrete. Super-sulphated
cement, made from blast furnace slag, can also be used although it is not
widely available. This cement can resist the highest concentrations of
sulphates.
Chloride attack on concrete

Chloride attack on concrete is one of the important aspects of durability of

concrete. It primarily affects the reinforcement of concrete and cause
corrosion. Chlorides can be introduced into the concrete either during or after
construction as follows.
1. Before construction Chlorides can be admitted in admixtures containing
calcium chloride, through using mixing water contaminated with salt
water or improperly washed marine aggregates.
2. After construction Chlorides in salt or sea water, in airborne sea spray
and from de-icing salts can attack permeable concrete causing
corrosion of reinforcement.

The chloride in the presence of water and oxygen reacts with alkaline
protected layer around the reinforcement and removes it.

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Alkali-Aggregate reaction on concrete

Alkali aggregate reaction is the chemical reaction between alkali in cement

and silica content of aggregates. Hence it can also be called as Alkali Silica
reaction. When this reaction takes place, a gel like substance is formed which
absorbs water and volume of concrete will increase. This increasing volume
develops cracking and disintegration of concrete. BS8110: Part 2, clause
6.2.5.4, states that the Alkali Silica reaction only occurs when the following are
present together:
1. Concrete with high moisture level.
2. When cement contains high alkali content in it.
3. Aggregate with Alkali reactive constituents.

Precautions
The code recommends that the following precautions be taken if uncertainty
exists:
1. Reduce the Saturation of concrete.
2. Usage of Low alkali Portland cement.
3. Use replacement cementitious materials such as blast furnace slag or
pulverized fuel ash. Most normal aggregates behave satisfactorily.
Carbonation in concrete
When the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere penetrates into concrete and
reacted with calcium hydroxide to form calcium carbonate then this process
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is called carbonation. In general concrete with high alkali content form a
protective layer around the reinforcement. However, when the carbon dioxide
changes into dilute carbonic acid it reduces the alkalinity as a result the
corrosion of reinforcement takes place.

Carbonated concrete has a pH value of 8.3 while the passivation of steel starts
at a pH value of 9.5. (pH value is the term, widely used in chemistry, biology,
and agronomy, that translates the values of the concentration of
the hydrogen ion into numbers between 0 and 14). The depth of Carbonation
in good dense concrete is about 3 mm at an early stage and may increase to
6–10 mm after 30–40 years. Poor concrete may have a depth of Carbonation
of 50 mm after say 6–8 years. The rate of Carbonation depends on
 Time
 Depth of cover
 Concrete density
 Cement content
 Water-to-cement ratio
 The presence of cracks
The depth of carbonation is determined using the solution of phenolphthalein
in diluted alcohol. When the solution is applied the Non – carbonation zones
becomes pink in color and remaining uncolored portion is termed as carbon
affected zone.

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Acid attack on concrete
Acids can attack concrete easily since concrete is not fully resistant against
acids. Some acids like oxalic acid, phosphoric acids are not harmful to the
concrete. Calcareous aggregates are more affected by acids while siliceous
aggregates are good resistant. The damage level is purely depends upon the
pH of the acid solution. Damage is very severe if the pH value is very low. If they
reach reinforcement through crack or pores, they will cause corrosion of bars
and cracking of concrete will occur.

Prevention of acid attack

To prevent acid attack good dense concrete with adequate cover is required
and sulphate-resistant cements should be used in location that are prone to
sulphate attack.

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