KIBABII UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES (FESS)

E-LEARNING PROGRAMME

CSC 110

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTING

AUTHORS

DORCUS ARSHLEY SHISOKA

PROF. FRANKLIN WABWOBA

DR. SAMUEL MUNGAI MBUGUAH

ISBN 978-9966-59-019-0
KIBU is ISO 9001: 2015 Certified
Copyright@KIBABII UNIVERSITY, 2019
All Rights Reserved
About the Authors

MS. DORCUS ARSHLEY SHISOKA is a Lecturer and Chair of

Computer Department in the School of Computing and Informatics in
Kibabii University. She has MSc in Software Engineering from
University of Sunderland. She published several papers in refereed international
journals. She is a professional member of Association of Computing machinery
(ACM).

PROF. FRANKLIN WABWOBA is an Associate Professor and Dean

of School of Computing and Informatics in Kibabii University. He has
PhD in Information Technology from Masinde Muliro University of
science and Technology. He has co-authored three University Text
books and published several papers in refereed international journals. He
professional member of Association of Computing machinery (ACM).

DR. SAMUEL MUNGAI MBUGUAH is a Senior Lecturer and Director of

Information communication technology in Kibabii University. He has PhD
in Information Technology from Masinde Muliro University of science and
Technology. He has co-authored three University Text books
and published several papers in refereed international journals. He is a Chartered
Engineer and professional member of British computer society (BCS) and
Association of Computing machinery(ACM).

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Acknowledgements

We thank the almighty God giving us the gift of intelligence and the tenacity to apply this
gift. We thank the Kibabii University Management and Council for facilitating the writing
of this module. We also thank our families for their patience when we had to withdraw
from them to write the module. We also acknowledge the sources from which data was
collected and various Universities and Colleges that gave us an opportunity to teach
Fundamentals of Computing; from the teaching notes developed this module emerged.

3
Foreword
As the world becomes more digital there is need to develop alternative methods of
content delivery to diverse students, where space and time is not a limitation. It should
also be noted that there is an increasing trend for the working class to go back to school
without taking a break from their normal duties. It‘s in the consideration of such
students that Kibabii University in their performance contract, contracted to develop
modules that could be used for E-Learning or ODEL.

For students to successfully undertake any undergraduate course and also be able
to surf in this digital era, they require Fundamentals of Computing skills. This
module is meant to meet this need. The aim of module is to ensure that our
students are in position to apply basic computer knowledge in their day to day
lives and interact with other electronics with ease.

Prof. Isaac Odeo Ipara

Vice Chancellor
Kibabii University

4
Welcome Note from Chair of Department
Welcome to the Department of Computer Science that is one of the Departments in
the School of Computing and Informatics. The Department houses this
Fundamentals of Computing module which is offered as a University wide course.
The Course is meant to enable students have basic knowledge and skills of
computers.

These skills will enable the students to: write course papers, interact with electronic
gadgets with ease, use the electronic library and write their project work. It will
empower the students to fit into this digital world where the concept of e-
government is now a reality and the Kenya Government is introducing laptop to
primary school students. The future is digital, please use these modules to acquire
basic skills required to prepare for your future.

Ms. Dorcus Arshley Shisoka

5
Advanced Organizer

Course Description
Welcome t o this Module. The entire C S C 110 course will cover the a r e a s of:
Characteristics of computers, the evolution of computers, survey of computer
technologies and application; introduction to hardware, basic computer
organization, data representation, processor and memory, peripheral devices;
introduction to software, programming languages, operating systems, and
application software; introduction to data communication. We will explore these
areas using the topics below.

Topic 1: Introduction to Computers 6 Hours

Section 1: Introduction to Computers

Section 2: Definition of terms
Section 3: Evolution of Computers
Section 4: Classification of Computers
Section 5: Characteristics of Computers
Section 6: Applications of Computers
Section 7: Advantages and Disadvantages of Computers

Topic 2: The Basic Computer Hardware 12 Hours

Section 1: The Basic Computer Organization, I/O, Processor, Memory and Buses
Section 2: Introduction to Computer hard ware
Section 3: Input Devices and Criteria for Selection
Section 4: Output Devices
Section 5: Processing Devices, CPU Functions and Components
Section 6: Primary Memory and Types
Section 7: Secondary Memory
Section 8: Storage Devices

Topic 3: Basic Computer Software 9 Hours

Section 1: Introduction to Computer Software

Section 2: Software Systems, Operating Systems, Utility Software and Device
Drivers
Section 3: Application software, Word processor, Databases, Spreadsheets &

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 Presentation
Section 4: Programming Languages

Topic 4: Data processing Modes 3 Hours

Section 1: Introduction to Data Processing
Section 2: Data Processing Modes

Topic 5: Data Communication and Networks 6 Hours

Section 1: Introduction to Data Communication

Section 2: Data Communication Elements
Section 3: Introduction to Networks
Section 4: Types of Networks and Network Topologies

Topic 6: Data Representation 6 Hours

Section 1: Introduction to Data representation

Section 2: Binary, Octal, Decimal, Hexadecimal number systems
Section 3: ASCII, EBCDIC, UNICODE

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Introduction to the Module
This Module is called CSC 110: Fundamentals of Computing. This is a first year
first semester course housed in the Department of Computer Science but offered to
the entire first year students at the University.

Course Aim
The course introduces the learner to the computer as an electronic device, and helps
the learner to be familiar with the computer as a system besides equipping them
with computer literacy skills.

Course Objectives
By the end of the course, the learner should be able to:

i. Explain the characteristics and purposes of all the computer sub-units

ii. Categorize the different types of computers
iii. Explain the applications of computers to different fields and explain the
impacts of computers to the society.
iv. Discuss the basic computer organization
v. Explain the numbers systems; perform binary arithmetic and
the conversions to different basis
vi. Demonstrate the use of networks and data communication facilities.

Working through the Module

Welcome to CSC 110: Fundamentals of Computing. This module is organized in

topics. Each topic has various sections and subsections that are tailored to help you
realize the objectives. In order to benefit more from this module, you will be
required to exercise high levels of concentration. It is therefore advisable that you
organize and use your time well. Kindly take note of the amount of time allocated
per topic as this will enable you project on how to use your time well. At the end of
every topic, there are a set of questions which you will be required to attempt.
There are also activities to reflect on. The questions and activities will assess your
understanding of all that is contained in that particular topic. Dear learner, this is a
user friendly module. It gives you a chance to allow yourself to be shaped by its
contents. It is my sincere hope that as you interact with this module you will enjoy
yourself. Welcome aboard!

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 Course Evaluation
Since this is not a practical course, this module will be assessed through Continuous
Assessment Tests (CATs) and a final examination. The CATs will account for 30% of
your final score while the final examination will account for 70% of your score. There
will be 2 assignments and 2 Sit in Continuous Assessment Tests (CATs). The Final
Examination is a Sit in. Note that as a student, you are expected to score a mark of 40%
and above for you to be considered as having passed this course.

Course Materials and R e s o u r c e s

Other materials other than the module, e.g. computers, library journals, smart phones
and the internet

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABOUT THE AUTHORS .................................................................................................................. 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................... 3
FOREWORD ....................................................................................................................................... 4
WELCOME NOTE FROM CHAIR OF DEPARTMENT ............................ 5
ADVANCED ORGANIZER ............................................................................................................. 6
COURSE DESCRIPTION ................................................................................................................. 6
INTRODUCTION TO THE MODULE ......................................................................................... 8
COURSE AIM ..................................................................................................................................... 8
COURSE OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................... 8
WORKING THROUGH THE MODULE ..................................................................................... 8
COURSE EVALUATION .................................................................................................................. 9
COURSE MATERIALS AND RESOURCES ................................................................................. 9
TABLE OF CONTENTS. ................................................................................................................ 10
TOPIC ONE ...................................................................................................................................... 13
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS ......................................................................................... 13
1.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 13
1.2 OBJECTIVES.................................................................................................................................. 13
1.3 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS ............................................................................................... 14
1.4 DEFINING A COMPUTER? .......................................................................................................... 15
1.4.1 Definition Data, Information and Program ..................................................................16
1.5 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS .............................................................................................. 17
1.5.1 Abacus 500bc .....................................................................................................................17
1.5.2 Mechanical Calculator 1642 .............................................................................................18
1.5.3 Jacquards Automated Loom 1801 ...................................................................................19
1.5.4 Differential Engine 1800s .................................................................................................19
1.5.5 Electromechanical Punched Card Equipment 1880.................................................20
1.6 COMPUTER GENERATIONS ................................................................................................... 21
1.6.1 First Generation (1946-1956) .......................................................................................21
1.6.2 Second Generation (1957-1963) ...................................................................................23
1.6.3 Third Generation (1965-1974) ..........................................................................................24
1.6.4 Fourth Generation (1979-1989) .......................................................................................25
1.6.5 Fifth Generation (1990- Present) .................................................................................26
1.7.1 Classification According to Functionality ....................................................................28
1.7.2 Classification of Computers According to Size ............................................................30
1.7.3 Classification of Computers Based on Purpose ............................................................34
1.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS .......................................................................................... 35
1.9 APPLICATION AREAS OF COMPUTERS...................................................................................... 36
1.10 ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS ............................................................................................... 40

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 TOPIC TWO ........................................................................................ 44
BASIC C O M P U T E R HARDWARE................................................... 44
2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 44
2.2 OBJECTIVES ......................................................................................................................... 44
2.3 BASIC COMPUTER SYSTEM ......................................................................................... 46
2.3.1 Information Processing Cycle ..................................................... 46
2.4 COMPUTER HARDWARE ................................................................................................ 47
2.4.1 Input Devices ................................................................................ 48
2.4.2 Processing Devices ...................................................................... 58
2.4.2.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU)................................................ 59
2.4.2.2 Registers ..................................................................................... 64
2.4.2.3 Bubble Memory .......................................................................... 66
2.4.2.4 Holographic (Optical) Memory................................................ 66
2.4.2.5 Cache Memory ........................................................................... 66
2.4.2.6 Buses ........................................................................................... 67
2.4.2.6.1 Address Bus .......................................................................... 67
2.4.3 OUTPUT DEVICES ..................................................................................................................... 68
2.4.3.1 Printers ........................................................................................ 68
2.4.3.2 Plotters ........................................................................................ 74
2.4.3.3 Monitors ...................................................................................... 75
2.4.4 Storage Devices ............................................................................. 78
2.4.4.1 Backing Storage ......................................................................... 78
2.4.4.2 Solid State Storage Devices ................................................... 85
TOPIC THREE ..................................................................................... 88
THE BASIC COMPUTER SOFTWARE ................................................... 88
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SOFTWARE ..................................................... 89
3.1.1 SYSTEM SOFTWARE .................................................................................................. 90
3.1.1.1 Operating System (OS) ............................................................ 91
3.1.1.2 Translators .................................................................................. 99
3.1.1.3 Assemblers ................................................................................ 99
3.1.1.4 Utility Programs: ..................................................................... 100
3.1.2 APPLICATION SOFTWARE ..................................................................................... 101
3.1.2.1 General/Ready-Made Software ......................................... 101
3.1.2.2 Custom/Bespoke Software Packages ................................. 103
3.2 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES: ................................................................................ 105
TOPIC FOUR ..................................................................................... 109
DATA PROCESSING..................................................................... 109
4.1 DATA PROCESSING MODES..................................................................................... 110
4.2 BATCH PROCESSING .................................................................................................. 111
4.2.1 Advantages .................................................................................. 111
4.2.2 Disadvantages ............................................................................. 112
4.3 TIME SHARING SYSTEM ........................................................................................... 112
4.3.1 Advantages ................................................................................ 113
4.3.2 Disadvantages ............................................................................. 114
4.3.3 Desirable Features of Time Sharing ........................................ 114
4.4 MULTITASKING OR MULTIPROGRAMMING ..................................................... 114
4.4.1 Advantages .................................................................................. 114

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 4.4.2 Disadvantages................................................................................................................. 115
4.5 ONLINE PROCESSING SYSTEM ............................................................................................ 115
4.6 OFFLINE PROCESSING SYSTEMS........................................................................................... 115
4.7 DISTRIBUTED DATA PROCESSING (MULTI-PROCESSING) ................................................. 115
4.7.1 Benefits of DDP .............................................................................................................. 115
4.7.2 Disadvantages................................................................................................................. 116
4.8 C E N T R A L I Z E D AND DECENTRALIZED DATA PROCESSING
116
4.9 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING T H E DATA
PROCESSING MODE ........................................................................................................................ 116
TOPIC FIVE................................................................................................................................... 119
DATA COMMUNICATION ...................................................................................................... 119
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION ....................................................................... 120
5.2 TRANSMISSION MEDIA. ............................................................................................................ 121
5.2.1 Guided Media. ................................................................................................................ 121
5.2.2 Un –Guided Media........................................................................................................ 124
5.3 BASIC ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM .............................................................. 124
5.4 NETWORK.................................................................................................................................. 125
5.4.1 Important Terms Used in Networking ....................................................................... 126
5.4.2 Types of Networks ......................................................................................................... 128
5.4.3 Network Topologies ..................................................................................................... 128
CHAPTER SIX .............................................................................................................................. 139
DATA REPRESENTATION ....................................................................................................... 139
6.1 I N T R O D U C T I O N................................................................................................................ 140
6.1.1 BinaryNumbers………………………………………………....................................... 141
6.1.2 Octal Numbers...................................................................................................................... 143
6.1.3 Hexadecimal Numbers (HEXA) ..................................................................................... 143
6.2 Computer Arithmetic ................................................................................................. 159
6.2.1 Sign and Magnitude Codes .......................................................................................... 161
6.2.3 Ones and Twos Complementation .............................................................................. 162
6.2.4 The Subtraction Operation ............................................................................................ 167
6.2.5 Multiplication of Binary Number ................................................................................ 169
6.2.6 Binary Division ............................................................................................................... 170
6.3 BINARY CODES ........................................................................................................................ 171
6.3.1 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)....................................................................................... 171
6.3.2 Excess-Three: Binary –Decimal-Code.......................................................................... 174
6.3.4 Alphanumeric Codes ..................................................................................................... 179
7.0 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 182
8.0 SAMPLE PAPERS .................................................................................................................. 185

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 TOPIC ONE

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

1.1 Introduction
This topic introduces you to the computer, here you get to define what
a computer is. It also introduces you to the history of the evolution of
the computer as a machine. After which you will be walked through the
details of the classifications of computers their uses as well as
advantages and disadvantages. The topic has seven sections namely:

  Introduction to Computers
  Definition of terms
  Evolution of Computers
  Classification of Computers
  Characteristics of Computers
  Applications of Computers
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Computers

1.2 Objectives
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:

1) Define a computer
2) Explain the evolution of computing technology and the technological
advancement in computer architecture to current technologies
3) Explain the characteristics of computers and how they are different from
humans.
4) Explain the different types of computers categorized based on size, price and
capabilities

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 Activity 1

a). What comes to your mind as a learner when you hear the mention of the word
computer?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

b). How many types of computers do you know of?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

Topic overview
You will notice that there are varied definitions of what a computer is. However, this
topic is designed to help you understand what a computer is and its application in real
life. We will then move to discuss the sections in this topic, welcome.

1.3 Introduction to Computers

Everywhere you go today, you will realize that human beings are employing the
use of machines in their daily lives to an extent that today someone can wash, cook,
do research and be entertained using machines. This means the human race is
embracing the use of machines without being threatened at all, which implies that
the machine which was earlier considered a threat has now become a necessary
evil. This machine that is closely replacing the human is called a computer. In the
next section we get to define what a computer is so as to bring out its
understanding and why we need it.

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1.4 Defining a Computer?
Computer is an abbreviation that stands for Commonly Operated Machine Used in
Trade, Education and Research. This description actually tells us more about where
it was mainly first being used before it became a common place tool. A computer is
defined as an electronic device that receives data, stores it, processes it and
produces information with a high degree of accuracy and speed under a set of
instructions. It can perform activities that involve mathematical, logical and
graphical manipulations. Generally, the term is used to describe a collection of
devices that function together as a system.
A computer is thus a general-purpose machine that processes data according to a
set of instructions. The set of instructions is called a "program." When most people
talk about computers today, they are referring to electronic digital computers, such
as personal computers, laptops, handheld computers, or large business computers.
The term "digital" means that it uses computations based on binary digits. Binary is
a number notation system that uses the numbers "0" and "1" in various
combinations. Electronic circuits use "on" or "off‖ electrical conditions to represent
binary numbers ―1‖ or ―0‖ internally within a computer.

Electronic digital computers process digital information at fantastic speeds. Many

of today's computers, even desktop computers, have internal processing speeds of 2
GHz (Gigahertz) or more. Compared with the UNIVAC 1 (1951) speed of less than
3 MHz(Megahertz), this is a fantastic advancement in technology in less than 40
years. This drastic development in the computing industry has made it to be known
as the dynamic industry.

Almost all computers today are electronic digital computers. In fact, there are over
500 million electronic digital computers. However, not all computers are digital
and neither are all computers are electronic.

A Computer therefore is an electronic device that can perform activities that

involve Mathematical, Logical and graphical manipulations. Generally, the term is
used to describe a collection of devices that function together as a system. It
performs the following three operations in sequence.

 It receives data & instructions from the

input device.

  Processes the data as per instructions.
 Provides the result (output) in a desired form.

15
The devices that are used to provide the input to the computer are called input
devices. The part of the computer that performs the processing is called the central
processing unit or CPU. While the devices that display the results of the CPU are
called output devices.

Now, let us understand the definition of other terms used together with
the computer.

1.4.1 Definition Data, Information and Program

Data: It is the collection of raw facts, figures & symbols. Data can be defined as a
representation of facts, concepts or instructions in a formalized manner, which
should be suitable for communication, interpretation or processing by human or
electronic machine.

Data is represented with the help of characters like alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9)
or special characters (+, -, /, *, <,>, =, etc.). Example: Names of students and their
marks in different subjects listed in random order.

Information: It is the data that is processed & presented in an organized manner.

Example: When the names of students are arranged in alphabetical order, total and
average marks are calculated & presented in a tabular form, it is information.
Information is organized or classified data so that it has some meaningful values to
the receiver. Information is therefore processed data on which decisions and
actions are based. For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must
qualify the following characteristics:

1) Timely - Information should be available when required.

2) Accuracy - Information should be accurate.
3) Completeness - Information should be complete.
4) Program-Set of instructions that enable a computer to perform a given task.

Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or machine

to increase their usefulness & add values for particular purpose. Since data
processing is a process it‘s nice to understand what the process entails.

16
Therefore, data processing consists of basic steps input, processing, output and
storage. These four steps that constitute the data processing cycle are as follows:

Input - In this step, the input data are prepared in some convenient form for
processing. The form will depend on the processing machine. For example, when
electronic computers are used, the input data could be recorded on any one of
several types of input mediums, such as magnetic disks, tapes and so on.

Processing - In this step, input data are changed to produce data in a more useful
form. For example, pay-checks may be calculated from the time cards or a
summary of sales for the month may be calculated from the sales orders.

Output -Here, the results of the proceeding processing step are collected. The
particular form of the output data depends on the use of the data. For example,
output data may be pay- checks for employees.

Storage –In this step the output is preserved for future reference and could be
retrieved for the same.

1.5 Evolution of Computers

The history of the computer has come a long way; the development of computer
from historical perspectives can be classified into the mechanical and electronic era.
The mechanical era being the time prior to the discovery of the electronic devices the
thermionic diode and valve. Following this argument, we discuss the origin of the
computer to date.

1.5.1 Abacus 500BC

The abacus is one of the earliest known computational devices and can be traced to
ancient Babylonia. Although abacus is over 2,000 years it remains useful today in
certain business and elementary schools where students are leaning arithmetic. The
abacus is the most ancient calculating device known. It has endured over time and is
still in use in some countries. An abacus consists of a wooden frame, rods, and beads.
Each rod represents a different place value—ones, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so
on. Each bead represents a number, usually 1 or 5, and can be moved along the rods.
Addition and subtraction can easily be performed by moving beads along the wires
of the abacus.

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The Abacus

1.5.2 Mechanical Calculator 1642

It’s nice to note that each time technology becomes obsolete there is
advancement, so from the Abacus an improvement was discovered: the mechanical
calculator.

In 1642, the Frenchman Blasé Pascal invented a mechanical device that functioned
as an adding machine. Known as the machine Arithmetique, the device was
constructed of interlocking gears that represented the numbers 0 through 9. It
operates like an odometer, which records an automobiles mileage. About 30 years
later, Gottfriet Von Leibniz, a German mathematician, improved on Pascal‘s
invention by producing a machine which could add, subtracts, multiply, divide and
extract roots. However, no one knew how to manufacture such precision machines.
A mechanical calculator, or calculating machine, was a mechanical device used to
perform automatically the basic operations of arithmetic. Most mechanical
calculators were comparable in size to small desktop computers and have been
rendered obsolete by the advent of the electronic calculator.

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A Mechanical Calculator

1.5.3 Jacquards Automated Loom 1801

Next in line was, Joseph Marie Jacquard who perfected the automated loom. The
loom was controlled by a "chain of cards", a number of punched cards, laced
together into a continuous sequence. Multiple rows of holes were punched on each
card, with one complete card corresponding to one row of the design. Using holes
punched into this series of connected cards he was able to control the weaving of
fabrics. The loom used in this process sensed the pattern coded into the cards and
wove the fabric accordingly.

Jacquards Automated Loom 1801

1.5.4 Differential Engine 1800s

Butit will shock you to discover that the English inventor Charles Babbage,
Lucasian professor of mathematics at Cambridge University in
England, proposed a machine which was later named The Analytic Engine. For this
discovery, Babbage is referred to as the father of computers. However, despite ten
years‘ work, Babbage failed to build a fully operational model as it
was incredibly complex machine that was 100 years ahead of his time. Not until
1854 did George Pehr Schuetz build a working model.

19
Analytical Engine

1.5.5 Electromechanical Punched Card Equipment 1880

Sometime after the above discovery, the US Census Bureau asked Herman
Hollerith to find a way to speed up the processing of census data. Hollerith
created punched cards that resemble today‘s computer cards, their code, and
tabulating equipment. The 1890 census was completed in approximately 3 years
rather than 11 years the Census Bureau had originally estimated. A punched
card, or Hollerith card is a piece of stiff paper that contained either commands
for controlling automated machinery or data for data processing applications.
Both commands and data were represented by the presence or absence of holes
in predefined positions.

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 Activity 2

As we finish this section, try and think of local ways you used in your school for
computation and list them below

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………….……………………………………

Have there been any improvements through innovations, what are you using for
computation today?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………….……………………………………

By now you should discover that there are various gadgets that are being used as
computers that do not compare with the early days. Due to this improvement we
now classify machines

1.6 Computer Generations

Having seen the early innovations of computers it is good to explore the computer
generations. The computer generations refer to electronic era duration where
computers started using electronic devices.

1.6.1 First generation (1946-1956)

Computers technology mushroomed in the early 1950`s, in 1951, the UNIVAC
(Universal Automatic Computer) was introduced. These computers were constructed
of vacuums tubes, were big and bulky, and generated a lot of heat. Magnetic drums
were used for internal storage. Memory was limited to as little as 2K systems, at times
unreliable because of problems created by heat; and there were

21
 many maintenance problems. Punched cards were used to input information; the
operating system had very limited capabilities. Machine language and low level
assemblers’ language were used in programming these computers. The major
users were Government, universities, and Major Corporation for financial and
statistical programs run in a batch processing.

The main features of First Generation are:

 Vacuum tube technology operating systems were very slow

 Unreliable

 Supported Machine language only

 Very costly

 Generate lot of heat

 Slow Input/output device

 Huge size

 Need of air conditioning

 Non-portable

 Consumed lot of electricity

Example;
  ENIAC
 EDVAC
 UNIVAC
 IBM-701
 IBM-650

First Generation Computer

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 The first generation computers had their own disadvantages and these

led to the advancement into second generation computers

1.6.2 Second Generation (1957-1963)

The computers were made smaller, faster, and easier to program, produced lesser
heat and had greater operating capacity. They were constructed using transistors
instead of vacuum tubes. Magnetic core instead of drum memory was used which
made the memory larger up to 8-20K or larger. The magnetic tape systems were
developed and marketed. Single job batch processing was used by most systems.
Some systems permitted multiple users to access the systems concurrently
(timesharing). COBOL and FORTRAN languages (high- level languages) and
report program generators was available in some systems. The main features of
Second Generation are:

  Use of transistors
  Reliable as compared to first generation computers
  Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
  Generate less heat as compared to first generation computers
  Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
  Faster than first generation computers
  Still very costly
 A.C. needed

Support machine and assembly languages Some computers of this generation were:
  IBM 1620
  IBM 7094
  CDC 1604
  CDC 3600
 UNIVAC 1108

23
 This technology in the second generation did not hold for long and it did
not take time before it was upgraded to what was referred to as third generation
computers

1.6.3 Third Generation (1965-1974)

These computers were constructed of microminiaturized integrated circuits instead
of transistors. Solid state as well as magnetic core memories were used this
increased the memory to in excess of a megabyte (1024 bytes). Magnetic disks were
more widely used than magnetic tapes for random access online processing of files.
Multiple programs were executed concurrently (multiprogramming). Batch and
online time-sharing application run concurrently. Some computers had more than
one CPU (multiprocessing).
The main features of Third Generation are:

  IC used
  More reliable
  Smaller size
  Generate less heat
  Faster
  Lesser maintenance
 Still costly

Air conditioning needed Consumed lesser electricity Support high-level language

Some computers of this generation were:

 IBM-360 series

24
  Honeywell-6000 series
  PDP (Personal Data Processor)
  IBM-370/168
 TDC-316

With time this machines were faced out and replaced with fourth
generation computers

1.6.4 Fourth Generation (1979-1989)

These computers are constructed of large scale integrated circuits. They have
similar abilities to third generation computers except they have more internal
memory of several megabytes. Microcomputers became to be known as personal
computers. Operating system is complex but user friendly. More time sharing than
single user systems, have excellent support for databases. In this generation, Time
sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating System were used. All the
higher level languages like C and C++, DBASE, etc., were used in this generation.
The main features of Fourth Generation are:

  VLSI technology used

  Very cheap
  Portable and reliable
  Use of PC's Very small size Pipeline processing
  No air conditioning needed
 Concept of internet was introduced

25
  Great developments in the fields of networks
 Computers became easily available

Some computers of this generation were:

  DEC 10
  STAR 1000
  PDP 11
  CRAY-1 (Super Computer)
 CRAY-X-MP (Super Computer)

The major thrust of the fifth generation computers is the dawn of

distributed computing system and the merging of telecommunications with
computing technology

Activity 3
What is distributed computing?

………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

1.6.5 Fifth Generation (1990- Present)

These are computers being developed; they are the true artificial intelligence (AI)
computers. The technology employed is ULTA high ICS, Voice recognition,
26
 expert systems and internet based systems. In the fifth generation, the VLSI
technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the
production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components. AI is
an emerging branch in computer science which interprets means and methods of
making computers think like human beings. All the higher level languages like C
and C++, Java, .Net, etc., are used in this generation.
AI includes:

  Robotics
  Neural networks
 Game playing
  Development of expert systems to make decisions in real life situations.
 Natural language understanding and generation.

The main features of Fifth Generation are:

 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of natural language processing
 Advancement in parallel Processing
  Advancement in superconductor technology
  More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rate

Some computers types of this generation are:

  Desktop
 Laptop
  Note book
  Ultra book
 Chrome book

Research shows that the trend in computer technology revolution is that there is;

  Continual decrease in computer size

  Improved speed and power processing
 Decrease in computers and the related facilities cost

27
Attempt the questions below;

1. The second generation of computers used

(a) Vacuum tubes (b) Capacitors (c) Transistors (d) Integrated circuits

2. The third generation of computers used

(a) Vacuum tubes (b) Capacitors (c)Transistors (d) Integrated circuits

3. The analytical engine was the vase for the modern digital computer in which
year was is developed?

(a) 1833 (b) 1933 (c) 1923 (d) 1893

Having known the various computer generations let us now look at the
types of computers available today and how do we classify them?

1.7 T y p e s of Computers
Here it will be important to know that manufacturers‘ offer many shapes and sizes
of computer systems, but the many models can be broadly classified using various
classification criteria. Computers are classified according to Functionality, Size and
power and Purpose.

1.7.1 Classification according to Functionality

For example, using type of data handled computers can be classified as:

 Analogue Computers
 Digital Computers

28
  Hybrid Computers

1.7.1.1 Analogue Computers

This is a computer in which numbers and values are represented by physical
measurable quantities such as voltages. They perform arithmetic and analogical
operations by measuring physical changes i.e. temperature or pressure. It measures
values of continuously variable quantities. It is common in scientific work.

1.7.1.2 Digital Computers

These are computers in which data is represented in digital or number form. Here
the computers operate on digital data by performing arithmetic and logical
operations on the data. They recognize data by counting discrete signals
representing either on or off (0 or 1). Digital computers can be divided into general
and dedicated computers. Computers which combine features of analog and digital
types are called hybrid computers.

1.7.1.3 Hybrid Computers

A hybrid is cross breed between two breeds. In computers this refers to computers
are designed to handle both discrete and analogue. They are meant to merge the
strong points of analogue such as simulation and digital computers ease of
changing from one program into another.

29
Using a diagram differentiates between analog and digital signals?

The next subsection carries the major group of computers in use today

1.7.2 Classification of Computers according to Size

This was done based on storage capacity, speed, and cost and processing power.
Under these classification computer systems are classified as supercomputers,
mainframes, minicomputers, microcomputers and portable computers. These are
discussed as below:

1.7.2.1 Super Computer

These have extremely large storage capacities and computing speeds which are at
least 10 times faster than other computers. These are used for large scale numerical
problems in scientific and engineering disciplines such as electronics, weather
forecasting etc. The first super computer was developed in U.S.A. by CRAY
computers. This computer is not used as a PC in a home neither by a student in a
college. Governments specially use this type of computer for their different
calculations and heavy jobs. Different industries also use this huge computer for
designing their products. In most of the Hollywood‘s movies it is used for
animation purposes. This kind of computer is also helpful for forecasting weather
reports worldwide. They are known for von Newman‘s design i.e. multiple
processor system with parallel processing. In such a system a task is broken down
and shared among processes for faster execution. They are used for complex tasks
requiring a lot of computational power.

30
1.7.2.2 Mainframe Computers
A mainframe is another giant computer after the super computer and can also process
millions of instruction per second and capable of accessing billions of data. They are
physically very large in size with very high capacity of main memory. This computer is
commonly used in big hospitals, airline reservations companies, and many other huge
companies prefer mainframe because of its capability of retrieving data on a huge
basis. They can be linked to smaller computers and handle hundreds of users they are
also used in space exploitation. The term mainframe was mainly used for earliest
computers as they were big in size though today the term is used to refer to large
computers. A large number of peripherals can be attached to them. They are expensive
to install because they support a large number of terminals for use by a variety of users
simultaneously. They are known to have large storage and high computing speed (but
relatively lower than the super computers). What was prominent for these computers
was the ability to be linked into a network.

31
1.7.2.3 Mini Computers
This one is a medium sized computer with moderate cost, and used for large
volume applications. It can serve multi-users simultaneously. They are smaller than
the mainframe but bigger than mini computers. They support concurrent users.
They can be used as servers in companies. They are slower and less costly
compared to main frame computers but more powerful, reliable and expensive
than microcomputers.

1.7.2.4 Micro Computers

A microcomputer is the smallest general purpose processing system. Micro
computers are also referred as ―personal computers (PC). They are o f a d v a n c ed
t e c h n o l o g y i . e . The micro era based on large scale integration that confines
several physical components per small elements thumb size IC, hence the size
reduced. It is the smallest of the three computers. They are usually called personal
computers since they are designed to be used by individuals. The m i c r o c h i p t e c
h n o l o g y has enabled re d u c t i o n of s i z e o f computers. Microcomputers can
be a desktop, laptop, notebooks, or even palmtop:

O Notebook Computer: An extremely light weight personal computer. Notebook

computers typically weigh less than 6 pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a
briefcase se. Aside f r o m size and portability, notebook computers use a variety of
techniques, known as flat- panel technologies, to produce a light weight and non-
bulky display screen.

O Desktop Computer is an independent personal computer that is made especially

for use on a desk in an office or home. The term is used mainly to distinguish this
type of personal computer from portable computers and laptops, but also to
distinguish other types of computers like the server or mainframe.

32
 O Laptop: A small portable computer light enough to carry comfortably, with a flat
screen and keyboard that fold together. Laptops are battery- operated, often have a
thin, backlit or side lit LCD display screen, and some models can even mate with a
docking station to perform as a full-sized desktop system back at the office.
Advances in battery technology allow laptop computers to run for many hours
between charges, and some models have a set of business applications built into
ROM. Today's high- end (Advanced) laptops provide all the capabilities of most
desktop computers.

O Palmtop: A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size
computers, palmtops are severely limited, but they are practical for certain
functions such as phonebooks and calendars. Palmtops that use a pen rather than a
keyboard for input are often called hand-held computers or PDAs. Because of their
small size, most palmtop computers do not include disk drives. However, many
contain PCMCIA slots i n which you can insert disk drives, modems, memory, and
other devices. Nowadays palmtops are being integrated into the mobile phones as
multipurpose devices.

These are self-contained units and usually developed for use by one person at a
time but can be linked to very large systems. They are cheap, easy to use even at
homes and can be read for variety of applications from small to medium range.
These are available in three models:

  PC: Personal Computer

  PC-XT: PC with Extended Technology
 PC-AT: PC with Advanced Technology

1.7.2.4.1 Personal Computers

Personal Computer: A personal computer has a Monitor (VDU), a keyboard, Disk
Drive (s), printer and CPU. The CPU of PC has a mother board with several chips
mounted on a circuit board. The major components of the circuit board are:
Microprocessor, RAM and ROM chips and other supporting circuits. Microprocessor:
The Microprocessor chip is like a brain of human being which contains circuits and
registers to perform arithmetic, logic and control functions. i.e. it contains ALU & CU.
These chips will be able to retrieve data from the input output devices, store,
manipulate and process a byte of data at a time. There is an address bus which is built
into these chips to determine the storage locations (of RAM) of the data and the
instructions of the program. Over the years, different microprocessors

33
were developed and the first in the series is INTEL 8080. The other processors are
8088, 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium I, II, III and Pentium 4. The Pentium 4 can
execute any piece of code that ran on the original 8088, but it does it about 5000
times faster. Clock Speed: This is speed with which an instruction is executed, or
the number of pulses per second. It is measured in terms of million pulses per
second (MHZs). The following table gives the differences among the different
processors that Intel has introduced over the years:

S/No. Microprocessor Date Transistors Clock speed Data width

1 8080 1974 6000 2MHZ 8 bits

2 8088 1979 29,000 5 MHZ 16bits8-bit bus

3 80286 1982 134,000 6 MHZ 16 bits

4 80386 1985 275,000 16 MHZ 32 bits

5 80486 1989 1,200,000 25 MHZ 32 bits

6 Pentium I 1993 3,100,000 60 MHZ 32 bits,64-bit bus

7 Pentium II 1997 7,500,000 233 MHZ 32 bits,64-bit bus

8 Pentium III 1999 9,500,000 450 MHZ 32 bits,64-bit bus

9 Pentium 4 2000 42,000,000 1.5 GHZ 32 bits,64-bit bus

10 Pentium 4-P2004 125,000,000 3.6 GHZ 32 bits 64-bit bus

Now days we have fully 64 bits with 64-bit bus. With the number of
computers doubling if 18 months based on Moore’s law, the multi-core computers
are now the in thing.

1.7.3 Classification of Computers based on Purpose

Computers can also be classified according to the type of work the meant to do.

34
1.7.3.1 General Purpose
These are computers built for a variety of processing jobs i.e. they are capable of a
variety of tasks. The computer can be put to different uses by changing the software
(program). General purpose computers are both used for scientific and industrial
application. They are developed to meet the requirements of several areas such as
simulation, solving mathematical equations, payroll and personnel database.

1.7.3.2 Special Purpose

These are computers specifically to perform specialized tasks e.g. weather
forecasting and the generation of weather maps.

1.7.3.3 Dedicated
These are computers even though they can perform various tasks; they are
dedicated to specific application like word processing.

Activity 1: Jog your memory with the quiz below.

Which one of the following types of computers is commonly used in offices?

(a) Supercomputers (b) Mainframe (c) Minicomputer (d) Micro computer
(b) Computers have continued to decrease in size but the processing power has
increased, true or false?

1.8 Characteristics of Computers

Although they are machines, computers show a variety of characteristics that
give them a competitive edge compared to the human. These include:

1. Speed–a computer is a very fast machine. It can perform in a very few

seconds the amount of work that a human being can do in a year if he/she
worked day and night doing nothing else.

35
 2. Accuracy – the computer accuracy is consistently high.

3. Diligence–computers are free from monotony, tiredness and lack of

Concentration etc. It can therefore work for hours without creating an error.
For example, if 10 million calculations are to be done, a computer will do the
tenth million calculations with exactly the same speed and accuracy as the
first one.

4. Versatility – a computer performs various tasks with ease. I.e. it can Search for
a letter, the next moment prepare an electricity bill, and write a report next
then do an arithmetic calculation all with ease.

5. Power of remembering–a computer can store and recall any information due
to its secondary storage capability.6. No intelligence Quotient (IQ) – a
computer cannot make its own decisions and has to be instructed on what to
do.

6. No feelings–computers are devoid of emotions. They have no feelings or

instincts and none possesses the equivalent of a human heart and soul.

In y o u r o w n u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w a r e c o m p u t e r s d i f f e r e n t
f r o m human beings.

1.9 Application Areas of Computers

Areas where computers are used are:

Business

The computer's characteristic as high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy,

reliability, or versatility has made it an integrated part in all business organization.
Computer is used in business organization for:

36
  Payroll calculations
 Budgeting sales analysis
  Financial forecasting
 Managing employees‘ database
 Maintenance of stocks, etc.

Banking

Today, Banking is almost totally dependent on computer. Banks provide

following facilities:

 Banks on-line accounting facility, which includes current balances, deposits,

overdrafts, interest charges, shares and trustee records.

 ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.

Insurance

Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of
computers. The Insurance companies, Finance houses and Stock broking firms are
widely using computers for their concerns.
Insurance Companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information
showing:

  How to continue with policies

  Starting date of the policies
  Next due installment of a policy
  Maturity date
  Interests due
  Survival benefits
 Bonus

Education

 The computer has provided a lot of facilities in the Education System.



 The uses of computer provide a tool in the Education system known as CBE
(Computer Based Education).

37
  CBE involves control, delivery and evaluation of learning.

 The computer education is very familiar and rapidly increasing the graph of
computer students.


 There are number of methods in which educational institutions can use
computer to educate the students.


 It is used for prepare a database about student performance and analyses are
carried out.

Marketing

a) Advertising: With computers, advertising professionals create art and

graphics, write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal
of selling more products.

b) Home shopping: Home shopping has been made possible through use of
computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and
permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.

c) Health care: Computers have become important part in all Medical Systems.
The computers are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and
medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG,
EEG, Ultrasounds and CT Scans, etc., are also done by computerized
machines. Some of major fields of health care in which computers are used:

 Diagnostic system: Computers are used to collect data and identify

cause of illness.

 Lab-diagnostic system: All tests can be done and reports are
prepared by computer.


 Patient monitoring system: These are used to check patient's signs for
abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.

 Pharma Information System: Computer checks drug-labels, expiry dates,
harmful drug side effects, etc.

38
  Computers are also used in performing surgery.

Engineering
Computers are widely used in engineering purposes. One of major areas is CAD
(Computer Aided Design). CAD provides creation, edition, and modification of
image. Some fields are:

a) Structural Engineering: Requires stress and strain analysis required for

design of Ships, Buildings, Budgets, Airplanes, etc.

b) Industrial Engineering: Computers deal with design, implementation and

improvement of integrated systems of people, materials and equipment‘s.

c) Architectural E n g i n e e r i n g : Computers h e l p i n p l a n n i n g t o w n s
, d e s i g n i n g b u i l d i n g s , determining a range of buildings on a site
using both 2D and 3D drawings.

Military
Computers are largely used in defense. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc.,
employ computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has
been used are:

  Missile control
  Military communication
  Military operation and planning
 Smart weapons Communication

Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that is

received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant.
Some main areas in this category are:

  E-mail Chatting Usenet FTP Telnet

 Video-conferencing

Government: Computers play an important role in government applications.

Some major fields in this category are:

39
Budgets: Sales tax department Income tax department Male/Female ratio
Computerization of voters lists

Others are:
  Computerization of Driving Licensing system
  Computerization of PAN card
 Weather Forecasting.

1.10 Advantages of Computers

Advantages of using computers in business applications are:
 Process tasks at a high speed therefore quick responses stores a lot
of information yet can be accessed very fast.

 They work for long periods of time without getting tired hence same level of
efficiency in performing tasks.

 Some activities can be automated hence leaving personnel to attend to
 critical matters
 They are high accurate in their working hence precise reports

 They can be used to perform a varied of tasks thus reducing the expense of
purchasing a machine for each and every tasks

Advantages of computerization in an organization are:


 Handling errors easily.
  Easy storage and retrieval of information.
  Increased efficiency.
  Higher quality work. Reducing cost.
  Fast processing of information
  Sharing information
  Increased accuracy Improved moral of workers Reliability
 Quick access and retrieval of data/ information

1.11 The Disadvantages of Computers

 No Intelligent Quotient: A computer is a machine and has no intelligence of

its own to perform any task. Therefore, each and every instruction has to be
given to the computer because a computer cannot take any decision on its
own.

40
  Dependency: It can perform function as instructed by user, so it is fully
dependent on human being.

 Environment: The operating environment of computer should be dust -
free and suitable to it.

 No Feeling: Computer has no feeling or emotions therefore it cannot make
judgment based on feeling, taste, experience and knowledge unlike a human
being.

Reasons why people may resist the introduction of computers at their place of work
are:
  Computers may lead to lack of jobs.
  Computers require skilled manpower.
  Computers have adverse effect on our health.
  Fear of change.
  Fear of failure.
  Lack of understanding.
 Loss of control fear

Summary

In this topic you have learnt that a computer is an electronic device that converts
data into information. In defining the computer, we related it to data, information,
and program. We went further and looked at the evolution of computers. We were
able to classify the computer before exploring the characteristics of the computer as
well as the applications in daily lives.

In topic 2, we will discuss the Basic Computer hardware, that is, the physical
tangible parts of the computer. We will also look at each group of computer
hardware available, for example, the input devices, output devices, processing
devices and storage devices. But before you go topic 2, let us see how well you have
understood topic 1.

41
 Self-check
1) Define the computer (3marks)
2) Briefly explain the characteristics of the computer (7marks)
3) Explain the various major advances in computing technology since 1946 to
the present. (10 marks)
4) Using size as a characteristic explain the various characteristics of
machines under this classification (10 marks)

Scoreboard
Marks Remarks
25–30 Excellent
20–25 Very Good
15–20 Good
10–15 Fair
0- 10 Go through the topic again

Further Reading

Chemwa, G. and Mburu, S. (2012). Introduction to Computers. London:

Longhorn publishers.

Learning Outcomes

You have now completed topic one, the learning outcomes are
listed below;

Check (√) the column which reflects your understanding of the various concepts
about writing.

42
 S/No Learning Outcome Sure Not Sure
1 I can now explain what a computer is

2. I can discuss the history of

computers to date
3 I can identify the different
characteristics of computers

4. I can now classify computers according

to the known classifications

5. I can discuss the application of

computers in daily lives.

If you have checked the ―not sure‖ column, please go back and study that section
in the topic before proceeding.

If you are ―sure‖ then you are ready for the next topic.

Congratulations you can proceed to the next topic.

TOPIC TWO

BASIC C O M P U T E R HARDWARE

2.1 Introduction

Having learned about what a computer is in topic 1 and its history as well as the
various types of computers. It is now important for us to have a glimpse inside a
standard desktop computer. This topic introduces you the parts of a computer, also
called the computer system. It explores the computer hardware besides mentioning
the types. After which you will be walked through each type of hardware in details.
The topic has eight sections namely:

1) The basic computer organization, I/O, processor, memory and buses

2) Introduction to computer hard ware
3) Input devices and criteria for selection
4) Processing devices, CPU functions and components
5) Primary memory and types
6) Secondary memory output devices storage devices

2.2 Objectives
At the end of the chapter the learner shall be able to;
1) Explain the different hardware units of a computer system such as
input, output, Central Processing Unit (CPU), main memory and secondary
storage.
2) Explain how the different units of a computer interact witch each other
to give the user output.
3) Explain how information is stored in a computer
4) Explain the different storage units of a computer such as byte, kilobyte,
megabyte, gigabyte and terabyte.

44
Activity 1

a). In groups of three discuss amongst yourselves what a system is?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………

b) What is a computer system?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

c) Explain what you understand by the term computer hardware

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

Topic Overview
You will notice that in order to respond to any of the above questions, you have to
have known what a computer is and its various parts. However, there are very
many parts of a computer and this topic is designed to help you understand them.
Let us now go through each section for better understanding.

45
2.3 Basic Computer System
As you saw in topic 1, computers come in many types, from the tiny computers built
into household appliances, to the astounding super computers that have helped
scientists map the human genome. But no matter how big it is or how it is used every
computer is part of a system. A complete computer system consists of four parts,
namely;

Hardware: These are the mechanical devices of a computer, identified as the physical
or tangible parts of a computer. Computers hardware consists of interconnected
electronic devices that you can use to control the computers operations, input and
output.

Software: This is a set of instructions that makes the computer to perform various
tasks, they are mainly the intangible parts of a computer.

Data: Data consists of individual facts or pieces of information that by themselves

may not make sense to the person. A computers primary job is to process these tiny
pieces of data in various ways, converting them into useful information.

Firmware: These are the computer users

2.3.1 Information Processing Cycle

Using all the parts named above together, a computer converts data into
information by performing various actions on the data. These operations are part of
a process called the ‗information processing cycle, which is a set of steps the
computer follows to receive data, process the data according to instructions from a
program, display the resulting information to the user and store the results.

Basic Computer System Interaction

The information processing cycle has four parts as shown above, and each part
involves one or more specific components of the computer:

Input: During this part of the cycle the computer accepts data from some source,
such as the user or program for processing.

Processing: During this part of the cycle, the computers processing components
perform actions on the data, based on instructions from the user or program.

46
Output: Here the computer may be required to display the results of its processing.
The computer also can send output to a printer or transfer the output to another
computer through a network or the internet. Output is an optional step in the
information processing cycle but may be ordered by the user or program.

Storage: In this step, the computer permanently stores the results of its processing
on a disk, tape, or some other kind of storage medium. As with output, storage is
optional and may not always be required by the user or program.

2.4 Computer Hardware

Computer hardware refers to the physical components of a computer such as the
monitor, Keyboard, Mouse, system unit etc. shown in the diagram below.

Physical Computer System

The physical parts of a computer system are called hardware and any device
connected to and under the control of the CPU is called peripheral device. The
computer hardware is divided into the input devices, output devices, processing
devices and storage devices.

We shall now discuss each group.

Activity 1
Mention various parts of the computer that you think make up input devices.

47
2.4.1 Input Devices
A personal computer would be useless if you could not interact with it because the
machine could not receive instructions or deliver the results of its work. Devices can
be directly connected to a computer and under its control, in which case they are on-
line, or else separate from the computer, in which case they are off-line. Input
devices accept data and instructions from the user or from another computer
system. There are various types of input devices and these include:

2.4.1.1Keying Devices
These are devices that allow data entry into the computer by pressing a set of keys.
Keying devices are an indispensable accessory for a computer. One of the most basic
input devices is the keying devices, which are used in navigation, execution of
processes, programming and several other purposes. Several software based
application directly derive their existence from a keying device. For instance, social
networking websites, programming languages, navigation over the computer menus
etc. utilize a keying device.

The best example here is the keyboard.

It‘s used to type data into the computer. It has special keys for giving the computer
commands called command or function keys. Data are typically entered through
keyboards and displayed on the screens, VDT and PC users welcome improvements
in these interface components. Features that make keyboards easier to use and more
comfortable to use are:

Figure 1: Keyboard

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Function keys

Some keyboards have less than 60 keys, while others add dozens more. Some of
these extra keys carry labels to indicate the types of function they perform. For
example, HOME and END keys allow users to move instantly to the beginning or
end of a stored document, ARROW keys move the screen pointer up, down, left,
and right, the PAGE UP and PAGE DOWN keys allows users to move through a
stored document a page at a time, the INSERT and DELETE keys permit users to
add and erase stored characters, and the PRINT SCREEN key can be used to
produce a printed copy of the information displayed on the screen. Other function
keys are merely stamped F1, F2, and F3 and so on, and are used in many different
ways by the programs being run. For example, a word processing program can use
the F8 key to underline text, and the F9 key to designate that the text should be
printed in bold typeface. As long as this word processing is being used, these keys
will always perform the same functions. But different software will program the
same keys to perform other functions.
Numeric keypads: A row of numeric keys appears near the top of almost all
keyboards. But many VDT and pc units also include a separate numeric keypad.
These keys are arranged like those on a calculator to permit rapid entry of numeric
data. Apart from digits, the numeric keypad has some mathematical symbols.

Special keys: These are a set of keys on the keyboard that perform specific functions.

Alphabet keys: Is a combination of keys on the keyboard, made up of the alphabetical

letters, marked on them in capital form? When you press that particular key, the lower
case alphabet is shown on the monitor. The letters are not in the alphabetical order. Apart
from the 26 letters, punctuation marks are also a part of the alphabet.

Navigational keys: Also known as the arrow keys they enable the user to move
within the document they are working on.

Numeric Keys: These are keys marked with the digits 0 to 9 and are used to type
numeric data.

2.4.1.2 Document Readers

Another input device that is of importance to the user and which we should discuss is
the document reader. A document reader is a device which can read data directly from
the source documents. Documents can come in different shapes and sizes.

49
Examples include a bank cheque, a multiple choice question paper, and electricity
meter reader form. There are many types of documents readers which include:

2.4.1.2.1Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

Optical character recognition (OCR) requires its own specially shaped characters.
The shapes of these characters permit easy recognition by OCR reading devices. An
Optical Character Reader can recognize characters from their shape. The OCR
techniques were primarily designed for manual, not mechanical, input of data. OCR
has the advantage of not requiring special inks as in MICR to be discussed latter.
One of the original uses of OCR was in educational and psychological testing. It let
researcher‘s code data they derived from their projects. With OCR reading devices,
this data could be input to a computer for processing. Optical character recognition
eliminates the delay and effort of converting this data to punch cards. Test data was
input directly from the source document.

Optical character recognition is also used in other fields. The New York State Motor
Vehicle Bureau uses OCR in its renewal of car registration and drivers‘ licenses. The
renewal of magazine subscriptions is selectively accomplished through the use of
OCR. One of the newer uses of OCR – supported devices is in Sales. Tags carry
OCR characters, and when an item is purchased, the sales tag is read by a device
called a point-of –sale (POS) terminal. The POS terminal serves as a cash register,
terminal, and OCR reading device.

Discuss areas in real life where we can use the OCR What are the advantages
and disadvantages of the OCR.

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2.4.1.2.2 Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
Next we discuss the Optical Mark Reader; the OMR is a system of reading marks or
lines which have been made in exactly the right positions on a card or document. It
allows the direct transfer of data from source document to computer. Information is
collected on a pre- printed OMR form by marking predetermined positions with
a pencil or a pen to indicate each selected response. Large volumes of data can be
collected quickly and easily without the need for specially trained staff. A device
called an optical mark reader converts the marks into computer readable data. The
reader detects the presence (or absence) of a mark on a form by sensing reflected
infra-red light. The software in the reader interprets the marks into meaningful
characters which can be passed to the computer for storage and analysis.

Advantages
 Sensitivity can be altered to allow for different surfaces and pencils and
inks.

 Has a better recognition rate than OCR.
 Can be prepared where the data originates, without machines.
 Errors are easily corrected.

Disadvantages
 Mark readers are relatively slow.
 Verification of marked data is difficult.

 Document reader will have to be reprogrammed for each new document
design.

2.4.1.2.3 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

Another well- known document reader is the MICR. This one recognizes characters
formed from magnetic ink. Characters are printed in ink containing iron oxide. When the
document is passed in the reader the ink is magnetized so that the magnetic pattern
formed by the characters can be identified. There are three MICR fonts:

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 E13b
 CMC7
 E13B

This font was developed in the United States for the America Banks Association,
and has been adopted by British banks. Each character is made as unique as
possible, in order to avoid misinterpretation. Magnetic ink characters can be
overwritten with ordinary ink without affecting their reliability for interpretation by
the reader/sorter. If any attempt is made to alter a magnetic ink character the
subsequent mutilation is detected when the character is being interpretation by the
reader/sorter. The E13B repertoire consists of ten numeric characters, 0- 9, and four
symbols to signify the meaning of fields.

CMC7 (Character Magnetic Code)

This font is the continental standard, and although the characters are encoded in
magnetic ink their structure is altogether different from E13B. The characters are
formed from a ‗gapped font‘ code, consisting of seven vertical bars. Each character
is identified by the format of the bars, which create a six- bit code. Each bar is
separated by a gap; a wide gap equals 1 and a narrow gap equals 0. The magnetic
ink character reader recognizes each character by the variable distance between the
vertical bars.

The CMC7 repertoire consists of ten numeric characters, 0-9, 26 alphabetic

characters and five special symbols. Usually MICR devices use font E13B which
contains only 14 characters (0-9 and 4 special characters).

The main applications are in:

 Some local authorities for payment of rates by installment.



 The banking industry: In a cheque the space below the signature line is left
so that the amount can be added in MICR after the cheque has been given to the
bank. The cheque can then enter the banks computer system for processing.

52
The function of the MICR device is as noted to read and recognize the characters at
the bottom of the cheque. Once the details of the customers, branch and amount are
known they can be used by the computer to update the individual bank accounts.
The vast number of cheques which banks have to handle requires the use of some
sort of document reading device. MICR devices can read up to 2500 cheques per
minute.

Advantages of MICR

 Cheques may be roughly handled, folded, smeared, and stamped, but they
can still be read with a high degree of accuracy.

 Processing is speeded because checks can be fed directly
into
 the input device.
 People can easily read the magnetic ink character.

Disadvantages

 Only the 10 digits and the 4 special characters needed for bank processing
are
 used.
 No alphabetic characters are available.

As we conclude sharing on document readers it’s we should understand that there

are two types of optical readers and a Magnetic Ink Character Reader.

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Activity 2

What is the main difference between the OCR and MICR?

……………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….

The optical readers use ……………………….to sense the document content while the
magnetic readers use the ……………………………to sense the document characters
that have been written using……………………………………………………………….

As we finish with document readers the next set of devices will be quite different.

2.4.1.3 Pointing and Touching Devices

These devices have variety of uses complementary to the keyboard and are of
particular value when used in conjunction with graphical displays. In simple cases
they can be used to move the cursor about the screen.

2.4.1.3.1 Mouse

A computer mouse is a pointing device (hand control) that detects two-dimensional

motion relative to a surface. This motion is typically translated into the motion of a
pointer on a display, which allows for a fine control of the graphical user interface.
Physically, a mouse consists of an object held in one's hand, with one or more buttons.
Mice often also feature other elements, such as touch surfaces and "wheels", which
enable additional control and dimensional input. As the mouse is moved about the
desktop the cursor moves about the screen. A button on top of the mouse can be pressed
when the desired position is reached. The motion of the mouse is sensed by a rolling
ball, which is mounted in the underside of the use and in
contact with the desktop.

54
Figure 2: Mouse

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the mouse?

2.4.1.3.2 Track Ball

Another commonly used pointing device is the Track ball. A track ball is really a
validation on the mouse. The ball is on the top side of the track ball, rather than on
the underside as in a mouse. The ball is moved by passing the palm of the hand over
it. Track balls are intended for use where desktop space is limited or not available,
for example, when using a lap-top computer away from a desk. A track ball does
not require a flat surface to operate.

Figure 4: A Track Ball

What is the difference between the mouse and the track ball?

2.4.1.3.4 Joysticks
Another pointing device that we discuss is the Joystick. This is a handheld device
used for playing computer games. A joystick is an alternative to a mouse. They have
proved more popular for computer games than they have for serious applications.
The joystick can be moved left, right, up or down to move the cursor and also has a
button used like that on the mouse. The movement of the joystick is detected by
cause electrical contacts to be made.

55
Figure 5: Joystick

2.4.1.3.5 Light Pen

A light pen is another pointing device that can be used to choose a displayed menu
option. The pen consists of a photocell placed in a small tube. As the user moves the
tip of the pen over the screen surface, it‘s able to detect the light coming from a
limited field of view. The light from the screen cause the photocell to response is
transmitted to the processor, which can identify the menu option that‘s triggering
the photocell. The light pen is also useful for graphics work. The light pen is also
used to draw directly on the screen.

Figure 6: Light pen

2.4.1.3.6 T o u c h Screens
A touch screen is a screen through which data can be entered into a computer just
by touching it with a finger. Items are selected just as they would be with a mouse
pointer or light pen. The touch screen can display a series of menus and displays
through which options can be selected.

56
2.4.1.4 Voice Input Systems
A microphone or telephone is used to convert human speech into electric signals. The
signal patterns are then transmitted to a computer where they are compared to a
‗dictionary‘ of patterns that have been previously placed in storage. When a closed
match is found, a word is
‗recognized‘ and the computer then produces the appropriate output. Most voice
recognition system is speaker- dependent. That is, they can‘t be used until after the
speaker has repeated a word several times to ‗train‘ the system to recognize his or
her particular voice pattern. Recently, however, speaker-independent systems have
been developed that can recognize words spoken by anyone. In the meantime,
vocabularies of all current systems are limited, users must speak distinctly, and they
must pause between each word or each short phrase. In one experiment, the words
recognize speech‘ were interpreted as ‗wreck a nice beach‘ by the computer.
Although speech recognition is in its infancy, it is being used in situations where a
person‘s hands are busy, where a worker‘s eyes must remain fixed on a display or
measuring instrument, or when telephone input is desirable.

2.4.1.5 Digitizer
This is a device that can be moved over a drawing or images to convert the picture
to digital data, which can then be stored in a displayed on a CRT screen, or printed
out of paper.

Figure 7: Digitize

2.4.1.6 Scanners
Scanners consist of two components. First a data capturing subsystem illuminates
the documents so that the image can be recorded. Then an image processing
subsystem uses sophisticated software to convert the optical images into digital
form and store the data in a file. Unfortunately, scanners often make errors that
require manual correction. So the data files invaluably require some editing at a
CAD terminal.

57
Scanners are of two types:

 Hand held device which is moved across the picture being scanned
 Flatbed scanner where the picture is laid flat and the image captured

Figure 8: Scanner

2.4.1.7 Point of Sale Terminals

These types of input devices are found in computerized wholesale or retail
organizations such as supermarkets. A wand or barcode reader or a credit card or a
Kimball tag reader could be attached to a POS terminal to reduce the data entry.

Activity 3

Read and make notes on Barcode readers and Kimball tags

2.4.2 Processing Devices

The procedure that transforms raw data into useful information is called processing.
To perform this transformation, the computer uses two components; the processor
and the memory. The processor is like the brain of the computer; it organizes and
carries out instructions that come from either the user or the software. In a personal
computer the processor is usually consists of one or more specialized chips called
the microprocessors. These microprocessors are also called the Central Processing
Unit (CPU).

58
Early Personal Computers were not much large than a thumbnail. Processors such
as Intel Pentium 4 are considerably large.

2.4.2.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU receives data from input devices, processes it, and prepares information
for output devices. Data could be entered into the computer with cards, terminals,
or data collection devices. Data could be output on printers, CRTs, or video display
terminal.

Functions of the Central Processing Unit

1) To perform all the processing, including all computations.
2) To control the sequence of operations.
3) Gives commands to all parts of the computer system
4) Controls the use of main memory storage to store data and
instructions.
The CPU consists of three components:
1) The control unit.
2) The arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
3) The primary storage unit

Each unit has a particular function

59
2.4.2.1.1 Control Unit
As we start this discussion we might say that the Control Unit is the major part of
the CPU. The control unit essentially governs all the computer activities and
monitors the execution of programs. It coordinates and controls the computer
system much as the brain directs the body. The control unit executes program
instruction to be fetched from main memory via the MDR and placed into the IR.
When main memory storage receives an appropriate signal from the control unit it
transfers the instruction, whose address is specified in the MAR, into the processor‘s
MDR via the data bus. The control unit interprets the instruction in the IR and
causes the instruction to be executed by sending command signals to the
appropriate hardware devices. E.g., it might cause main storage to transfer data in
the MDR or it might cause the ALU to perform some operation on data registers.
The cycle is then repeated with the next instruction being fetched.

2.4.2.1.2 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

The next part of the CPU that is of great importance especially during processing is
the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) has two main functions:

It is responsible for performing all arithmetic, e.g., add, subtract, multiply and
divide etc. It performs all ‗logical‘ operations e.g. testing whether two data
items match.
Data items to be processed are taken from the main storage, as directed by the
control unit, and pass via the MDR into the data registers (accumulators) in the
ALU, where they are stored. This step is referred as ‗loading‘ data into the data
register from the main storage. It should be noted that at this point the location
address of this data will have been specified in the IR, from where they will have
been transferred to the MAR prior to loading the data. The ALU then performs the
required operation(s) on the data (e.g. adding) as directed by the control unit. The
ALU leaves the result in a data register. While the ALU is carrying out an operation
it may make use of other registers of its own such as the ‗OPERAND’ and ‘RESULT’
registers. For example, it may build up a result in the RESULT register before
sending the complete result to a designated data register. The results are taken from
data registers and placed in main memory, again under the direction of the control
unit. This step is referred as ‘storing’ data.

2.4.2.1.3 Primary Storage Unit

One might ask themselves, so where does all the data we introduce in the computer
go to? It will be interesting to learn that the computer has to storage unit that stores
all programs and data.

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Memory of the Computer
Memory or storage capacity is one of the important components of a computer.
Any storage unit of a computer system is classified on the basis of the following
criteria:

Access time: This is the time required to locate and retrieve stored data from the
storage unit in response to program instructions.

Storage capacity: It is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.
Cost per bit of storage.
Units of memory: The computer stores a character in the storage cells with binary
(0,1) mechanism. Thus the basic unit of memory is a bit (binary digit – 0,1). To store
a character, a computer requires 8 bits or 1 byte. This is called the ― word length‖ of
the storage unit. Hence the storage capacity of the computer is measured in the
number of words it can store and is expressed in terms of bytes. The different units
of measurement are:

1) 8 Bits = 1 Byte
2) 210 (or) 1024 Bytes = 1 Kilo Byte (KB)
3) 210 (or)1024 KB = 1 Mega Byte (MB)
4) 210 (or)1024 MB = 1 Giga Byte (GB)

The storage capacity of the CPU is called primary storage unit. Over the years, the
storage unit has been called main storage, internal storage, primary storage, or
memory. Primary storage provides the capacity to store software in the form of
operation system, application programs and utility routines, etc. in addition, the
data input for processing is stored in the memory as the results of processing until
they are output either to backing storage or to an output device such as a printer or
VDU. Next we discuss the types of primary storage.

2.4.2.1.3.1 Types of Primary Storage

They are:
 Core storage
 Semiconductor memory (MOS)

Core storage: We go back a little bit to understand the history of core storage. During
the 15 years between 1960 and 1975 the dominant computer design used tiny rings or
cores of magnetizable material in the primary storage section. Current

61
flowing in one direction produced a 0-bit state. Since the core permanently retained
its magnetic state in the absence of current, it was a non-volatile storage medium.
Core storage was popular for 15 years because it was safe, durable and reasonably
fast. But the new storage devices that appeared in the 1970‘s offered even faster
performance at a lower cost, and so the popularity of the cores quickly faded.

Semiconductor memory: Now this one is different. Virtually all computers made
today use semiconductor elements in their primary storage sections. It is produced
from silicon chips and is based on two types of technologies i.e. the faster and more
expensive bipolar semiconductors chip and slower and less expensive metal-oxide
semiconductor (MOS) chips. There are two types of semiconductor memory:

Random Access Memory (RAM): This is the first type of semiconductor memory. These
are referred as random access memory (RAM) chips because any of the locations on a
chip can be randomly selected and used to directly store and retrieve data and
instructions. This type of memory can be both read, to retrieve information, and written
into, to store information. RAM chips may be classified as dynamic or
static.
The storage cell circuit‘s dynamic RAM chips contain:

 Transistor that acts in much the same way as a mechanical on-off switch.
 Capacitor that‘s capable of storing an electric charge.

Depending on the switch action of the transistor, the capacitor either contains no
charge (0 bit) or does hold a charge (1 bit). Since the charge on the capacitor tends to
‗leak off‘ provision is made to periodically ‗regenerate‘ or refresh the storage charge.
A dynamic RAM thus provides volatile storage. That is, the data stored are lost in
the event of a power failure.

Static RAM chips are also volatile storage device but as they are supplied with
power, they require no special regenerator circuits to retain the stored data. In real
sense the contents of the static RAM remain stable forever, as long as power is
available.

62
Activity 4
In discussion groups of three learners list the differences between the Static and
Dynamic RAM.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

A ROM is a read only memory that can only be produced by the manufacturer. The
contents of ROM are physically fixed and cannot be accessed to alter them as can be
done with RAM. Micro programs control instructions that cause the machine to
perform certain operations are usually stored in ROM. The contents of ROM are not
destroyed when the computer is switched off as ROM is non-volatile because its
contents have been burnt in during manufacturer ROM also stores the operating
system.

Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

These are variations of ROM i.e. PROM stands for ‗programmable read-only
memory‘. Whereas ordinary ROM is pre-programmed at the factory, PROM can be
programmed by the user. A special device is required for putting the ‗bit‘ pattern
into a PROM chip; this is called a PROM programmer.

What is the main disadvantage of the PROM?

Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)

This is further variation of ROM, which stands for ‗erasable programmable read-
only memory‘. When data is recorded on this type of memory it is in effect the same
as ordinary ROM in its behaviour but if the user requires to change the contents of
the chip an ultraviolet light is used to revert all the cells to ‗1s‘. New data or
programs can be then be written on the chip.

What is the disadvantage of the EPROM?

Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

63
EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory) is user-modifiable
read- only memory (ROM) that can be erased and reprogrammed (written to)
repeatedly through the application of higher than normal electrical voltage. Unlike
EPROM chips, EEPROMs do not need to be removed from the computer to be modified.
However, an EEPROM chip has to be erased and reprogrammed in its entirety, not
selectively. It also has a limited life - that is, the number of times it can be
reprogrammed is limited to tens or hundreds of thousands of times. In an EEPROM that
is frequently reprogrammed while the computer is in use, the life of the EEPROM can be
an important design consideration.

Flash EEPROM memory

Flash memory is a type of nonvolatile memory that erases data in units called
blocks. A block stored on a flash memory chip must be erased before data can be
written, or programmed, to the microchip. Flash memory retains data for an
extended period of time whether a flash- equipped device is powered on or off.

2.4.2.2 Registers
To understand how the above components (i.e. control unit and ALU) of the CPU
works first we need to first understand registers which are special-purpose
temporary-storage locations within the processor or and other devices within the
computer system. They are quite separate from the location in main storage,
although they can be similar in structure.

Types of registers and their functions

Registers may be classified into two main groups:

 Registers out of –the processor

 Registers in the processor

Registers Out of the Processors

Memory Data Register (MDR)

All data and instructions pass in and out of the processor through this register.
Memory Buffer Register (MBR)
All data and instructions pass in and out of main memory through this
register.

64
Memory Address Register (MAR)

Prior to each transfer between the processor‘s MDR and main storage‘s MBR the
exact source or destination of the data in the main storage must be specified. This is
done by loading the appropriate location address into the MAR. Main memory
receives this address information through the address bus. It also receives control
signals from the processor via the control bus which is able to decode into commands
for it to save or retrieve data.

Data Buffer Registers (DBR)

Another important register is the DBR on which I/O units connected to the
processor via a bus also have these registers which serve a similar purpose to the
MBR.

Registers in the processor

This are constructed so that the contents can be accessed and altered much faster
than the contents of locations of main memory.

Instructions Register (IR)

This is the first register you encounter in the processor where the next executable
instruction is first taken from main memory via the MDR and placed. Once in the IR
the instruction can be rapidly decoded and executed.

Note: that the IR is also sometimes called the Current Instruction Register
(CIR).

Data Registers (DR)

This register is within the ALU in which data to be processed (e.g. numbers about to
be added or subtracted) is placed from the main memory via the MDR. The required
arithmetic or logic operation is then rapidly performed. The ALU will provide the
results in one data register, from which it can be taken and stored in main memory
storage.

65
Status Register (SR)

This is used by the control unit as a means of detecting conditions which have
occurred such as the ALU detecting the arithmetic error of diving by zero. Primary
components of the processor will now be considered in detail.

List three types of processor registers and state their functions.

2.4.2.3 Bubble Memory

From the processor we look at a different type of memory called bubble memory.
Bubbles may be described as cylindrical magnets which are formed from magnetic
regions called ‗domain‘ after the application of a critical bias value magnetic field.
The bubbles are created on memory chips of thumbnail size, with capacities of
typically 64 and 256 Kbytes (about 240 typewritten pages of information). The ICL
DNX-2000 digital PABX systems use bubble memory so it seems that this type of
memory is likely to be used widely in future.

2.4.2.4 Holographic (optical) Memory

This is a ROM optical memory system whereby a pattern is recorded on a photo-
sensitive plate by mixing laser light from reference beam and laser light scattered
from the object bearing the information to be recorded.

The data in the hologram is effectively ‗smeared‘ over the whole of the plate. A
degree of redundancy is built into the system so that dust and scratches on the
emulsion have little effect on the recorded information.

Data in the reconstructed image is arranged as an array of dots-one dot for each ‗bit‘.
Information may be read out by directing a laser beam on the hologram so that the
reconstructed image falls on to a photodiode array on a silicon chip. At present the
main limitations is that information on a holographic store is generally fixed and is
presently of value for storing large amounts of fixed information such as machine
instructions.

2.4.2.5 Cache Memory

It‘s a high-speed memory capable of keeping up with the CPU. It acts as a buffer
between the CPU and the slower main memory. As the CPU is not delayed by the
memory access the overall speed of processing is increased. Segments of program
and data are transferred from disc backing storage into the cache buffer by the
operating system. This type of memory is mainly applicable to the larger computer.

66
2.4.2.6 Buses

Let us now look at a different item used in processing called a computer bus. A
computer processor consists of four types of ‗bus‘: address, data, control and
peripheral. A bus is a channel or pathway for the processor to another, including
transferring data from the internal memory to the arithmetic unit. Buses also
provided the channels for:

a) Transmitting signals relating to the address of the data to be operated on;

b) The input and output of and from specific peripheral devices;

c) The transmission of signals for controlling all processing activities.

After knowing these factors above it‘s important for us to discuss each bus on its
own and what it does.

2.4.2.6.1 Address Bus

The first type of bus used in processing is the address bus which is used to send
address details between the memories and address register. The address of the data
to be operated on the operand – is stored in the address register. The number of
channels on an address registers. The larger the address register the possible internal
memory capacity because the larger the number of addresses that can be generated.
The value of binary digit doubles each time the ‗1‘moves into a higher order
position, i.e. to the left. This follows from the binary progression 2n.

2.4.2.6.2 Data Bus

These are bidirectional buses that carry information and data to and from the
microprocessor. The data bus determines the width of the microprocessor hence the
denotation as 8-bit, 16-bit and 32-bit. They are normally created by the
microprocessor registers.

2.4.2.6.3 Control Bus

These are unidirectional buses that carry command signals from the microprocessor
and sometimes the signals are to the microprocessor itself. The direction of the
transfer on the data bus is indicated by the control signals from the control bus.

67
2.4.2.6.4 Peripheral Channel
These facilitate the connection of the devices.

What is a computer bus? List three types of computer buses and explain their
function.
After dealing mainly with devices that concentrate on converting data into
information for ease of use let us now move further to a new section that will enable
the user to communicate with the computer by giving them results called the output
devices.

2.4.3 Output Devices

In this section we discuss various devices that can be used to give feedback to the
user. The results of any form data processing are output. An output device is a
peripheral, which shows the computer output either in softcopy or hardcopy. The
output can be used immediately or stored for later use Output can take many forms.
Output might be human-sensible, which means that it can be recognized and
understood by human. It requires special machines for it to be accessed by people-
e.g. computer output on to microfilm or microfiche, where microfilm or microfiche
readers are needed to access the stored data. An output should also be computer-
sensible, with the output data/ information stored for later processing by another
computer.

Human Sensible Output

Human sensible output consists of:
 Printed output
 VDU display

2.4.3.1 Printers
This is an important output device besides the monitor. Generally, the printers fall
into two categories. Printers can be classified by whether they print a character, a
line or a page at a time.

Character printers
Prints serially (one character at a time) much like a typewriter. As a result, speeds
are very slow (from 10 to 150 characters per second). They are relatively cheap and
are commonly found in small business systems. When a keyboard device has a
character printer attached it is called a teletype (or teletypewriter). The keyboard
acts as the input medium, the printer as the output device.

68
Line printers

Are much faster devices which print a line at a time. Some are capable of printing
up to 3000 lines per minutes. They are accordingly more expensive.

Page printers

Print a whole page at a time.

They are expensive and are intended to deal with very large volumes of printed
computer output in large organizations.
Printers can be classified according to their technology.

Impact printers

Require the hitting of inked ribbon against paper (like ordinary typewriter), impact
printers are noisy in operation.

Non- impact printers

Such as laser printers use different technology such as ink spray, heat, xerography
or laser to form printed copy, i.e. characters are not formed by mechanical impact.

Differentiate between impact and non-impact printers?

69
 Printers can be classified by the quality of print they produce as below

Dot matrix printers

These are impact character printers that provide character prints in terms of dots.
They print characters as in array of points or dots. The quality of print varies
according to the number of dots that make up a character. However, it is a slow
printer.

Daisy wheel printers

It‘s the oldest kind, of printer, which is an impact printer, works like a typewriter
where a piece of metal or plastic with a raised letter strikes an inked ribbon against
a sheet of paper leaving an image of the letter on the paper.

Near Letter Quality (NLQ)

A printer offers NLQ is one that provides a quality of print that is near (but not
quite) as good as a typed letter. Additionally, printers can be classified in terms of
speed. The basic types of printers will now be explained in details.

Impact Character Printer

There are two basic types of impact character printer: dot matrix and moving print
head (ball or wheel).

Dot matrix

Printers print pattern of dots in the shape of the desired character. Speed of up to
around 165 characters per second (C.P.S). Are possible but the print quality may
be low. However, some dot matrix printers have NLQ print.

70
Ball printer

Uses a rotating and / pivoting ball as a print head. The printing characters are on
the surface of the ball which strikes a ribbon to transfer the character on to the paper
(e.g. IBM golf-ball electric typewriter).

Wheel (or daisywheel) printer

Use a wheel as a print head with the characters forming a band around the
circumference of the print wheel. To print a character, the wheel is rotated and a
hammer strikes the back side of the spoke and presses it against the paper.

Daisywheel

Some ball and wheel printers can print left to right on the next thus increasing the
effective print speed. They print at relatively slow speeds (typically 10-50 c.p.s.).
But produce good- quality print, i.e. ‗full‘ letter quality characters.

71
A dot matrix printer and a graph plotter could both be used by a shop that designs
and sells fitted kitchens t o produce t h e kitchen plans on different paper sizes and
using colour. Explain which one would be better in the situation.

Non-Impact Character Printers

These are printers that use other means to create an image. Ink-jet printers for
example use tiny nozzles to spray droplets of ink onto the page, while laser printers
work like photocopiers, using heat to bond microscopic particles of dry toner to
specific parts of the page. There are various types of non- impact printers;

Thermal printers

Creates print images on special heat sensitive paper by use heated wires in the
print head and they operate at speeds of 160 c.p.s.

Inkjet printers

These printers use the concept of spraying ink onto the paper. Fire ink on to paper
by using an electrostatic field. No special paper is needed and the print quality can
be good, but it is not possible to produce multiple copies and they can be unreliable.

72
Line printers

These are mainly three types;

Impact line printer

There are two main types of impact line printer: print characters are mounted on a
moving chain or belt or engraved on the face of a rotating drum. Typical line printer
speeds range from 200 to 3000 lines per minute. Multiple copies can easily be
produced and characters are of ‗letter-quality‘.

Non- impact line printer

The main non- impact line printer is the electrostatic printer. This places electrostatic
charges in the shape of the required characters on a special sensitive paper. They are
not common in business operations.

Magnetic printer

A magnetic printer operates much like the electrostatic printer except that the
magnetic charges are placed on a belt rather than on a sensitized paper. Magnetic
printers are much slower than electrostatic printers (up to 200 lines per minute) but
do not require a special paper.

Page printers

Page printers are non-impact, very high speed printers capable of printing a page at
a time. They can be:

 Electrostatic Xerographic Laser

 Electrostatic page printers

Is a printer that uses electrostatic charges? The characters are created using tiny dots
(200 to the inch) giving a high quality which does not look like matrix printing. The
document outline is coded and stored for printing with the data when ready.
Letterheads and logos can be created electro statically using chargeable metal
cylinders; pre-printed stationery can also be handled.

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Xerographic printers

It‘s a printer that has an in-built processing power of production of multiple copies
is possible. These are an adaptation of the Xerox office copier. (Xerography is the
process of electrostatic printing or dry photography in which negatively charged
powder is sprinkled on an appositively charged surface.

Xerographic printer produces sharp character images on letter-sized paper. The

printer usually has an in-built microcomputer and can produce and collate multiple
copies. It operates at about 4000 R.p.m.

Laser printers

These are probably the most advanced printers and use a laser beam to produce
character images on the surface of a rotating drum. A toner that adheres to the light
images is then transferred to paper. Some laser printers are running at speed
equivalent to 21000 1.p.m.so they are needed only in large volume applications e.g.
mailing shots, price lists in major companies.

2.4.3.2 Plotters
A plotter (or graph-plotter) is a device for producing graphical output on paper. It
converts digital computer output into illustrations such as graphs, bar charts, pie
charts, maps or technical drawings. A digital plotter works by converting digital
coordinates (rather like map reference) into pen movements. Alternatively, an
incremental plotter sends signals to tell the pen how far to move from its present
position.

Plotters are not always directly connected to the computer (they are off-+line)
because pen output is fairly slow, thus wasting computer time. Rather, a program
magnetic tape. The tape can then be run later by a small processor (reader) which
will control the specialized plotter system. There are two types of plotter:

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Flatbed plotter
This is fixed, flat table or bed on which the writing pen can move over the paper: up (to
move without drawing), down (to draw) and in north, south, west, east directions.

A drum plotter
Here a roll of paper, mounted on a drum, can be moved back and forth whilst the
pen moves across the paper. A combination of drum and pen movements allows a
line3 to be drawn anywhere on the paper.

Having looked at the plotters that give output in hard copy let us now look at
output devices that give out softcopy as a form of output.

2.4.3.3 Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit VDU, are the main output device
of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a
rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels. It
is similar to TV screen- either a monochrome (black & white) or color – and it
displays the output. It is also referred as Visual Display Unit (VDU). Several types of
monitors are in use. Some of them are Color Graphic Adapter (CGA), Enhanced
Graphics Adaptor (EGA), Video Graphics Adapter (VGA) and Super Video
Graphics Adapter (SVGA). The screen sizes differ from system to system. The
standard size is 24 lines

75
by 80 characters. Most systems have provision for scrolling which helps in moving
the text vertically or horizontally on the screen.

The monitor technology is mainly;

 Cathode ray tube
 Flat panel Display
 Thin Film Transistor (TFT) Plasma
 Light emitting diodes

2.4.3.3.1 Cathode-Ray Tube CRT Monitor

The C R T display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the
pixels, the better the image clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated
pixel to fo r m whole character, such as the letter ‗e‘ in the word help. A finite
number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The s c r e e n can b e
divided into a series of character boxes-fixed location on the screen where a
standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80
characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically. There are some disadvantages
of CRT:

 Large in size

 High power consumption

2.4.3.3.2 Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers t o a class o f video d evice s t h a t have reduced
volume, weight and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang
them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays
include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, graphics display.

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The flat-panel display is divided into two categories:

Emissive Displays- The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy
into light . Example is plasma panel and LED Light – Emitting Diodes.

Non-Emissive Displays -The Non-emissive displays use optical effects

to convert sunlight or l i g h t from some other source into Example
graphics patterns. is LCD Liquid–Crystal Device.

Activity 6

Distinguish the following terms.

 LCD and CRT



 ALU and Control unit


 Keyboard and Scanner

77
 Hard copy and Soft copy

Having looked at output devices it’s important to have some form of storage for
the data and programs either temporarily when the program is running or long
term to preserve the programs and data using backing storage.

2.4.4 Storage Devices

A computer can function with only processing, memory, input and output devices.
However, to be really useful, a computer also needs a place to keep program files
and related data when they are not in use. The purpose of storage devices is to hold
data permanently, even when the computer is turned off.

There are three major distinctions between storage and memory:

There is more room in storage than in memory, just as there is more room in a file
cabinet than there is on top of a table. Contents are retained in storage when the
computer is turned off, whereas programs or the data in memory disappear when
you shut down the computer. Storage devices operate much slower than memory
chips, but storage is cheaper than memory.

We now look at the types, there are two main types of computer storage: magnetic
and optical. They are covered in the following sections.

2.4.4.1 Backing Storage

Although a computer could retain all business information in its internal memory
(primary memory) it would be rather impractical to do so as it would require
millions of bytes of storage capacity such as semiconductor memory in the form of
RAM‘s i.e. random access memory. It is usual to provide the computer system with
offline storage, referred to as auxiliary or secondary storage, for the storage of
master files and programs relating to specific applications until they are required
and transferred into the internal memory. Backing storage is also used for restoring
data to the computer when power is interrupted. Computers generally employ
magnetic storage of one type or another but new development are taking place such
as optical disc which record data by means of laser.

78
Advantages of backing storage
 It is cheaper to store in secondary devices like magnetic media than in a filing
cabinet or in the main memory.

 There is more capacity in secondary storage than in primary storage. You
people or from hazards.

 Data stored in secondary storage is safe from tapering by unauthorized
people or from hazards.

 They facilitate easy movement of data stored electronically.

Types of backing storage

There many media for backing storage. The main devices and
media are:
 Magnetic tape unit-magnetic tape magnetic disc unit- magnetic disk
 Magnetic diskette unit- magnetic diskette (floppy disk)
 Optical disc unit- optical disk solid state storage devices
 Mass storage devices and media

2.4.4.1.1 Magnetic Tape

This was the first kind of secondary storage. This is mainly a flexible plastic ribbon
on which data can be stored using a magnetic process. It has some peculiar
characteristics:

Physical characteristics

Plastic base coated with metal oxide film, Data recorded as magnetized spots- each
one representing a binary digit, Standard width- 1.72cm. –though size varies
between0.86cm (cassette) and 2.54 (high capacity), Standard reel- 720m in length, but
again sizes vary.

Recording on tape

Data are recorded in binary coded decimal (BCD) format. The most common
forms of coding are:

7-track ASCII. The American Standard Code for Information Interchange which
consists of a 7-bit coded character plus a parity bit.

79
9-track EBCDIC. The extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code has 8 bits
(four zone bits and four numeric bits) plus a parity bit. The tape width is divided
into series of Tracks (or channels) – usually 7 or 9.A character is recorded across the
tracks. In a row called a frame.

Rate of reading

The rate at which data can be read from tape is called the transfer rate which
depends on the recording density and tape speed. For example, a tape with 1600
bpcm density and speed of 125 centimeters per second has a transfer rate of:
1600*125= 200 000 bytes per second.
This is known as the instantaneous transfer rate- the actual average transfer rate
would be less because of the inter block gaps.

Advantages magnetic tapes

Speed –The transfer rate (typically) 50 000 -100 000 or more characters per second
is quite adequate for many applications.

Capacity- A standard reel can hold 10 million or more characters depending on the
blocking factor. Thus tapes can be used for large files or for dumping from disk
files.

Cost – Magnetic tape is the cheapest magnetic

medium.

Convenience – It is light, compact and easy to store in racks. Some organizations

have thousands of reels in storage ‗libraries‘ or ‗banks‘.

Disadvantages magnetic tapes;

 Tape is a serial medium and therefore searching is necessary. This makes it

impractical for direct access applications.

 A record on magnetic tape cannot be update in place (‗in situ‘). Records to be
updated have to be read, updated and then written to a second tape. (This does have
safety benefits, however, in that the original is preserved (father-son principle).

80
 Tape must be stored in a suitable environment where humidity, temperature
and dust are tightly controlled; otherwise read errors, etc. occur.


 Tape has a limited shelf life (about 2 years) for reliable results and is therefore
not suitable for long – term storage of historical files.

Uses of magnetic tape

 Offline storage of large sequential files. Tapes can be conveniently kept in

storage racks and are loaded onto tape drives and processed as they are needed.

 Back-up storage for offline disk files. To prevent loss of data, disk files can be
periodically ‗dumped‘ on to tape.

 Medium for key-to-tape data entry (now largely superseded by
key-to-disk).

2.4.4.1.2 Magnetic Disk

Looking at a magnetic disk it‘s a flat circular platter on which data can be stored.
Magnetic disk is the most commonly used form of backing storage, although other
media e.g. optical disks may become one cost- effective for some applications.
However, magnetic disks themselves continue to be improved in terms of cost and
performance. Disks are excellent for large data files and data bases at a reasonable
cost. Their characteristics include:

Physical Characteristics

 A disk pack is made up of a stack of rotating metal disks (six or more)

mounted on a spindle.


 Several disks can be stacked on a spindle and enclosed in a unit called as disk
pack (or module).


 Each disk is a thin metal rigid platter (similar in size and concept to an LP)
coated on both sides with magnetic material, e.g. ferrous oxide.

81
 Data are recorded on surface in the form of magnetized spots. The presence
or absence of spot denotes binary 1 or 0.


 The surface of the disk is divided into tracks; which is in turn
divided into sectors.


 The recording density is greater towards the middle of the disk so that all
tracks contain the same amount of data.


 The disk pack can be loaded into a disk drive for reading and writing The
capacity of a disk pack is of the order of several hundred gigabytes. Reading and
writing to disk

 Data reading and writing is done by read/write heads similar to those
used in a tape recorder. There is usually one head for each disk surface.

 Access arms position these heads in the desired locations. The heads do not
actually touch the surface of the disk- they ‗float‘ above it.

 When the access arms are moved across all the read/ write heads are moved
together so that each is positioned over the same track of each recording surface.

 The set of tracks under the heads form a vertical cylinder and if related
records are stored on the same cylinder, they can be accessed without moving the
access assembly. This is called the cylinder concept.

 A record may be accessed directly by specifying the cylinder, track and
sector number.

Disk capacity
Disk capacity depends on:

 The number of recording surfaces

 The number of cylinders
 The recording density (bytes/track)
 It is usually stated in terms of megabytes (MB) e.g. for disc pack:
Bytes/track
 8500
 Tracks/cylinder 24
 Cylinders/pack 1000 giving a total of about 209 Gb.

82
Advantages
 Data can be accessed directly- there is no need to search through
other records. Sequential processing is possible if needed.

 Very high capacity at a low cost (per character stored). Disk packs are
convenient to handle and store. Currently the most popular storage method in
business.

Disadvantages

 Disk drives and disks are more expensive than tape drives and
tapes,
 respectively.
 Slower than newer ‗forms‘ of storage, e.g. magnetic bubble.

 Can be unreliable – susceptible to dust, static electricity, head crashes, etc. Uses
Most business situations particularly useful in on –line enquiry/response systems,
where direct access is essential e.g. reservation/booking systems.

2.4.4.1.3 Magnetic Diskette (Floppy Diskette)

Don‘t get confused, this is a type of magnetic disk, a floppy disk is a single, flexible
disk held in a protective jacket. It is made of polyester film coated with metal oxide
compound and resembles a 45 rpm record. They are typically 8 in, 51/4 in and 31/2
in (micro- floppies) in diameter with either 40 or 80 tracks. Every new disk requires
to be formatted i.e. preparing the disk for receiving and storing information. By
lining up the index hole at the starting point, the computer lays in a specific pattern
of tracks and sectors that define where information will be stored and found.

All the other storage devices we have been discussing were using magnetic
technology, now we focus on devices that use light.

2.4.4.1.4 Optical Disk

In recent years, optical disks or compact disks have become very popular. This are
made up of thin metal film/polymer compound on to which a laser burns digital

83
information in the form of microscopic pits. These are read by another laser which
converts the pattern of pits into a digital message. The storage capacity is vast- up to
1 gigabyte (1 GB, i.e. 1 billion characters) has been quoted. Tracks on an optical disk
can be packed very closely together. The latter is known as compact disk read only
memory (CD-ROM) and a typical storage capacity is 700 Mb of user data.

Advantages

 They have massive capacity.

 High-quality pictures and sound can be achieved without
noticeable
 deterioration, even after continuous use.
 Information can be retrieved quickly by random access (although not as
quickly
 as from magnetic hard disk).
 Reliable. They have longer life than magnetic media – no mechanical contact
between disk and optical system. Disks are coated against and scratches.
 Exchangeable.
 The disks themselves are fairly expensive but are relatively cheap in
terms
 of cost per character stored.
 Hard to copy (useful for copyright reasons)

Disadvantages
 Costly hardware for reading: Expensive to produce master disk Little
software, often of poor quality

 Late development of standard sizes and formats (but CD-ROMs have an
agreed standard).

 Temporary read/record only. It is still problems to write to disks. Even
harder is erasing and re-recording (although storage capacity is so great that
erasing is not all that important).

For this reasons, optical disks will not be replacing existing storage media just yet.

The next step- making optical disks read and write – is still at the experimental
stage.

CDs have much higher recording density than conventional magnetic disks. CDs
come in two variations:

2.4.4.1.4.1 CD – RW (Re - writable)

Data written on them can be overwritten or erased.

84
2.4.4.1.4.2 CD – R (Recordable)/ CD – WORM (Write once read many)
It holds data that is permanent (No overwriting). They hold data that is not likely
to change in the future. Once data is written onto the surface of the worm disk, it
cannot be changed.

2.4.4.1.4.3 Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)

DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disc. It is similar to a CD-ROM, except that it can
Store Larger amounts of data. The storage capacity of a DVD is at least 4.7GB. DVDs
that can store up to17GBs are also available. Because of their capacity, DVDs are
generally used to store a very large multimedia presentations and movies that
combine high quality sound and graphics.

2.4.4.2 Solid State Storage Devices

Other forms of storage have been developed which are called solid –state (i.e. no
moving parts). The (comparative) slowness of current disks and tapes is caused by the
physical movement of the recording surface and (with disks) of the heads. There is no
such physical movement in the solid-state devices. These devices are another category
of semi- conductor memory but give somewhat slower access speeds to the data than
RAM and ROM and are therefore not suitable for main storage. The two common types
of solid state storage devices used for backing storage are:

 Magnetic bubble memory CCDs (charge couple devices)

 Flash memory
 Magnetic bubble memory

In ‗bubble memories‘ data is stored as tiny magnetic domains (the bubbles) which
continually circulate past read- write heads. Some materials in natural form are
magnetized and Application of bias field results into magnet bubbles. The presence
of a bubble can represent a bit. Application of drive field, a bubble generator, bubble
detector, bubble annihilator constitutes the bubble memory.

CCDs (Charge Coupled Devices) these produced by a form of MOS technology.

They are relatively fast compared with bubble memory but are volatile whereas
bubble memory is not. In the current state of development, solid-state of
development, solid-state storage is halfway between established memory systems
and backing storage. It provides access to data that is faster than conventional
backing storage devices but slower than memory. On the other hand, it has a
capacity higher than memory but lower than backing storage. Disk technology

85
continues to improve at such a pace that a solid state devices have not yet made a
breakthrough.

Flash drive: It is a small, portable device that can be used to store, access and
transfer data. Due to its small size, it is commonly called Pen drive. It is also called
USB drive. We can read, write, copy, delete, and move data from computer to pen
drive or pen drive to computer. It comes in various storage capacities of 2GB, 4GB,
8GB etc. It is popular because it is easy to use and small enough to be carried in a
pocket. This device is plugged into the USB port of the computer and the computer
automatically detects this device

Mass storage devices and media

Some large corporations and government agencies have a need for vast data storage
capacities. This need can be met by mass storage devices. These devices are
―automated libraries‖ of disk and tape cartridges, rather like jukeboxes. The total
capacity of such a system tends to be expressed in terms of Gigabytes (thousands of
millions of bytes).

Summary
In this topic you have learnt the computer system is. In defining the computer
system, we had to look at the four parts. We then followed this up by looking at the
computer hardware and classifying the various parts in details

In topic 3, we will discuss the computer software, that is, procedures or programs
that enable the user to use the computer hardware. We will also look at how the
various groups of computer software work to help the user work well on their tasks
on the computer. But before you go topic 3, let us see how well you have
understood topic 2.

86
Self-check

1) Giving examples define a computer hardware (3 marks)

2) Draw a schematic representation on classification of computers (10marks)
3) With definition identify the categories of computer hardware (8marks)
4) List four units of measure for computer memory and storage (4 marks)
5) Describe the information processing cycle using a diagram (5 Marks)

Scoreboard
Marks Remarks
25–30 Excellent
20–25 Very Good
15–20 Good
10–15 Fair
0- 10 Go through the topic again

Further Reading

Norton, P. (2006). Introduction to Computers,6th ed. London: Mc Graw Hill.

87
 TOPIC THREE

THE BASIC COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Introduction

In the previous topic we learned about the computer system but put emphasis
on the computer hardware, it is now important for us to have an in depth look
at the other side of the computer system, that is the inside of the computer also
known as the computer software. This topic introduces you the programs or
procedures that coordinate the computer hardware to enable the user achieve
their objective or perform a task on the computer called the computer software.
The topic has four sections namely:

  Introduction to computer software

  Software systems,
  Operating systems,
  Utility software and device driver
  Application software,
  Word processor,
  Databases,
 Spreadsheets & presentation programming languages

Objectives

At the end of the chapter the learner shall be able to;

1) Explain computer software and the classification of computer software.

2) Explain system software and the different software in that category and
their application and importance in computing.
3) Explain application software and the different software in that category such
4) general purpose and special purpose software.

88
• Explain Ready-made software versus tailor made software

Activity 1

Log on to http://www.mhhe.com/peternorton and walk

through the various classification of computer software. Now list the classes in
the space below

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

3.1 Introduction to Computer Software

Software is a Program commercially prepared and tested in software by one or a
group of programmers and system analyst to perform a specified task. Software is
simply set of instructions that cause a computer to perform one or more tasks. The set
of instructions is often called a program or, if the set is particularly large and complex,
a system. Computers cannot do any useful work without instructions from software;
thus a combination of software and hardware (the computer) is necessary to do any
computerized work. A program must tell the computer each of a set of tasks to
perform, in a framework of logic, such that the computer knows exactly what to do
and when to do it. Data are raw facts and ideas that have not been processed while
Information is data that has been processed so as to be useful to the user.

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 Classification of software

Software

System software Application software

General/ Readymade Special/ Tailor made

Operating System Service programs
applications applications

Utilities Development Programs

Software can be broadly classified into System software and Application

software

3.1.1 System Software

This is the first set that consists of programs that control operations of the computer
and makes sure that the computer works efficiently. They coordinate computer
activities and optimize use of computers. They are used to control the computer and
develop and run application programs examples of jobs done by the system software.
Software is a program or set of instructions that causes the Hardware to function in a
desired way. There are four categories of system software. They are:

 Operating system
 Translators
  Assemblers
 Utility programs

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Now let us discuss each on its own and get to see what they entail:

3.1.1.1 Operating System (OS)

It will interest you to know that an operating system is a group of programs that
manages all activities on the computer. The software that manages the resources of a
computer system and schedules its operation is called Operating System. The
operating system acts as interface between the hardware and the user programs and
facilitates the execution of programs. Generally, the OS acts as an interface between
the user and the Hardware of the computer. i.e. it is a bridge between the user and the
Hardware the User interface provided by the OS can be character based or graphical.

CUI -- Character user Interface

GUI -- Graphical user Interface

CUI: It is operated with keyboard only. Ex: MS-DOS, UNIX

GUI: The system can be operated with mouse and keyboard. Ex: Windows 95,
Windows XP, etc.

Operating systems provide a software platform on top of which other programs, called
application programs can run. The application programs must be written to run on top
of a particular operating system.

Application

Operating System

Hardware

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The System Platform

Disk Operating System (DOS): It was developed as early as 1980 by Bill Gates
Microsoft. It is suited for personal computers. Dos are a single user and single task
operating system WINDOWS: It works with DOS and it supports single user and
multitask system. It requires a powerful PC with a minimum RAM of 8 MB for early
windows 3.1UNIX AND XENIX: It is suited for multi-user and multi-task system.

Mac OS: Macintosh, a product of apple, has its own operating system with GUI and
WIMP features.

UNIX/LINUX: these are operating systems that were originally created with a
command line interface, but recently added GUI enhancements.

The question that baffles many people is: is there need for an operating system? To
answer this question let us tackle the section below

Need of operating system

The operating system is a suite of programs that takes over the operation of the
computer to the extent of being able to allow a number of programs run on the
computer without human intervention by an operator.

Purpose of operating system

Over many years the increased processing speeds of the processor and its massive
problem solving. Capability brought about the need for more sophisticated modes of
operating computers Problems encountered on the early generations were:

Set –up time: Required as each job was put onto the machine and during which time
the computer was completely idle. For example, changing tape real on tape units,
changing stationery on a printer, etc.

Manual intervention: This was necessary in order to investigate error conditions and to
initiate corrective action. Again the machine would lie idle when this was being done.

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Imbalance between processor and peripherals: This meant that the central processor
was lying idle for ―long‖ period for long period of time during the operations of
peripheral units

What is required is a super controller to ensure that facilities are used to optimum
advantage. It becomes clear that the job could only be under taken by some form of
internally stored program. This became known as an operating system.

Activity 3
What is the full meaning of the abbreviation GUI?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

What is the main advantage of GUI interfaces?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

Armed with this knowledge on how the operating system evolved let us now discuss
the functions of the operating system.

3.1.1.1.1 Functions of operating systems

Obviously, not all operating systems carry out precisely the same tasks; a single
programming micro will not need to perform all tasks of a multiprogramming, multi-
user mainframe computer. The functions listed below apply to a greater or lesser
extent to many computers, and will be explained in more depth in subsequent units.

(a) Job and processors scheduling

All operating systems must have ability to load programmes (jobs) into the memory
and start them running; more complex operating systems have to allocate CPU time,

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memory and I/O (input/output) resources to different processes
running concurrently.

(b) Communication with the computer user

The OS accepts commands from the operator and responds to them. This is usually via
the console keyboard. Apart from the operator‘s job loading and unloading
peripherals the operator also has the responsibility of dealing with errors missed by
operating systems, and in the event of operating system failure the operator must re-
establish it. The operator can key in responses to prompts from the system and also
key in commands available in the command language.

(c) Input/output control

Reading from and writing to various peripherals is controlled by the operating

systems.
(d) Interrupt handling

This is one function of the executive. When an interrupt occurs control is passed to the
executive, which determines the cause of the interrupt and transfers control to the
most appropriate error routines. Sources of some interrupts are listed here.

(e) An interrupt caused by power failure

This has usually the highest priority. The OS saves vital information using the dying
power supply so that it can be restarted when power return.

(f) Arithmetic or logic errors

When the arithmetic and logic unit detects that an error has taken place it generates a
signal that causes an interrupt, e.g., overflow or underflow may cause an error signal,
or output may be requested to a non-existent device. Control is passed to executive,
which initiates the appropriate error routines. Control will be returned to the program
once corrective action has been taken and error messages are printed, or in the case of
a fatal error that cannot be corrected the program will be suspended permanently.

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(g) Hardware malfunction (e.g., parity errors)

The I/O control for each device and its associated hardware normally takes care of
parity checking. If a parity error is detected the executive is notified by an interrupt,
and so on.

(h) External interrupts

This are caused by events such as the operator pressing an interrupt key in the console
or caused by signals from other processes in a multi-processor machine.

(i) Provision of error- correction routines

Little can be done about the errors in jobs that are the result of programming faults,
apart from providing information as to the type of fault. The operating system should
be able to handle errors that occur as part of normal operating activity however. For
example, if data is lost during transfer because of late service of an interrupt, a routine
should be available to recover the data by setting up the read process again.

(j) Data security and management

These involve these main activities:

Preventing illegal access or amendments to user or system files.

‗Dumping‘ the contents of files from time in case of future loss, e.g. disk files may be
transferred to tape and then stored off-line.

Keeping track of file descriptions and locations. (k) Memory management

Some or all of the computer‘s memory will be portioned, with different programs
running in different partitions. The O/s decides on how these partitions are organized.
Even in a micro which can only run one program at a time, some memory
management is required. The O/s for example, will occupy a different partition from
the users program.
Operating system
Partition A

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 Program A
Partition B
Program B
Partition C
Program C
Memory partitioning

Now let‘s focus on how operating systems operate

3.1.1.1.2 Modes of operation

O/s varies considerably in their capabilities, from relatively simple single user
microcomputer systems, to sophisticated mainframe computers. The modes of
operation include:

Single program operation

The O/s supervises the loading and running of one program at a time, and the input
and output of data from and to peripheral devices.

Multiprocessing

In large systems, one computer system may have more than one processor, but may
still share or some of the same memory.

Multiprogramming

This means that two or more programs are being run concurrently. The O/s has to
allocate resources to each program, allowing each one a small amount of processor
time before moving on to the next one. There are many different types of
multiprogramming systems.

Multi-user system

Multi-user OS allows several people to be running programs simultaneously from

different workstations. This is also called time-sharing system, with each user in turn
being allocated a time-slice.

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Batch system

Where there are few facilities for a multi-user, interactive computing, but nevertheless
several batch jobs may be processed simultaneously in order to, optimize the computer
resources.

Multitasking

System which could be, for example, a single user stand-alone microcomputer running
an O/s such as UNIX, OS/2 or windows 3.1, which allows programs to be running
simultaneously. When the term is applied to mini or mainframe computers, it implies
the concurrent execution of two or more related tasks between which communication
is possible. put in another way, multitasking is taking place when a single job is broken
down into stages called tasks which can
be simultaneously executed.

The operating system defines the type of processing that a computer system is
able to perform, since it controls the allocation and use of the computer resources.
There are different types of operating systems according to the number of users it can
support, the number of tasks it can perform simultaneously and the user interface.

3.1.1.1.3 Types of Operating Systems

Single program systems

The majority of small microcomputer- based systems have monitors, which allow a
single user to operate the machine in an interactive conversational mode but normally
only allows one user program to be in main storage and processed at a time, ie, there is
no multiprogramming of user programs.

There are a number of well-established operating systems that fall into this category.
Apart from those operating systems are specific to particular manufacturers
machines there are some that are available on a wide range of different machines.

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Examples: CP/M (control program for microcomputers) produced by digital
research and MSDOS produced by Microsoft.

Simple batch systems

These are systems that provide multiprogramming of batch programs but have few
facilities for interaction or multi-access. Many commercial computer systems in use
during the 1960s and early 1970s were of this type.

Multi-access and Time-sharing systems

The majority of operating systems fall into this category, but there is a wide range of
complexity in such systems.

On the larger micro-computers and smaller minicomputers there are a number of

operating systems that are available for use on a variety of machines produced by
many different manufacturers including SUN, SEQUENT, UNISYS, PEC and even
IBM. One such operating system that is gaining popularity is UNIX, which was
developed by Bell laboratories in USA.

Real-time systems

The operating system has to cater for the type of real-time being used. The three types
are given here in order of increasingly fast response time.

A more complex multi-access time sharing system where each user has a largely
independent choice of system facilities, e.g. each using a different language.

Commercial real-time systems in which there is essentially one job, such as handling
booking, and multi-access user has clerical rather than programming function. These
systems often make use of extensive data bases.

Process control systems e.g., a system to control the operation of a chemical-factory

plant. Responses to changes must be fast as possible and reliability is essential. Real-
time process control systems vary greatly in size. The big systems, such as the one just
mentioned, are at other extreme a r e embedded Real-time control systems

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used in microprocessor-based instruments and monitoring devices, e.g. the control
system in a service station petrol pump or in domestic washing machine.

3.1.1.2 Translators

Computers can understand instructions only when they are written in their own
language – the machine language. Therefore, a program written in any other language
should be translated into machine language. The software that ―translates‖ the
instructions of different languages is known as translators. There are two types of
translators; compilers and Interpreters
A Compiler checks the entire user – written program (known as the source program) and
if it is error free, produces a complete program in machine language (known as object
program). The source program is retained for possible modifications and corrections and
the object program is loaded into the computer for execution. If the source program
contains errors, the compilers produce a list of errors at the end of the execution of the
program. i.e. a compiler translates the whole program before execution.

An interpreter does a similar job but in a different style. The interpreter translates one
statement at a time and if it is error – free, executes. This continues till the last
statement. Thus an interpreter translates or executes the first instruction before it goes
to the second, while a compiler translates the whole program before execution.

The major difference between compiler and interpreter is, error correction is very much
simpler in the case of interpreter as it translates the statements in stages. The compiler
produces an error list of the entire program at the end. Interpreter takes more time for
the execution of the program compared to compilers as it translates one statement at a
time
3.1.1.3 Assemblers
An assembler is used to generate machines code (object code) from assembly language
source text (source code). The assembler normally needs to reed thee text twice in
order to accomplish this task. It is then known as a ‗two pass assembler‘

On the first pass, the assembler generates a symbol table which is stored in RAM. This
table is used to equate each symbolic address (label) with an absolute address (which
is usually not the address at which the program is finally loaded for execution) on the

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 second pass; the assembler generates the machine code (object code) for each
instruction.

Various assembler directives can be included within the source code. These pseudo-
mnemonics are not translated into object code but are recognized by the assembler
during the assembly process. Their purpose is to allow the user to modify, in some
way, the object code produced

3.1.1.4 Utility Programs

Looking at utility programs you will realize that, they are a little different from
operating systems because they are used to manage computer files, diagnose and
repair computer problems and assist in helping the computer to run more efficiently.
These are pre-written programs supplied by the manufacturer for maintaining day to
day activities of computer system. Example: COPY, SORT, MAILING, virus scanning
software etc., there are various examples of these programs and we discuss a few here:

3.1.1.4.1 Editors
An editor allows the user to create a text file in a form which may be easily modified.
Editors are available in two forms: simple line editors (which only permit operations on
a single line of text at a time), and full screen editors (which permit full cursor control
over the whole screen). There are two types of editors; Line editors and Screen editors

Differentiate between line editors and screen editors?

3.1.1.4.2 Linkers and Loaders

These are a new set of software that are used to develop computer programs in
modules or subroutines. After compilation, a program usually needs to be linked with
the necessary I/O or mathematical routines contained in a ‗run-time library‘. The
necessary routine is then simply added to the machine code. This process is achieved
with the aid of a linker (sometimes also called a ‗binder‘).

During compilation and assembly, symbolic labels are normally used to represent
address. Programs can thus be made locatable (i.e. they can be loaded anywhere in
unreserved RAM). The final stage in the process involves replacing all symbolic

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 address with the absolute addresses to be used for final execution. This is achieved
with the aid of a loader.

3.1.1.4.3 Debuggers
Debuggers provide a means of testing programs interactively during run time.
Common features include:

 Displaying the content of a given block of memory in a hexadecimal or SCII

loading a program ready for execution

  Filling a given block of memory with a given data value
  Commencing execution with optional break points
  Performing hexadecimal arithmetic
  Setting up a file control block and command tail
  Disassembling a block of memory
  Moving a block of from one location to another
  Reading a disk file into a memory
  Tracing or single- stepping program execution
  Showing memory layout of a disk file reel
  Writing the contents of a given block of memory to a disk
 Examining and modifying the CPU registers

As we look at the other software it’s important to remember that there can be
software that is written to solve a specific problem. Such software is called
application software.

3.1.2 Application Software

Are programs for user to do their jobs e.g. typing, recording keeping, production of
financial statements, drawing, and statistics? These programs are grouped into:

3.1.2.1 General/Ready-made Software

This are developed to perform a variety of tasks, usually determined by use. Such
software can be customized by user to achieve specific goals e.g. MS office which is a

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suit of programs performing a variety of tasks e.g. word processing for producing
documents, database for storing, retrieving and manipulating data and various
calculations on spreadsheets. General purpose programs are as discussed below;

3.1.2.1.1 Word Processing Applications.

Writing tasks previously done on type writers with considerable effort can now be
easily completed with word-processing software. Documents can be easily edited and
formatted. Revisions can be made by deleting (cutting), inserting, moving (cutting and
pasting), and copying data. Documents can be stored (saved) and opened again for
revisions and/or printing. Many styles and sizes of fonts are available to make the
document attractive. Example: MS Word, Word Pad etc.

3.1.2.1.2 Spreadsheet Applications.

spreadsheet software permits performance of an almost endless variety of quantitative
tasks such as budgeting, keeping track of inventory, preparing financial reports, or
manipulating numbers in any fashion, such as averaging each of ten departmental
monthly sales over a six- month period. A spreadsheet contains cells, the intersection
of rows and columns. Each cell contains a value keyed in by the user. Cells also contain
formulas with many capabilities, such as adding, multiplying, dividing, subtracting,
averaging, or even counting. An outstanding feature is a spreadsheet's ability to
recalculate automatically. If one were preparing a budget, for example, and wanted to
change a variable such as an increase in salary or a change in amount of car payments,
the formulas would automatically re-calculate the affected items and the totals.
Example: Excel, Lotus1-2-3, etc.

3.1.2.1.3 Database software

A database contains a list of information items that are similar inform at and/or
nature. An example is a phone book that lists a name, address, and phone number for
each entry. Once stored in a database, information can be retrieved in several ways,
using reports and queries. For example, all the names listed for a given area code could
be printed out and used for a commercial mailing to that area. An example of database
software is Ms Access, Dbase, Oracle etc.

3.1.2.1.4 Presentation Software

Its form a king slide shows. This software allows users to create visual presentation. A
speaker may use presentation software to organize a slide show for an audience. Text,

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graphics, sound, and movies can e a s i l y b e i n c l u d e d i n t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n .
An added feature is that the slide show may be enhanced by inclusion of handouts
with two to six slides printed on a page. The page maybe organized to provide space
for notes to be written in by the audience as the presentation ensues. An example of
this is Power Point. Preparation of the software is simplified by the use of 'wizards'
that w a l k the user through the creation of the presentation.

3.1.2.1.5 Desktop Publishing Software

This software permits the user to prepare documents by using both word-processing
devices and graphics. Desktop publishing software uses word-processing software,
with all its ease of entering and revising data, and supplements it with sophisticated
visual features that stem from graphics software. For example, one can enhance a
printed message with virtually any kind of illustration, such as drawings, paintings,
and photographs. Examples of Desktop publishing software is Page Maker, Corel
Draw, and Ms Publisher

Multimedia applications: for creating video and music. It also allows users to create
image, audio, video etc. Example: Real Player, Media Player etc.

Activity management programs, like calendars and address books

NB: Nowadays most of the general purpose software is being sold as complete
software suites such as Microsoft office or Lotus Smart Suite. These suites offer four
or more software products packaged together at a much lower price than buying the
packages separately.

3.1.2.2 Custom/Bespoke Software Packages

These are specialized software that are made for a specific customer specification.
Rather like bespoke tailoring, bespoke software is software that is tailor made for the
client. It‘s an exact fit with the client‘s requirements, eliminating many of the

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compromises that are built into ‗Off the Shelf‘ software. The software can be
developed to do exactly what the client requires, no need to accept the compromises of
‗Off-the-Shelf‘ software applications. Bespoke software can be based on your current
working methods, thereby using terminology your staffs are already familiar with,
thereby reducing training times. They are developed for given purpose e.g. Payroll
system, stock control system etc.

The developed software solutions could validate user input, thereby ensuring the data
in your system is as accurate as possible and is able to produce reliable trusted
outputs. Bespoke software is adaptable, as your business evolves so can the software,
building on your original investment, rather than starting over from scratch.

This means you can start by developing a bespoke software application that covers
one area of your business, and expand this later to cover other areas.

Why not buy off the shelf?

Often there are Off-the-Shelf software solutions that achieve many of the requirements
of individual companies, however there will normally be areas of operation that
require the company to work differently, tailoring their business to the software
available, rather than tailoring the software to their real business requirements.
Sometimes a good compromise can be achieved w h e r e a b e s p o k e s o l u t i o n i s
u s e d to ‗glue‘ together different ‗Off-the-Shelf‘ applications, however this is never
the same as having a fully bespoke software solution developed from the ground up.

Office based applications

The Bespoke s office based applications could run on PCs powered by Microsoft
operating systems, such as Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7. Web Based
Applications can be assessed by different types of computers such as Apple
computers, tablet devices, Smartphone‘s.

The office based applications, can be developed using many programming languages
and technologies. The database applications are usually based on Microsoft Access;
these applications are developed as information system so that you, as the end user do

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not have to deal with any of the day to day operations of the underlying Access
database. Clear user interfaces are provided that offer basic functionality.

Web applications are websites that have programming functionality. A typical

example would be a site for booking hotels or flights. However, it is possible to build
internet based solutions that are not for use by the general public, but for use by your
organization alone, this can be particularly practical if you have a sales force that are
home based for example, or if you have staff that need to access your system from
many different locations.

3.2 Programming Languages

There are three types of programming languages.

Machine Languages: Computers respond only to machine language. This language is

in terms of binary codes (0,1). I.e. all programs should be written with these codes,
which are difficult, time consuming and leading to errors while writing the programs.
There is no unique standard machine language. Rather there are many machine
languages. These are machine dependent. These are referred as the first generation
languages.

Assembly Languages: It uses mnemonic codes rather than numeric codes (as in
machine languages). Ex. Add or A is used as a symbol for addition. It requires
translators to convert into machine language. Like machine language, writing program
in assembly language is also time consuming. These are also machine dependent.
Referred to as second generation.

High Level Languages (HLL): These are referred as problem oriented languages (POL).
These are referred as third generation languages. The advantages of these languages are
the high level languages are convenient for writing programs as they can be written
without any codes. These languages follow rules like ―English‖ language. Because of their
English like nature, less time is required to write a program. They are machine
independent. A program written in any HLL can be run on computers of different types
without any modifications. Several High Level Languages which are in common use:

 FORTRAN: FORmula TRANslation

105
  COBOL: Common Business Oriented Language

 BASIC: Beginner‗s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code

 PROLOG: PROgramming in LOGic

 ALGOL: Algorithmic Language

 JAVA

 C

 C++

In this topic you have learnt that the ingredient that enables a computer to perform
specific tasks is the computer software and that these are just sets of instructions that
tell the machines physical components what to do. In defining the computer
software, we saw that it falls into two major categories. In topic 4, we will discuss
data processing modes. But before you go topic 4, let us see how well you have
understood topic 3.

Self-check

Chapter Review Questions

1. Which of the following is not General Purpose software? (10marks)

(a) Stock Control (b) Word Processing ( c) Internet software (d) Presentation

2. Which of the following is not part of the Ms. Office suite?

106
 (a) Ms Word (b) Ms Access (c) Outlook (d) Ms QuickBooks

3. Which of the following is not an operating system?

(a) Windows XP (b) Windows Explorer (c) Ms Dos (d) Linux

4. Which of the software below would assist a secretary in preparing report for an
annual general meeting?

(a) Ms Word (b) Ms Access (c) Outlook (d) Ms QuickBooks

5. Whichofthesoftwarebelowwouldassistasalesmaninrecordingdailysales for
different items for which he needs totals among other analysis?
(a) Ms Word (b) Ms Access (c) Outlook (d) Ms Excel

6. State and explain any four functions of the operating system ( 8 marks)

7. Give any five distinguishing features between machine and assembly language
(5 Marks)

8. What factors would you consider when buying a computer software? (7 marks)

Scoreboard

Marks Remarks
25–30 Excellent
20–25 Very Good
15–20 Good
10–15 Fair
0- 10 Go through the topic again

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 Further Reading

Norton, P. (2006). Introduction to Computers, 6th. London: Mc Graw Hill.

Learning Outcomes

You have now completed topic Three, the learning outcomes are listed below;

Check (√) the column which reflects your understanding of the various concepts about
writing.

S/No Learning Outcome Sure Not Sure

1 I can now define a computer software
2. I can discuss the various types of software system
3. I can identify and differentiate between the
various application software
4. I can now describe what programming
languages are

If you have checked the ―not sure‖ column, please go back and study that section in
the topic before proceeding.

If you are ―sure‖ then you are ready for the next topic.

Congratulations you can proceed to the next topic.

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TOPIC FOUR

DATA PROCESSING
Introduction
Having learned about what a computer software is as well as its classifications, it is now
important for us to have a glimpse how a computer carries out data processing. This
topic introduces you to data processing modes. The way data is collected and processed
depends on the processing mode it is subject to. This chapter will examine batch, online,
real-time, distributed, offline, timesharing, and multitasking data processing. The topic
has seven sections namely: Batch, online, real-time, distributed, offline, timesharing and
multitasking

Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to;

i. Define data processing
ii. Discuss the various data processing modes

Activity 1

In your own thinking describe what data processing is

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 ………....

Topic Overview
You will notice that in order to respond to the above question, you have to have known
what data and what processing are. However there a lot of modes of data processing
and in this topic we shall discuss each data processing modes mentioned above so as
to help you understand them.

4.1 Data Processing Modes

The status of information must be updated continuously to reflect business activities. In a
business people write cheques, customer buy on credit, raw material get requisitioned
from the inventory, etc. in all this cases, it is necessary to update the status of information
on computer files. There are various methods of transaction processing for updating the
information status but whichever method is chosen it, has to be cost effective and most
efficient. The way data is collected and processed depends on the processing mode it is
subject to. This chapter will examine batch, online, real-time, distributed, offline,
timesharing, multitasking and distributed data processing. But before we talk about each
data processing mode we look at the data processing cycle.

Data Processing Cycle

Processing

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Data processing cycle refers to the sequence of activities involved in data transformation
from its raw form to get information. After defining data processing let us look at the
data processing modes one by one:

Activity 2

Using an illustration describe any four primary stages of data processing?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

4.2 Batch Processing

This is the technique in which items are collected, grouped and processed together to
permit convenient and efficient processing. The collection of data is done over time
(done for a particular period) e.g. monthly, weekly etc. This approach of data
processing is commonly used in updating payroll, invoices etc.

4.2.1 Advantages
 The unit cost of processing is low


 Does not require special hardware and software


 Has enhanced system security because any time updating occurs
new files are created.

 Simple to develop and maintain

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 Figure 4: Batch Processing

4.2.2 Disadvantages
 Random inquires cannot be made to the system


 Errors are reported late; this is because some time is taken before processing


 Provides information that is always out of date at processing


 It always produces either unwanted information orb not enough information.

4.3 Time Sharing System

This technique for making available the service of a single computer to multiple (two
or more) users simultaneously, providing rapid responses to each of the users.

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 Figure 5: Time Sharing

From the above definition, time sharing involves;

 The use of a single computer system



 Many independent users


 Each user operates independently without an awareness of the use of facility
by others

 Each user having his own programs


 Each user expects fast response


 The user‘s files are maintained at the processing centre (central computer)


 Time sharing is popular in universities but limited to commercial use

4.3.1 Advantages
 It reduces the CPU idle time


 Provides several high level languages for programming


 Costs are spread to many users


 Provides direct access to a computer file which is always held online


 Supports many users


 The information output is fast

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4.3.2 Disadvantages
 Require large storage capacity


 It is expensive to install


 Requires a powerful computer and a powerful operation system


 Controlling such a system is difficult because the passwords can be stolen.

4.3.3 Desirable Features of Time Sharing

  Response time needs to be very high.

 Users are not even supposed to imagine that they are waiting to be served


 Should have good input/output devices


 There must be a well-defined method of charging the users for the CPU time used


 Control must be exercised to ensure that users are protected against file
destruction and unauthorized use.

4.4 Multitasking or Multiprogramming

From the mode discussed above we now move to, multitasking. This is a technique of
having the computer handle several programs or tasks concurrently. The programs
reside in different sections of the memory, and the operating system switches control
from one to the other. Programs are queued and are held in a storage media. The
programs are then called on priority basis. Real time programs are given first
preference to batch process. Otherwise once the program is completed the next one in
queue is loaded by the operating system.

4.4.1 Advantages
 Support many users


 Provide direct access to the CPU Reduces the CPU idle time

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4.4.2 Disadvantages

  Requires a powerful CPU (with very high speed)

  Requires I/O facilities which operate without constant supervision by the CPU
  Requires a powerful operating system
 The overall time taken to process information is long

4.5 Online Processing System

Another one is online processing. This is a system in which input data is communicated
directly to the CPU. The output information is transmitted directly to the user. The data
transmission system consists of a remote point where data is captured and presented a
device that takes from remote point and passes it to the computer and subsequently
transmit information from the computer to a remote point after processing is done.

4.6 Offline Processing Systems

This is a system which is not under the control of the CPU. Offline equipment‘s such as
key punch machines (for punching cards) key entry devices or for busters have no
direct hook-up with the CPU.

4.7 Distributed Data Processing (Multi-Processing) or DDP

This is a method where two or more computers are linked together for various users
for the same organization. These computers are usually located in various regions,
departments, and sections etc. of an organization. The computer systems are
physically remote and access to each machine is capable of carrying out local
processing for its department, section or region of the organization. It‘s also nice to
look at the advantages and disadvantages.

4.7.1 Benefits of DDP

It encourages effective decision making since all the required information can easily be
made available locally.

 System failure; if one element of a system fails, processed data in the department
is not affected.

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  Has enhanced security, most of the sensitive operations are done locally

 Error can easily be corrected

 Lower cost

 Better reliability

4.7.2 Disadvantages
 Requires that the user get involved in the system hence the users
have to be trained

 There are programming problems with micro and mini Computers for Schools
Kenya standard is difficult to maintain and monitor

 It encourages data duplication


 Require extra costs for communication equipment

4.8 C e n t r a l i z e d and Decentralized Data Processing

This is the way an organization chooses to process its data. In decentralized
processing therefore each division or section has operating responsibility with the
data processing. Each division implement systems designed for them they don‘t
design their own systems.

4.9 Factors to Consider When Selecting t h e Data Processing

Mode
 The response time: time taken before a desirable response is obtained


 The cost of initial installation and operation


 Type of processing system anticipated whether time driven or event driven

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  Ease of development: designers/ analyst always opt for systems easier to
develop as they most cheaply to maintain.

In this topic, you have learnt that there are various data processing modes. We
examined batch, online, real-time, distributed, offline, timesharing, and multitasking
data processing. In topic 5, we will discuss Data Communication; this is transfer of
data from point to another using electronics means. We will also look at networks
and network topologies. But before you go topic 5, let us see how well you have
understood topic 4.

Self-Check

1) Define Data representation (5 marks)

2) Briefly discuss the various data processing

modes (25 marks)

Scoreboard
Marks Remarks
25–30 Excellent
20–25 Very Good
15–20 Good
10–15 Fair
0- 10 Go through the topic again

Further Reading

Norton, P. (2006). Introduction to Computers,6th ed. London: Mc Graw Hill

Mburu, S., & Chemwa, G. (2011). Computer studies Book 1. London: Longhorn Publishers

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 Learning Outcomes

You have now completed topic four, the learning outcomes are listed below;

Check (√) the column which reflects your understanding of the various concepts about
writing.

S/No Learning Outcome Sure Not Sure

1 I can now define data processing
2. I can discuss the various modes of data
processing

If you have checked the ―not sure‖ column, please go back and study that section in
the topic before proceeding.

If you are ―sure‖ then you are ready for the next topic.

Congratulations you can proceed to the next topic.

TOPIC FIVE

DATA COMMUNICATION
Introduction

In the previous topic we learned about the data processing, we also went further and
discussed the various modes of data processing. This topic introduces you to the
process of data communication which entails the transfer of the data from one point to
 another. We also look in depth at networks the arrangement of computers in these
networks as well as the types of networks. The topic has five sections namely:

 Introduction to data
 Communication data
 Communication elements
  Introduction to networks
 Types of networks and network topologies

Objectives

By the end of the course unit a learner shall be able to:

1) Define computer network
2) Discuss the various transmission media
3) Discuss the process of selecting network devices and topologies for various
places

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 Activity 1

In your own understanding define, communication

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

What is a computer network?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

What do you understand by the term data communication?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Topic Overview
You will notice that in order to respond to any of the above questions, you have to
have known what communication is. However, there a lot of materials on data
communication and this tend to confuse learners. However, this topic is designed to
help you understand what data communication is by covering areas of computer
networks and network topologies. Hope you will enjoy

5.1 Introduction to Data Communication

Computers also communicate to one another. Computers that are in a communication
are said to be in a network and they share data and that is what is referred to as data
communication. To introduce ourselves to this new area we say: This is transfer of data

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from point to another using electronics means. In any communication process we have
the source, encoder, transmitter, transmission media receiver, decoder and destination.
The source of data can be sensor or human being this data has to be coded into form
that other parts of the system may understand. The data must be transformed into a
form that can be transmitted this is work of the encoder. The transmitter receives this
code message and transmits it over the media.

Since data in a computer has to be transmitted or transported it’s

important to note over what media it’s transported. We thus discuss the
various media below.

5.2 Transmission Media

A digital signal cannot be sent from one place to another without a medium of
communication. A transmission medium is a pathway used for carrying data and
information from one point to another. This communication media will in most cases
dictate the type of signal to be used to transmit a message. In essence data
communication media can be divided into two: This can be classified into guided and
unguided media. With guided media data transmission is constrained with a
transmission channel e.g. a pair of copper wire. In unguided media the data is
transmitted over space and may be Omni-directional. Next we now look at these two
types of media.

5.2.1 Guided Media

The main distinguishing characteristic is that in the guided or bounded media data
signals are transmitted from the source to destination through a restricted pathway
such as through a cable. In guided media the electromagnetic wave signal is
constrained within what is known as physical media. There are several types of guided
transmission media but the most common ones are:

  Two wire open lines cable

  Twisted pair cable
  Coaxial cables
 Fibre optic cables

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Now let us discuss each of them for a better understanding

5.2.1.1 Twisted Pair Cable

A twisted pair cable is made up of two solid copper wire strands wound around each
other in a double helix manner. A cable a pair of wires are used to transmit information
from point to another. Several pair can be grouped together like to form a multi-core cable.
The twisting helps in overcoming cross talk or in simple terms it helps reduce the
development of an electromagnetic field around the wires as they transmit data. It has the
advantage of flexibility and cheap. However, it easily suffers from cross talk especially
where cable in parallel for some length. Starting and stopping electrical motors will affect
the cables. However, shielding has been used in critical areas.

Activity 2
At your own free time read and make notes on the two most common types of twisted
pair cables

What are the advantages and disadvantages of twisted pair cabling?

5.2.1.2 Co-axial Cable

The second type of guided media is the coaxial cable. A coaxial cable resembles a cable
that is used to connect television antenna to a television set. This cable has a central copper
core which may be of solid or stranded wires surrounded by an insulator. The dielectric
material is then surrounded by a hollow mesh conductor which is covered by

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a shield making the cable more resistant to electromagnetic interference than the
twisted pair cable. At high frequencies current flow is concentrated on the skin of a
cable. This means that remove the material of a wire may not affect transmission. In co
– axial cable we have an inner conducted

Figure 6: Co-axial cable

Surrounded by an outer conductor separated by spacers. The outer conductor acts as a

shield from electromagnetic interference as the return path. This cable has superior
noise characteristics but special terminators and is less flexible. Figure depicts a Co-
Axial cable

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Co-axial cables?

5.2.1.3 Fibre Optical Cable

Next we discuss fibre optic; this is one of the latest types of bounded medium to be
developed. Instead of carrying data signals or transmitting electronic signals the fibre
optic cable utilizes light to transmit data from one point to another on the network.
The cable consists of thin glass/plastic fiber surrounded by cladding that offers
environmental protection. Data is injected via photol/Laser diode into the cable as
light pulses that undergo total internal refraction and received other side by a photo
diode. It has the advantage of immunity from electromagnetic interference, has high
capacity by is expensive to implement.

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of fibre optic?

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5.2.2 Un –Guided Media
After discussing at length about guided media let us now shift and focus on unguided
or wireless media. Wireless or unguided media is a type of media that is used to
transmit data from one point to another without using physical connection. In this case
transmitting antenna and receiver aerial facilitate this. This makes use of radio waves
that are transmitted over antennae and transmitted over space. This can be either via
ground wave, sky wave or space wave transmission. Satellite transmission is a form of
space transmission. A radio wave as a form of electromagnetic wave that can is
radiated out of antennae. Generally if a antennae is excited by an alternating signal, the
magnetic field will be changing direction at 180 degrees. For a magnetic wave to
change direction it has to collapse back into the antennae and requires some time to do
this. At about 15 KHz the periodic time of wave become equal to the time for magnetic
field to collapse into the antennae. Any reduction in periodic time will mean that the
magnetic field will not have collapse before the wave changes. The will result in the
collapsing field being repelled into space. A changing magnetic field generates a
changing electric field which in turn generates a changing magnetic field. These self-
generating fields referred to as electromagnetic waves, moves through space at the
speed of light.

A characteristic of any transmission media is the data transfer rate. This is expressed as
number of bits transmitted per second. The high the data rate the high the bandwidth.
Examples of wireless transmission include: microwaves, satellite radio waves and
infra-red transmission.

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of wireless transmission

After understanding the transmission media let us now shift our focus onto
the communication system.

5.3 Basic Elements of a Communication System

The following are the basic requirements for working of a communication system.

1) The sender (source) who creates the message to be transmitted

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 2) A medium that carries the message
3) The receiver (sink) who receives the message

Receiver: This receives the data from the transmission media and passes it over to the
decoder.

Decoder: Changes the received signal to form to the form it was in before encoding
before applying it to the destination.

Encoder: This encodes the signal before transmission

Transmitter: This transmits the encoded signal into the appropriate medium.

The basic communication system is normally used in a network.

Following is a discussion on networks

Activity 3

In your own words define a network?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

5.4 Network
A network is an interconnection of computers. This interconnection leads to several
classifications of computer networks. Let us start with familiarizing ourselves with
some important terms that are normally used in networking.

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5.4.1 Important Terms Used in Networking
(a) Internet

The newest type of network to be used within an organization is an internet or internet

web. Such networks enable computers (or network) of any type to communicate easily.
The hardware and software needs are the same as for the internet, specifically TCP/IP,
server and browser software used for the World Wide Web. Because most
organizations have a need for more dynamic ways to link people and information, the
internet market is expanding day by day. Moreover, there is no need to adjust the
network when a new user joins in. With the help of Internet, all computers of an
organization can work as stand-alone systems, connected to a mainframe, or part of a
LAN or WAN.

(b) E-Mail

E-mail stands for electronic mail. This is one of the most widely used features of
Internet. Mails are regularly used today where without the help of postage stamp we
can transfer mails anywhere in the world. With electronic mail the service is similar.
But here data is transmitted through Internet and therefore within minutes the
message reaches the destination.

(c) Voice Messaging

It is a new communication approach which is similar to electronic mail except that it is

audio message rather than text messages that are processed. A sender speaks into a
telephone rather than typing, giving the name of the recipient and the message. That
sender's voice signal is then digitized and stored. The system can then either deliver
the message at a specified time in future or it can be retrieved from a database by the
recipient. The message is reconverted back into its analog format when it is delivered
or retrieved so that the recipient hears it as the original sender's voice on a telephone.
Voice messaging requires a computer with an ability to store the audio messages in
digital form and then convert them back in an audio form upon verification. Each user
has a voicemail box in secondary storage and special equipment converts. The audio

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message to and from the digital form. The main advantage of voice mail over
electronic mail is that the sender does not have to type. Voice mail also makes it easy
to include people in the firm's environment in a communication network.

(d) E-Commerce

Electronic commerce or e-commerce as it is popularly known refers to the paperless

exchange of business information using Electronic Data Interchange Electronic mail,
Electronic Bulletin Boards, Electronic Fund Transfer and other network based
technologies. Electronic Commerce (EC) not only automates manual process and paper
transactions, but it also helps organizations to move into a fully electronic environment
and change the way they usually operate. Few organizations have recently started
conducting EC over Internet, the network of networks. Internet has also helped EC to
boost up because it is a low cost alternative to the proprietary networks. EC standards are
however underdevelopment. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) is still the dominant part
of EC. Information Technology has transformed the way people work. Electronic
Commerce (EC) has unearthed yet another revolution which is changing the way business
houses buy and sell products and services. EC is associated with buying and selling of
products and services over computer communication networks. EC transfers information
electronically from computer to computer in autonomous way. EC has, in fact,
transformed the way organizations operate.

(e) Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)

EDI is the computer-to-computer exchange of business documents in a standard format.

These formats look much like standard forms and are highly structured.

(f) Teleconferencing

It refers to electronic meetings that involve people who are at physically different sites.
Telecommunication technology allows participants to interact with one another
without travelling to the same location.

Define the term computer network? State four advantages of networking

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 After knowing the common terms in networking let us now talk about the
types of networks available.

5.4.2 Types of Networks

Computer networks can be classified using several aspects but the most common
classification is using size. Currently, there are several types of such networks but the
three most common ones are:

LAN – Local area network and is the interconnection of computer with a small area
such as a University campus. It has a higher data transfer rate and less error. It‘s
usually owned by one organization.

MAN_ Metropolitan area network this is interconnection of computer with a

metropolitan area.

WAN – Wide are network an interconnection of computer globally. The speed a low
and it has a higher error rate.

Explain the three most common types of computer networks in use today.

After talking about the types of networks it’s good to focus our discussion on
a new area in networking called network topologies.

5.4.3 Network Topologies

The term network topology refers to the way in which computers and other devices
have been arranged or how data is passed from one computer to another in a network.
A network topology can be viewed in two ways, physical or logical. Physical Topology
is the actual layout of a network and its connections. Logical Topology is the way in
which data accesses the medium and transmits packets. There are several network
topologies and we discuss each of them in the following section:

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5.4.3.1 Bus Topology
In this topology, the computers are attached to a bus shown in diagram figure below.
The bus must be terminated at end to avoid reflections. The advantages are that it
easier to a computer to the network to system. A failure of any one computer does not
bring the system down. However, a failure of cable causes the whole system to fail. It
also required a complex communication protocols to arbitrate. Any computer can send
data of the bus but must include the destination address and at no time should to
computers transmit at the same time. Carrier sense multiple access with collision
detect (CSMA/CD) is the protocol used.

Figure 7: BUS Network

Advantages

 In expensive to install.

 Easy to add stations.

 Use less cable compared to other topologies.

 Works well for small networks.

Disadvantages

  No longer recommended, due to frequent collisions of packets

  If back bone breaks, whole network down
  Limited no of devices can be attached
 Difficult to isolate problems.

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5.4.3.2 Ring Topology
Similar to a bus network is the ring topology, in this topology rings have nodes daisy
chained, but the end of the network in a ring topology comes back around to the first
node, creating a complete circuit. Each node takes a turn sending and receiving
information through the use of a token. The token along with any data is sent from the
first node to the second node which extracts the data addressed to it and adds any data
it wishes to send. Then second node passes the token and data to the third node, etc.
until it comes back around to the first node again. Only the node with the token is
allowed to send data. All other nodes must wait for the token to come to them.

Advantages
 Data packets travel at great speed

 No collisions

 Easier to fault find

 No terminators required

Disadvantages
 Requires more cable than a bus


 A break in the ring will bring it down


 Not as common as the bus–less devices available

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5.4.3.3 Star Topology
Another topology worth our discussion is the star topology. In a star network, each
node is connected to a central device called a hub. The hub takes a signal that comes
from any node and passes it along to all the other nodes in the network. A hub does
not perform any type of filtering or routing of the data. A hub is a junction that joins
all the different nodes together.

Advantages

 As compared to Bus topology it gives far much better performance, signals don‘t
 necessarily get transmitted to all the workstations.
 A sent signal reaches the intended destination after passing through no more
than 3-4 devices and 2-3 links.
 Performance of the network is dependent on the capacity of central hub.
 Easy to connect new nodes or devices.
 In star topology new nodes can be added easily without affecting rest of the
network.
 Similarly, components can also be removed easily.
  Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network.
  Failure of one node or link doesn‘t affect the rest of network.
 At the same time, it is easy to detect the failure and troubleshoot it.

Disadvantages

 Too much dependency on central device has its own drawbacks. If it fails whole
network goes down.

131
  The use of hub, a router or a switch as central device increases the overall cost of
the network.

Activity 4

List two types of network software

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Give three examples of protocols used in networking
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

5.4.3.4 Mesh Topology

Another topology is the mesh topology. This is the most common type of topology
used in wide area network where there are many paths between different locations.
Each computer is connected to each other resulting in it being robust but uses are a lot
of cabling and the interconnection increases rapidly with increase in number of
computers. A network setup where each computer and network device is
interconnected with one another, allowing for most transmissions to be distributed,
even if one of the connections go down. This topology is not commonly used for most
computer networks as it is difficult and expensive to have redundant connection to
every computer. However, this topology is commonly used for wireless networks.

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 Advantages of Mesh topology
 Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously. This topology
can withstand high traffic.

 Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative present. So
data transfer doesn‘t get affected.

 Expansion and modification in topology can be done without
disrupting other nodes.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1) There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections.

2) Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other network
topologies.
3) Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even administration of
the network is tough.

5.3.3.5 Tree Topology

Another topology that we would appreciate visiting in our discussion is the tree topology.
Alternatively referred to as a star bus topology or hierarchical, tree topology is one of the
most common network setups that are similar to a bus topology and a star topology. A
tree topology connects one star network to other star networks. Below is a visual example
of a tree topology, with a simple computer set up on a network using the star topology,
connected to another network using the star topology?

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 Advantages of Tree Topology

 It is an extension of Star and bus Topologies, so in networks where these

topologies can't be implemented individually for reasons related to scalability,
tree topology is the best alternative.

 Expansion of network is possible and easy.

 The whole network into segments (star networks), which can be easily
managed and maintained.

 Error detection and correction is easy.

 Each segment is provided with dedicated point-to-point wiring to the central
hub.

 If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

 Because of its basic structure, tree topology, relies heavily on the main bus
cable, if it breaks whole network is crippled.

 As more and more nodes and segments are added, the maintenance becomes
difficult.

 Scalability of the network depends on the type of cable used.
5.4.3.6 Hybrid Topology
Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way that
the resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star,
ring, etc.). A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic network
topologies are connected. Two common examples for Hybrid network are: star/ring
network and star bus network. A Star/ring network consists of two or more star
topologies connected using a multi- station access unit (MAU) as a centralized hub. A
Star Bus network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a bus trunk
(the bus trunk serves as the network's backbone).

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 Advantages

 Reliable: Unlike other networks, fault detection and troubleshooting is easy in

this type of topology. The part in which fault is detected can be isolated from the
rest of network and required corrective measures can be taken, WITHOUT
affecting the functioning of rest of the network.

 Scalable: It‘s easy to increase the size of network by adding new components,
without disturbing e x i s t i n g architecture.

 Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed according to the requirements of the
organization and by optimizing the available resources. Special care can be given
to nodes where traffic is high as well as where chances of fault are high.

 Effective: Hybrid topology is the combination of two or more topologies, so we can
design it in such a way that strengths of constituent topologies are maximized while
their weaknesses are neutralized. For example, we saw Ring Topology has good
data reliability (achieved by use of tokens) and Star topology has high tolerance
capability (as each node is not directly connected to other but through central
device), so these two can be used effectively in hybrid star-ring topology.

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 Disadvantages

 Complexity of design: One of the biggest drawbacks of hybrid topology is its

design. It‘s not easy to design this type of architecture and it‘s a tough job for
designers. Configuration and installation process needs to be very efficient.

 Costly hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct networks, are very
expensive. These hubs are different from usual hubs as they need to be
intelligent enough to work with different architectures and should be function
even if a part of network is down.

 Costly infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are usually larger in scale, they
require a lot of cables; cooling systems, sophisticate network devices, etc.

In this topic you have learnt what Data Communication is, we went ahead to discuss
the Data communication model as well as transmission media. After this discussion
we went ahead to explore networks as well as classified the networks according to the
physical arrangement of computers.

In topic 6, we will discuss data Representation, that is, the way the data we input into
the computer is represented. We will also look at how you can easily convert data
from one system to another. But before you go topic 6, let us see how well you have
understood topic 5.

Self-Check

a) Describe two characteristics of each of the following:

(i) UTP cable (ii) Fiber cable (iii) Blue tooth (6 Marks) b). Using a well labeled
diagram, describe the following network topologies clearly
identifying the advantages and disadvantages of each.

Mesh topology (4mks)

136
 Bus topology (4mks)
Ring topology (4mks)

c). Identify and briefly explain the five components of a data communications
system. 5mks)

d). For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment)
and software (programs). The effectiveness of a data communications system depends
on four fundamental characteristics. Describe these fundamental characteristics.
(8mks)

Scoreboard
Marks Remarks
25–30 Excellent
20–25 Very Good
15–20 Good
10–15 Fair
0- 10 Go through the topic again

Further Reading

Tanen, A.S. (1996). Computer Networks. New Delhi: Prentice Hall.

Mburu, S., & Chemwa, G. (2010). Computer Studies: Book 4. London:

Longhorn publishers

137
 Learning Outcomes

You have now completed topic Five, the learning outcomes are listed below;

Check (√) the column which reflects your understanding of the various concepts about
writing.
S/No Learning Outcome Sure Not Sure
1 I can now explain what data communication is
2. I can discuss the various transmission media
3. I can identify the different types of network topologies
4. I can now discuss the various factors being used
to select network devices

If you have checked the ―not sure‖ column, please go back and study that section in
the topic before proceeding.

If you are ―sure‖ then you are ready for the next topic.

Congratulations you can proceed to the next topic!

138

CHAPTER SIX
 DATA REPRESENTATION

Introduction

In the previous topic we learned about Data communication, in that discussion we

talked about the various types of transmission media, and the basic elements of a
communication system. We then finished by talking about networks and classified
them according to their topologies. This topic introduces you to data representation
which refers to the methods used internally to represent information stored in a
computer. We shall also look in depth at the number systems and how one can convert
from one number system to another. The topic has eight sections namely:

 Introduction to data representation


 Number systems e.g. decimal number system, binary
number system octal number system

 Hexadecimal number system
 Conversions of number system
 ASCII, EBCDIC, UNICODE

Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

1) Define data representation
2) Explain the procedures of various number systems
3) Carry out conversions of the various number systems

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Activity 1
In your own words define data representation

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Now try and name some number systems you know about
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Topic Overview

If you are able to answer the questions above, then you have some idea on what data
representation is. It is important however to have an in depth knowledge of the
number systems that the computer system uses to store information. In this topic we
will explore these systems to help you understand.

6.1 Introduction
Computers not only process numbers, letters and special symbols but also complex
types of data such as sound and pictures. However, these complex types of data take a
lot of memory and processor time when coded in binary form. This limitation
necessitates the need to develop better ways of handling long streams of binary digits.
Higher number systems are used in computing to reduce these streams of binary to

140
manageable form. This helps to improve the processing speed and optimize memory
usage. Armed with this introduction let us venture into the number systems used by
computers.

6.1.1 Number Systems and their Representation

A number system can be defined as a set of symbols used to represent values derived
from a common base also known as radix. As far as computers are concerned, number
systems can be classified into four major categories;

 Decimal number systems

 Binary number systems
 Octal number systems
 Hexadecimal number systems

Representing numbers

The storage and processing elements of a computer are two-state (or bi stable)
electronic devices. They are used in computers because they are quick and reliable and
take up only small amounts of space and energy. For this reason, the base two or binary
number system which uses the two digits 0 and 1 (for off and on) is suited to
computers. The binary digits are known as BITS.

Let us now consider each number system and its representation

6.1.1.1 Decimal Number System

This is the first number system for us to discuss. The term decimal is derived from a
Latin prefix deci which means ten. The decimal number system has ten digits ranging
from 0 – 9. Because this system has ten digits, it‘s also called base ten number system or
the denary number system. A decimal number should always be written with a
subscript 10 e.g. X10 but since this is the most widely used number system all over the
world the subscript is normally understood and ignored in written work. However,
when many number systems are being considered or in calculations the subscript must
always be put so as to differentiate it from other number systems.

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The magnitude of a number is evaluated using three parameters

Absolute value
Place value or positional value
Base value

The absolute value is magnitude of a digit. For example, the digit 5 in the number 7458
has an absolute value of 5 according to its value in the number line.
The positional/place value of a digit in a number refers to the position of that digit in
that number, that is whether ‗tens‘, ‗hundreds‘ or ‗thousands‘.

Thousands, 103 Hundreds, 102 Tens, 101 Ones, 100

7 4 5 8

The total value of a number is the sum of the place value of each digit making the
number. For example, the total value of the digits in the table above can be worked as
shown N10 = (7*103) + (4*102) + (5*101) + (8*100)
= (7*1000) + (4*100) + (5*10) + (8*1)
= 7000+400+50+8
= 7458
The base number of a number also known as the radix is the type of number system that
is being used. The value of any number depends on the radix.
As we continue let us deal with more examples for better
understanding We count in base (or radix) 10
Tens Units
7
+ 9
6
This simple example illustrates the most important feature of a number system: that the
value of a figure depends on its position or place. For example, the decimal number 267
really means:
267= (2*102) + (6* 101) + (7*100)

6.1.2 Binary Numbers

After dealing with the decimal number system at least you have gotten a little versed
with the number systems now we can proceed to a different number system known as
the binary number system. In contrast, the binary number system has only two digits, 0
or 1, and the place values are units, 2‘s, 4‘s, 8‘s, and 16‘s and so on. Unlike the decimal
numbers where the place values go up in factors of ten, in the binary system the place
values increase by factors of two. Binary numbers are written as X2.

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E.g. 01012 = 0 * 23 +1*22+0*21+1*20
= 0+4+0+1
= 510 (subscript denotes base, i.e. 10)
A decimal number may be represented in a computer by using two state devices 9 such
as semiconductors) to represent its binary equivalent. For example, the decimal number
25 could be.
Device
Position 25 24 23 22 21 20
Value (32) (16)(8)(4)(2)(1)
Code device ‗on‘ (1bit)
Device‘ off‘ (0 bit)

6.1.2.1 Conversion from Decimal to Binary

This can be done by successive divisions by 2, recording the reminder of each division.
E.g 6710 67/2=33 remainder 1
33/2=16 remainder 1
16/2=8 remainder 0
8/2=4 reminder 0
4/2=2 remainder 0
2/2=1 remainder 0
½=0 remainder 1
6710

6.1.3 Octal Numbers

The octal number system uses eight digits running from 0 – 7 to represent values of a
number. The place value of octal numbers goes up in factors of eight from right to left.
For example, to represent an octal number such as 72458 we do so by placing each
number in its positional value.

Place values 83 = 512 82=64 81=8 80=1

Octal numbers 7 2 4 5

Conversions to other number systems

Decimal to octal
e.g. 6910 69 /8=8 remainder 5
8/8=1 remainder 0
1/8 remainder 1
6910=1 0 58

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2. Octal to
Decimal E.g.1148

Place values 82 81 80
(64) (8) (1)
Octal number 1 1 4
conversion (1*64) +(1*8) +(4*1)=7610

6.1.3.1 Conversions between Octal and Binary

This is fairly straightforward because 8 is the cube of 2; just remember the binary
equivalents for eight octal symbols.
Conversion table

Octal- 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Binary 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

Covert 748 to binary

Octal 7 4
Binary(from table) 111 100

Convert 1100110011002 to octal

Group the binary digits into 3s working from right to left.
Add extra 0s to the left and if necessary
Grouped 001 110 011 001 100
binary digits
Octal(from 1 6 3 1 4
table)

Note conversion between decimal are often quicker via octal.

6.1.4 Hexadecimal Numbers (Hexa)

There is another numbers system that is important known as the hexadecimal number
system. This is a number system with a radix of 16. It uses sixteen digits ranging from 0
– 9 and the letters A – F, where A is equivalent to 10 and F is equivalent to 15 in
sequence like that. The place value for hexadecimal numbers goes up in factors of
sixteen Digits for base 10 and Base 16.

Base 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
10

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Base 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
16

Place value Table for the hexadecimal number 94616

Place Value 162 = 256 161 = 16 160=1
Hexadecimal digit 9 4 6

A hexadecimal number is usually denoted using 16 as a subscript or capital

letter H to the right of the number. For example, the number 94B can be denoted as 94B 16
OR 94BH
The symbols are 0 to 9 and the letters A to F (which are equivalent to 10 to15 in decimal
i.e. A=10, B=11 etc).and place values between 0 and 15. Conversions

These follows the same pattern used for binary ant octal
(a) Decimal to Hex
Convert 9110 to hex
91/16=5 remainder 11
=B16
5/16=0 remainder 5 Thus;
9110=5B16
(b) Hex to decimal
Convert 6D16 to decimal
Places values 162 161 160
(256) (16) (1)
Hex 0 6 D
Conversion (0*256) +(6*16) +(13*1)

(c ) Conversion between Hex and other bases

Convert 5B16 to binary and octal

A conversion between Hex and Octal is most easy done via binary
Hex to Binary

Hex number 5 B
Binary equivalent 0101 1011

Binary to Octal
Binary 001 011 011
Octal 1 3 3

Note

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The change from 4 bit to 3-bit binary
Convert 11110010102 to hex
First group the bit into 4s from the right and then convert.
Grouped Binary 0011 1100 1010 digits

Hex 333 C A

d)Binary fractions
Examples of binary fractions are shown below

Binary fraction 2-1=1/2 2-2=1/4 2-3=1/8 2-4=1/16 decimal

.1000 =(1*1/2)+(0*1/4)(+0*1/8+0*1/16) =1/2=0.5
.0100 =1/4=0.25
=(0*1/2)+(1*1/4)+(0*1/8)+(0*1/6)
=(0*1/2)+(0*1/4)+(1*1/8)+(081/16) =1/8=0.125
.0010

=(0*1/2)+(0*1/4)+0*1/8)+1*1/16) =1/16=0.0625
.0001

When converting a number which has both a whole number part and fractional
part, remember to do the two parts separately.

Activity 2
On your own suggest reasons why we use the octal and hexadecimal number systems
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Having gone through the number system lets get more involved in data
representation by talking about computer arithmetic

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6.2 Computer Arithmetic
The arithmetic and logic unit of the central processor in a computer performs all its
arithmetic by addition and shifting rather than having different units for subtraction.

(a) Binary Addition

The rules for adding binary numbers are quite simple. There are only four to remember;
0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1+1=10(0carry 1)
1+1=11(1 carry 1)
(b) Binary Multiplication
Again this is simple. The four rules are
0*0=0
0*1=0
1*0=0
1*1=1
Example
101=510 multiplicand
010=210 multiplier
000
101
000
01010 =1010 product
1 Steps
Start with the most significant digit (one with the highest place value-on the left) of the
multiplier
If it a 1 copy down a row of 0s.
If it is a 0 copy downs a row of 0s
The move to the next digit in the multiplier copying the multiplicand row, or entering 0s
and then shifting one place to the right
Do this for each digit of the multiplier copying the multiplicand, or entering 0s and then
shifting one place to the right
At the end add up all the columns
Binary division
Binary division is not examined but it is best carried out by long division
Negative numbers
There are three common ways of representing negative numbers on Computers
Sign and magnitude (sm)
Ones compliment (1c)
Twos compliment (2c)

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6.2.1 Sign and Magnitude Codes
Here one bit represents the sign of the number and the other bit represents the size
(magnitude) of the number. Conventionally 1 is negative and 0 is positive. The sign bit
can be at either end of the binary number.
Example (The sign bit is underlined);
1011=-3
01110=+14
Sign and magnitude fractions have the most significant bits as the sign bits also
Binary subtraction
This has more complicated rules
0-0=0
1-0=1
1-1=0
0-1=0, borrow 1
This could be difficult were it not for simple method of subtracting called
complementation.

6.2.3 Ones and Twos Complementation

The reason for using compliments is that it enables to subtract by using a modified form
of addition. Subtraction can be done by adding a negative number, e.g.15+ (-6) gives the
same results as
For 15-6; the Computer work in a similar way.
Ones Compliment
The one compliment (1c) of a binary number is found by simplify reversing the same
bits(NOT gates in logic circuit terms).In 1c the bits have the same place values as binary
numbers except that the most significant bits(the left most bits) represents a negative.

For example, using six bits

Place -31 16 8 4 2 1
values
+13 0 0 1 1 0 1
-13 1 1 0 0 1 0

Notice that the most significant bit =-31

Subtraction using ones complements
Example; 26-15
-31 16 8 4 2 1
Store 15 00 11 1 1
Reverse bits to 1 1 00 0 0
Give-15
Store 26 01 0 1 0
Add-15 and 26 1010 1 0
Add overflow bit

148
=1110 001011

The overflow bit must be added to the unit column of the sum to give right answer. This
is known as end –round or wrap –around carry.
Two Complement
Signed number are stored within a micro computer using the twos complement
Using the two complement notation the most significant bit s of each binary number is used
to indicate the sign of the number. Thus with an 8bit system each number as follows

s 6 - - - - - 0

Ms
S=0 positive number and zero
S=1 for negative numbers
For positive numbers the remaining seven digits then indicate the magnitude of the
number for example
S 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 =weighting
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
=+21 decimal
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1

For negative number the remaining seven digit represent the magnitude of the number
in twos complement form to obtain the two complement of a number the complete
binary number including the sign bit- is first inverted and the resulting binary value
incremented by 1
+21=00010101
Invert
11101010
+1 increment
Therefore +21=11101011
Similarly
+74=01001010
Invert
10110110
+1 increment
Therefore
+74=10110110

Note that after the complement process the most significant bit is automatically a 1.
hence for an 8-bit system the range of possible numbers is +127 and the maximum
negative number is-128

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It is now possible to add two binary numbers e.g. the addition of two positive number A
&B to produce sum

A=00101011=+43(dec)
] B=00110010=+50(dec)
………………..
Carry in=01000100
Carry out=00100010
A+B=01011101=+39(dec)

Providing negative numbers can be represented in their twos complement format the
addition operation may be performed and the court two complement signed result to be
obtained. This is perhaps best explained by means of an example, the first example illustrate
the addition of a negative and positive number to produce a negative result the second the
addition of a negative & a negative and positive number to produce positive result in the
third the addition of two negatives number to produce a negative result.

A=00101011=+43
B=11001110=-50
___-_________
Carry in =00010100_Cin
Carry out =00001110
_________________
A+B =11111001=-7
________________
A=11010101=-43
B =00110010=+50
_______________
Carry in=11100000
Carry out = 11110000
________________
A + B= 00000111=+7

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Addition of 2 bit and a carry in bit
bit1 bit2 bit3 SUM carry
out
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

A =11010101=-43
B =11001110=-50
_______________
Carrying =10111000
Carryout=11011100
_______________

A + B =10100011=-93
The decimal equivalent of the negative result can readily but confirmed by performing
the complement process on the binary result.

6.2.4 The Subtraction Operation

The subtraction of two binary number digits is perhaps best explained by considering
the subtraction of two numbers the decimal system. Consider the following example
A=465
B=-173
BORROW=100
A-B=292
When the second digit is less than or equal to the first digit the subtraction can be
performed straight away and no borrow is required *(e.g. 5 minus3). When the second
digit is greater than the first however, (6 minus 7) it is necessary to borrow a digit from
the next higher position. This is called a borrow in and in the decimal system the borrow
is equal to ten times the magnitude of the other digits in that column. The subtraction
operation in that column become (10+6)-7 which is equal to a difference of 9 with a
borrow to be carried over to the next column. This is called a borrow out and in turn
must be added to the second digit before the latter is subtracted from the first digit.
To summarize, when performing the subtraction operation of two digits it is necessary
to consider borrow in from the previous column. Also if the sum of the second digit and
the borrow in is greater than the first digit then a borrow out is generated.

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The subtraction of two binary digits and the possible borrow in is therefore shown in the
table above. Bit 2 and the borrow in are first added together and the sum is then
subtracted from bit 1. If this sum is greater than bit1 then a borrow is required. This is
equivalent to two bits in binary system and is in turn added to bit before the subtraction
operation Example
A=00110010=+50
B =00101011=+43
_______________
Borrow in 00011110
Borrow out 00001111
_______________-
A –B= 00000111=+7
_________________

6.2.5.Multiplication of Binary Number

The rule of multiplying 1-bit binary number is straightforward. Since any number
multiplied by 0=0 and any number multiplied by 1=number. We have

0*0=0
0*1=0
1*0=0
1*1=1
If begin with the most significant bit of the multiplier. We multiply each bit of the
multiplicand one bit at a time and write this result in a line. The result is a partial
product. The process is repeated sequentially until all bits of the multiplier are used. The
partial product is then added to give the final product. Example

110 MULTIPLICAND
* 101 multiplier
_______________________________
110
000 } partial product
110
___________________

11110 products
Each partial product is either an exact duplicate of the multiplicand or a line of 0s

6.2.6 Binary Division

As in long division with decimal, binary division is basically a trial and error procedure to
determine how many times a number divides another number (the dividend). Binary
division is much simpler than its decimal counterpart because at each step in the process a
divisor either divides into a group of bits (giving a quotient bit of1) or it doesn‘t (giving

152
a quotient bit 0). Whether a divisor a group of bit depends on whether the divisor is
greater than or equal to dividend.

Example; Divided 11110 by110

Long division
110 11
11110
-110
110
110
000

Since 110 is smaller than the value of the first 3bit of the divided (11), the first quotient
bit is 1. Subtracting 110 from 111 and bringing down the next 1 from the dividend gives
011 which is smaller than 110. We drop 0 and consequently the next quotient bit is 1.

6.3 Binary Codes

Digital data is presented, stored and transmitted in groups of binary bits. To convey
information, it‘s important to code these bits so that they can also represent numbers,
alphabet and special characters. This codes are referred to as binary codes and can be
grouped into two:
numeric codes-represent numbers, alphanumeric code used to represent character.

6.3.1 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

Binary code decimal is a numeric code in which each digit of a decimal number is
represented by a separate group of bit. The most common BCD code is 8-4-2-1. In which
the decimal digit is represented by 4bit binary number. It is called 8-4-2-1 BCD because
the usual weigh associated with 4bit binary number are determined by the position of
the bit within each group.
Example encode decimal number 39 and 107 into BCD

DECIMAL 39 107

8-4-2-1 BCD 0011 1001 0001 0000 0111

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 Decimal 8-4-2-1
Digit BCD Code

0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001

Note that each BCD digit is a weighted code, but multiple coding is not. BCD
representation of number is inefficient as far bit usage is concerned. The reason being
that six patter 1010, 1011,1100,1101,1110 & 1111 are never used i.e. they are redundant; if
they occur then an error has occurred. The advantage of BCD code is that it is easy to
convert to decimal. Another disadvantage is that BCD arithmetic is complex.
8-4-2-1- BCD arithmetic
To add two BCD numbers, we simply add the binary number corresponding to each digit
Example
24=001001000
+13=0000 0011
____________________
37=0011 0111
3 7
A difficult arises when the sum of the two decimal is greater than 9 for in that case one of
the invalid bit patterns is produced.
E.g. 25=00100101
+38=0011 1000
_____________________
63≠010101101
It is also possible that the sum of two 4bit numbers will produce a 5bit number. For
example, 8=1000
+9=1001
____________________
17=10001
5bit, not allowed

154
We recognize in both of these cases that decimal arithmetic required the propagation of
a carry to next higher digit. In the 8-4-2-1 BCD arithmetic, we require to propagate the
carry in, addition we must correct the bit pattern. Thus the rule for BCD addition is as
follows If the sum of two BCD digits is greater than 1001, add 0110 and propagate a
carry to the next most significant sun digit.

The carry is added to the sum bit of the next most significant digit of the sum. The carry
bit is always produced automatically: if the sum bits are 5 bits, the fifth bit is the carry;
otherwise. This bit result when the sum correction is performed. In either case the sum
correction is required. Adding the carry to the next higher order digit may itself produce
a sum greater than 9, requiring that the next correction be repeated.

Example;
a) 25 0010 0101
+17+0000 0111
42 0011 1100 1100>9base 10
+0110 add 6base10
10010
+1
Propagated carry
_________________________________
0100 0010 corrected sum

b) 38 0011 1000
+48 0100 1000
______________________________
86 0111 1000 5bit sum
+1 0110 propagated carry and add 6 base 10
011 0110 corrected sum

6.3.2 Excess-Three: Binary –Decimal-Code

Decimal number Xs3code 8421
0 0011
1 0100
2 0101
3 0110
4 0111
5 1000
6 1001
7 1010
8 1011
9 1100

155
This code is formed by adding the binary equivalent of decimal three to the pure binary
number. It is referred to as the Xs3 code. It has number of advantages, thus it is easy to
calculate, simple to translate into pure binary, and no number is represented by four 0s.
A feature of the excess three codes is that it is self-complementary.

Addition in excess-three code

When the sum of two XS3 number is 9 base 10 or less, the uncorrected sum in the xs3
code is 3base 10 greater than it should be. This is illustrated below:
Decimal Xs3
3 0110
+3 +0110
________________________________________________
1100
(Uncorrected sum)
The uncorrected Xs3 result is equivalent to 9 base 10 in excess of the correct value. To
compensate for this 3 base 10 is subtracted from the uncorrected sum. When the sum of
the two number is greater than 9 base10, the uncorrected Xs3 sum is 3 base 10 less than
its output to be. To correct the Xs3 result, 3base10 is added to the result as shown below

Decimal Xs3
1011
+9 1100
17 10111
17 + 0011
11010

The simple rule for Xs3 addition is to add 0011 base2 when a carry is generated
otherwise subtract 0011 base 2.

6.3.3 Gray Code

This belongs to the group of cyclic/unit distance codes. Its build up of simple 0 and 1
combination which is progressively reflected as the system build up in magnitude
The first two numbers in the gray code are 0000 and 0001, representing 0 and unity
respectively. The next two numbers are obtained by reflecting the combination, shown
dotted below and adding a‘1‘ in the next higher digit.

Decimal Gray code

00:00:
00:01
00:11
00:10

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The table below gives the fifteen member of the group.

Decimal Gray code

0 0000
1 0001
2 0011
3 0010
4 0110
5 0111
6 0101
7 0100
8 1100
9 1101
10 1111
11 1110
12 1010
13 1011
14 1001
15 1000

It not possible to carry out arithmetic process in the gray code it must be converted into
pure binary before carrying out mathematical operation on the data. Unit distance code is
more appropriate for position sensing operation. This is because the error can only be one
step (unit) of system e.g. the binary code can cause a large error. Consider a typical
transistor sequence for pure binary coded plate. When change is from 7 base10 to 8 base10

Binary Decimal Pure

Initial position 7 0111
Expected output 8 1000
During transition 15 1111
Final position 15 1111

Hence if it was a position indicated instrument instead of changing from 7 bases 10 to

8base 10 it could have momentary change from 15 base10 a pronounced error. In gray
code only digit change and hence the error can be of only one digit.

Converting Gray Code into Binary Code

The gray code conversion algorithm gives by bi=gibi+I where bi the ith bit. The
conversion proceeds from left (l=n) to the right (l=0) ex. convert 11101100 from gray to
binary.

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Converting Binary to Gray Code

The algorithm any bit is given by gi=bi XOR bi (+1) where is the ith bit and (l+1) is the
next bit (msb).if l=5 then gi=bi XOR bi+1 go =bi XOR bi+1 go =b2 be, gi=bi XOR b2,
go=bi bi.
Convert BCD into Decimal

Take the BCD number and divide it into groups of 4digit each starting from the least
significant bit. If the last group isn‘t composed of four digits add 0 to the left, then write
the decimal equivalent.
In case you don‘t remember the exact decimal equivalent you may treat the BCD like a
pure gray number of the digit, but this is the only true for the group of four bit not for
the whole number
Converting A Decimal Number into Its Standard BCD
Remember that each decimal digit in BCD represented by four binary bits in BCD, hence
to convert into BCD, write each digit in its equivalent BCD number remembering the
order. For example, 4 5 9
0100 0101 1001

6.3.4 Alphanumeric Codes

Digital computers handle both alphabetical and numerical data, hence the need to have
code to represent these characters, numeral and special characters. In order to transmit a
complete text in the English language the letters to be translated could be: Codes both
capital and small letters of the alphabet (52 codes).
Codes for digits 0-9(10 codes)
Codes for typewriter instruction (this required for the purposes of electronic type writer
to function properly, they include but not limited to instruction such as carriage return,
linefeed, and space (3 codes).
Codes word for punctuation marks such as ―; , . : (5 codes for this example)
Code for any other special character such as division, addition, subtraction,
multiplication (4 codes).
The total number of codes for this example (52+10+3+5+4) is 74.
The number of bits n required can be determined by solving the
equation 2n = 74
, n log22=log10 74
, n= log10 74/ log22
From the above it can be seen that if we have to print then we require more than 6 bits.
A range of codes have to been developed for the purpose of text transmission popular
one being the ASCII teleprompter code. It makes use of the seven bits to code the
character and hence the total number of codes is128 an extra bit is added for evenly
parity checking. However, to take care of the Japanese and Chinese code as be adopted
that makes use of 16 bits with ASCII code being a subset of the UNICODE.

158
 When converting a number which has both a whole number part and

fractional part, remember to do the two parts separately.

Activity 2

On your own suggest reasons why we use the octal and hexadecimal number
systems

……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Having gone through the number system lets get more involved in data
representation by talking about computer arithmetic

6.2 Computer Arithmetic

The arithmetic and logic unit of the central processor in a computer performs all its
arithmetic by addition and shifting rather than having different units for subtraction.

(a) Binary Addition

The rules for adding binary numbers are quite simple. There are only four to
remember;

0+0=0

0+1=1

159
1+0=1

1+1=10(0carry 1)

1+1=11(1 carry 1)

(b) Binary Multiplication

Again this is simple. The four rules are

0*0=0

0*1=0

1*0=0

1*1=1

Example
101=510 multiplicand

010=210
multiplier

000

101

000

01010 =1010
product

1
Steps

160
Start with the most significant digit (one with the highest place value-on the left) of the
multiplier

If it a 1 copy down a row of 0s.

If it is a 0 copy downs a row of 0s

The move to the next digit in the multiplier copying the multiplicand row, or entering
0s and then shifting one place to the right

Do this for each digit of the multiplier copying the multiplicand, or entering 0s and
then shifting one place to the right

At the end add up all the columns

Binary division

Binary division is not examined but it is best carried out by long

division

Negative numbers

There are three common ways of representing negative numbers on

Computers

Sign and magnitude (sm) Ones compliment (1c) Twos compliment (2c)

6.2.1 Sign and Magnitude Codes

Here one bit represents the sign of the number and the other bit represents the size
(magnitude) of the number. Conventionally 1 is negative and 0 is positive. The sign bit
can be at either end of the binary number.

Example (The sign bit is underlined);

1011=-3

161
01110=+14

Sign and magnitude fractions have the most significant bits as the sign bits also

Binary subtraction

This has more complicated rules

0-0=0

1-0=1

1-1=0

0-1=0, borrow 1

This could be difficult were it not for simple method of subtracting called
complementation.

6.2.3 Ones and Twos Complementation

The reason for using compliments is that it enables to subtract by using a modified form
of addition. Subtraction can be done by adding a negative number, e.g.15+ (-6) gives the
same results as for 15-6; the computer work in a similar way.

One Compliment

The one compliment (1c) of a binary number is found by simplify reversing the same bits
(NOT gates in logic circuit terms). In 1c the bits have the same place values as binary
numbers except that the most significant bits (the left most bits) represents a negative.

162
For example, using six bits

Place -31 16 8 4 2 1
values

-13 1 1 0 0 1 0

Notice that the most significant bit =-31

Subtraction using ones complement

Example; 26-15

-31 16 8 4 2 1

Store 15 0 0 1 1 1 1

Reverse bits to 11 0 00 0

Give-15

Store 26 0 1 0 1 0

Add-15 and 26 1010 1 0

Add overflow bit

=1110 001011

The overflow bit must be added to the unit column of the sum to give right
answer. This is known as end –round or wrap –around carry.

163
Two Complement

Signed number are stored within a micro-computer using the twos complement

Using the two complement notation the most significant bit s of each binary number is
used to indicate the sign of the number. Thus with an 8bit system each number as
follows

s 6 - - - - - 0

Ms

S=0 positive number and zero

S=1 for negative numbers

For positive numbers the remaining seven digits then indicate the magnitude of the
number for example

S 26 25 24 23

22 21 20
=weighting

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1

=+21 decimal

0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1

164
For negative number the remaining seven digit represent the magnitude of the number
in twos complement form to obtain the two complement of a number the complete
binary number including the sign bit- is first inverted and the resulting binary value
incremented by 1

+21=00010101

Invert

11101010

+1 increment

Therefore
+21=11101011

Similarly

+74=01001010

Invert

10110110

+1 increment

Therefore

+74=10110110

Note that after the complement process the most significant bit is automatically a 1,
hence for an 8 bit system the range of possible numbers is +127 and the maximum
negative number is-128.
It is now possible to add two binary numbers e.g. the addition of two positive number
A &B to produce sum

165
A=00101011=+43(dec)

] B=00110010=+50(dec)

……………….. Carry in=01000100

Carry out=00100010

A+B=01011101=+39(dec)

Providing negative numbers can be represented in their twos complement format the
addition operation may be performed and the court two complement signed result to
be obtained. This is perhaps best explained by means of an example the first example
illustrates the addition of a negative and positive number to produce a negative result
the second the addition of a negative & a negative and positive number to produce
positive result in the third the addition of two negatives number to produce a negative
result

A=00101011=+43

B=11001110=-50

Carry in =00010100_Cin

Carry out =00001110

A+B =11111001=-7

A=11010101=-43

B =00110010=+50

Carry in=11100000

Carry out = 11110000

166
A + B= 00000111=+7

Addition of 2 bit and a carry in bit

Bit1 Bit2 Bit3 SUM carry

out
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

A =11010101=-43

B =11001110=-50

Carrying =10111000

Carryout=11011100

A + B =10100011=-93

The decimal equivalent of the negative result can readily but confirmed by
performing the complement process on the binary result.

6.2.4 The Subtraction Operation

The subtraction of two binary number digits is perhaps best explained by considering
the subtraction of two numbers the decimal system. Consider the following example

A=4
65

167
B=-
173

BORROW=1
00

A-
B=292

When the second digit is less than or equal to the first digit the subtraction can be
performed straight away and no borrow is required *(e.g. 5 minus3). When the second digit
is greater than the first however, (6 minus 7) it is necessary to borrow a digit from the next
higher position. This is called a borrow in and in the decimal system the borrow is equal to
ten times the magnitude of the other digits in that column. The subtraction operation in
that column become (10+6)-7 which is equal to a difference of 9 with a borrow to be carried
over to the next column. This is called a borrow out and in turn must be added to the
second digit before the latter is subtracted from the first digit.

To summarize, when performing the subtraction operation of two digits it is necessary

to consider borrow in from the previous column. Also if the sum of the second digit
and the borrow in is greater than the first digit then a borrow out is generated.

The subtraction of two binary digits and the possible borrow in is therefore shown in
the table above. Bit 2 and the borrow in are first added together and the sum is then
subtracted from bit 1. If this sum is greater than bit1 then a borrow is required. This is
equivalent to two bits in binary system and is in turn added to bit before the
subtraction operation

Example,

A=00110010=+50

B =00101011=+43

Borrow in 00011110

168
Borrow out 00001111

A –B= 00000111=+7

6.2.5 Multiplication of Binary Number

The rule of multiplying 1-bit binary number is straightforward. Since any number
multiplied by 0=0 and any number multiplied by 1=number. We have

0*0=0

0*1=0

1*0=0

1*1=1

If begin with the most significant bit of the multiplier. We multiply each bit of the
multiplicand one bit at a time and write this result in a line. The result is a partial
product. The process is repeated sequentially until all bits of the multiplier are used.
The partial product is then added to give the final product.

Example

110
MULTIPLIC AND

*
101
multiplier

110

169
0 } partial product

110

11110 products

Each partial product is either an exact duplicate of the multiplicand or a line of 0s

6.2.6 Binary Division

As in long division with decimal, binary division is basically a trial and error procedure
to determine how many times a number divides another number (the dividend). Binary
division is much simpler than its decimal counterpart because at each step in the
process a divisor either divides into a group of bits (giving a quotient bit of1) or it
doesn‘t (giving a quotient bit 0). Whether a divisor a group of bit depends on whether
the divisor is greater than or equal to dividend.

Example;
Divided 11110 by110

Long division

110 11
11110

-110

110

110

000

Since 110 is smaller than the value of the first 3bit of the divided (11), the first quotient bit is
1. Subtracting 110 from 111 and bringing down the next 1 from the dividend gives 011
which is smaller than 110. We drop 0 and consequently the next quotient bit is 1

170
6.3 Binary Codes
Digital data is presented, stored and transmitted in groups of binary bits. To convey
information, it‘s important to code these bits so that they can also represent numbers,
alphabet and special characters. This codes are referred to as binary codes and can be
grouped into two:

 Numeric codes-represent numbers

 Alphanumeric code used to represent character.

6.3.1 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

Binary code decimal is a numeric code in which each digit of a decimal number is
represented by a separate group of bit. The most common BCD code is 8-4-2-1. In which
the decimal digit is represented by 4bit binary number. It is called 8-4-2-1 BCD because
the usual weigh associated with 4bit binary number are determined by the position of
the bit within each group.

Example encode decimal number 39 and 107 into BCD

DECIMAL 39 107
8-4-2-1 BCD 0011 1001 0001 0000 0111

Decimal Digit 8-4-2-1

BCD Code
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001

Note that each BCD digit is a weighted code, but multiple coding is not. BCD
representation of number is inefficient as far bit usage is concerned. The reason being
that six patter 1010,

171
1011,1100,1101,1110 & 1111 are never used i.e. they are redundant; if they occur then an
error has occurred. The advantage of BCD code is that it is easy to convert to decimal.
Another disadvantage is that BCD arithmetic is complex.

8-4-2-1- BCD arithmetic

To add two BCD numbers, we simply add the binary number corresponding to each
digit

Example,

24=001001000

+13=0000 0011

37=0011 0111
3 7

A difficult arises when the sum of the two decimal is greater than 9 for in that case
one of the invalid bit patterns is produced.

E.g. 25=00100101

+38=0011 1000

63≠010101101

It is also possible that the sum of two 4bit numbers will produce a 5bit number. For
example
8=1000

+9=1001
____________________
17=10001

172
5bit, not allowed

We recognize in both of these cases that decimal arithmetic required the propagation of
a carry to next higher digit. In the 8-4-2-1 BCD arithmetic, we require to propagate the
carry in, addition we must correct the bit pattern. Thus the rule for BCD addition is as
follows

If the sum of two BCD digits is greater than 1001, add 0110 and propagate a carry to the
next most significant sun digit

The carry is added to the sum bit of the next most significant digit of the sum. The carry
bit is always produced automatically: if the sum bits are 5 bits, the fifth bit is the carry;
otherwise. This bit result when the sum correction is performed. In either case the sum
correction is required. Adding the carry to the next higher order digit may itself
produce a sum greater than 9, requiring that the next correction be repeated.

Example,

a) 25 0010 0101

+17+0000 0111

42 0011 1 1 0 0 1100>9base 10

+0110 add 6base10

10010 +1

Propagated carry

_________________________________

0100 0010 corrected sum

173
b) 38 0011 1000

+48 0100 1000

86 0111 1000 5bit sum

6.3.2 Excess-Three: Binary –Decimal-Code

Decimal Xs3code 8421

number
0 0011
1 0100
2 0101
3 0110
4 0111
5 1000
6 1001
7 1010
8 1011
9 1100

This code is formed by adding the binary equivalent of decimal three to the pure binary
number. It is referred to as the Xs3 code. It has number of advantages, thus it is easy to
calculate, simple to translate into pure binary, and no number is represented by four 0s.
A feature of the excess three codes is that it is self-complementary.

174
Addition in excess-three code

When the sum of two XS3 number is 9 base 10 or less, the uncorrected sum in the xs3
code is
3base 10 greater than it should be. This is illustrated below

Decimal Xs3

3 0110

+3 +0110
________________________________________________

1100

(Uncorrected sum)

The uncorrected Xs3 result is equivalent to 9 base 10 in excess of the correct value. To
compensate for this 3 base 10 is subtracted from the uncorrected sum. When the sum of the
two number is greater than 9 base10, the uncorrected Xs3 sum is 3 base 10 less than its
output to be. To correct the Xs3 result, 3base10 is added to the result as shown below

Decimal Xs3

10
11

+9 1100

17 10111

17 +0011

1101
0

175
The simple rule for Xs3 addition is to add 0011 base2 when a carry is generated
otherwise subtract 0011 base 2.

6.3.3 Gray Code

This belongs to the group of cyclic/unit distance codes. Its build up of simple 0 and 1
combination which is progressively reflected as the system build up in magnitude.

The first two numbers in the gray code are 0000 and 0001, representing 0 and unity
respectively. The next two numbers are obtained by reflecting the combination, shown
dotted below and adding a‘1‘ in the next higher digit.

Decimal Gray code

00:00:

00:01

00:11

00:10

176
The table below gives the fifteen member of the group.

Decimal Gray Code

0 0000
1 0001
2 0011
3 0010
4 0110
5 0111
6 0101
7 0100
8 1100
9 1101
10 1111
11 1110
12 1010
13 1011
14 1001
15 1000

It not possible to carry out arithmetic process in the gray code it must be converted into
pure binary before carrying out mathematical operation on the data. Unit distance code
is more appropriate for position sensing operation. This is because the error can only be
one step (unit) of system e.g. the binary code can cause a large error. Consider a typical
transistor sequence for pure binary coded plate. When change is from 7 base10 to 8
base10

Binary Decimal Pure

Initial position 7 0111

Expected output 8 1000

During transition 15 1111

Final position 15 1111

177
Hence if it was a position indicated instrument instead of changing from 7 bases 10 to
8base 10 it could have momentary change from 15 base10 a pronounced error. In gray
code only digit change and hence the error can be of only one digit.

Converting Gray Code into Binary Code

The gray code conversion algorithm gives by bi=gibi+I where bi the ith bit. The
conversion proceeds from left (l=n) to the right (l=0) ex. convert 11101100 from gray to
binary

Converting Binary to Gray Code

The algorithm any bit is given by gi=bi XOR bi (+1) where is the ith bit and (l+1) is the
next bit (msb).if l=5 then gi=bi XOR bi+1 go =bi XOR bi+1 go =b2 be, gi=bi XOR b2,
go=bi bi

Convert BCD into Decimal.

Take the BCD number and divide it into groups of 4digit each starting from the least
significant bit. If the last group isn‘t composed of four digits add 0 to the left, then write
the decimal equivalent.

In case you don‘t remember the exact decimal equivalent you may treat the BCD like a
pure gray number of the digit, but this is the only true for the group of four bit not for
the whole number

Converting A Decimal Number into its Standard BCD

Remember that each decimal digit in BCD represented by four binary bits in BCD, hence to
convert into BCD, write each digit in its equivalent BCD number remembering
the order. For example, 4 5 9

0100 0101 1001

178
6.3.4 Alphanumeric Codes
Digital computers handle both alphabetical and numerical data, hence the need to have
code to represent these characters, numeral and special characters. In order to transmit
a complete text in the English language the letters to be translated could be:

Codes both capital and small letters of the alphabet (52 codes). Codes for digits 0-9(10
codes)
Codes for typewriter instruction (this required for the purposes of electronic type
writer to function properly, they include but not limited to instruction such as carriage
return, linefeed, and space (3 codes).

Codes word for punctuation marks such as ― ; , . : (5 codes for this

example)

Code for any other special character such as division, addition, subtraction, (4
multiplication codes).

The total number of codes for this example (52+10+3+5+4) is 74.

The number of bits n required can be determined by solving the equation

2n = 74

, n log22=log10 74

, n= log10 74/ log22

From the above it can be seen that if we have to print then we require more than 6 bits.
A range of codes have to been developed for the purpose of text transmission popular
one being the ASCII teleprompter code. It makes use of the seven bits to code the
character and hence the total number of codes is128 an extra bit is added for evenly
parity checking.

However, to take care of the Japanese and Chinese code as be adopted that makes use
of 16 bits with ASCII code being a subset of the UNICODE.

179
Summary
In this topic you have learnt about data representation methods and how to represent
the data using various number systems. We have also covered the steps of converting
from one number system to another. We then concluded this topic by practicing in
computer arithmetic.

As we finish this module, let us see how well you have understood topic 6.

Self-Check

a). Explain the two types of signals. (2marks)

b). Differentiate between (4 marks)

 Octal and decimal number systems

 Binary and hexadecimal number systems

c). Convert the following binary numbers to their decimal equivalents (6marks)

1011102 11.1012 01102

d). Convert the following decimal numbers to their binary equivalents (6 marks)

78910 57010 7.12510

e). Convert the octal numbers 3218 and 14138 to its binary equivalent (6marks)

180
f). Convert the following hexadecimal numbers into their binary equivalent (6marks)

CDFF3116 24716

Scoreboard

Marks Remarks
25–30 Excellent
20–25 Very Good
15–20 Good
10–15 Fair
0- 10 Go through the topic again

Further Reading

Tanen –baum, A.S. (1996). Computer networks. New Delhi: Prentice Hall

Mburu, S., & Chemwa, G. (2010). Computer Studies: Book 3. London: Longhorn
publishers

Learning Outcomes

You have now completed topic six, the learning outcomes are listed below;

Check (√) the column which reflects your understanding of the various concepts about
writing.

181
 S/No Learning Outcome Sure Not Sure
1 I can now explain what data
representation is
2. I can discuss the various number systems
for representing data
3. I can carry out conversions of data in various
number systems

7.0 References

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Engineering

Mburu, S., and Chemwa, G. (2010). Computer Studies: Book 4. London: Longhorn
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Tanen –baum, A.S. (1996). Computer Networks. New Delhi: Prentice Hall.

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As we conclude this module herein attached find sample exam papers to

guide you during revision of the exams in this module.

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