Submitted by:

 Muhammad Haris ( Bsf-1702016)

 Mohsin Raza (Bsf-1701723)
 Samiullah (Bsf-1701970)
Submitted to: Dr. Rizwan
Program : BS Chemistry
Semester: 7th ( Evening )
Course Title: Physical Techniques in
Biochemistry(CHEM- 4139)
Topic: “ Detection
and Measurement
of Radioactivity”
Radioactivity:
Radioactivity refers to the particles which are emitted from
nuclei as a result of nuclear instability. Because the
nucleus experiences the intense conflict between the two
strongest forces in nature, it should not be surprising that
there are many nuclear isotopes which are unstable and
emit some kind of radiation.
Radioactive decay is the process by which an unstable
atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation. A material
containing unstable nuclei is considered radioactive.
TYPES OF RADIATIONS:
The radioactive radiations are of three types which are as
follows:
a) Alpha radiation :
Alpha particles, also called alpha rays or alpha radiation,
consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together
into a particle identical to a helium-4 nucleus. They are
generally produced in the process of alpha decay, but may
also be produced in other ways.
b) Beta radiation:
A beta particle, also called beta ray or beta
radiation (symbol β), is a high-energy, high-speed electron
or positron emitted by the radioactive decay of an atomic
nucleus during the process of beta decay. There are two
forms of beta decay, β− decay and β+ decay, which
produce electrons and positrons respectively.
c) Gamma radiation:
A gamma ray, or gamma radiation (symbol γ or. ), is a
penetrating form of electromagnetic radiation arising from
the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei. It consists of the
shortest wavelength electromagnetic waves and so
imparts the highest photon energy.

Discovery of Radioactive radiations:

These were sorted out by Rutherford (1902) by passing
them between two oppositely charged plates. The one
bending towards the negative plate carried positive charge
and were named α (alpha) rays. Those bending towards
the positive plate and carrying negative charge were
called β (beta) rays. The third type of radiation, being
uncharged, passed straight through the electric field and
were named γ (gamma) rays. α, β and γ rays could be
easily detected as they cause luminescence on the zinc
sulphide screen placed in their path.

Detection and Measurement Of Radioactivity:

The radioactive radiation can be detected and measured
by a number of methods. The important ones used in
modern practice are listed below:
(1) Cloud Chamber Method:
This technique is used for detecting radioactivity. The
chamber contains air saturated with water vapour. When
the piston is lowered suddenly, the gas expands and is
supercooled. As an α- or β-particle passes through the
gas, ions are created along its path. These ions provide
nuclei upon which droplets of water condense. The trail or
cloud thus produced marks the track of the particle. The
track can be seen through the window above and
immediately photographed. Similarly, α- or β-particles form
a trail of bubbles as they pass through liquid hydrogen.
The bubble chamber method gives better photographs of
the particle tracks.

(2) Ionisation Chamber:

This is the simplest device used to measure the strength
of radiation. An ionisation chamber is fitted with two metal
plates separated by air. When radiation passes through
this chamber, it knocks electrons from gas molecules and
positive ions are formed. The electrons migrate to the
anode and positive ions to the cathode. Thus a small
current passes between the plates. This current can be
measured with an ammeter, and gives the strength of
radiation that passes through the ionization chamber. In
an ionization
chamber called Dosimeter, the total amount of electric
charge passing between the plates in a given time is
measured. This is proportional to the total amount of
radiation that has gone through the chamber.

(3) Geiger-Muller Counter:

This device is used for detecting and measuring the rate of
emission of α- or β-particles. It consists of a cylindrical
metal tube (cathode) and a central wire (anode). The tube
is filled with argon gas at reduced pressure (0.1 atm). A
potential difference of about 1000 volts is applied across
the electrodes. When an α- or β-particle enters the tube
through the mica window, it ionises the argon atoms along
its path.
Ar  Ar+ + e-
The argon ions (Ar+) are drawn to the cathode and
electrons to anode. Thus for a fraction of a second, a
pulse of electrical current flows between the electrodes
and completes the circuit around. Each electrical pulse
marks the entry of one α- or β-particle into the tube and is
recorded in an automatic counter. The number of such
pulses registered by a radioactive material per minute,
gives the intensity of its radioactivity.
(4) Scintillation Counter:
Rutherford used a spinthariscope for the detection and
counting of α-particles. The radioactive substance
mounted on the tip of the wire emitted α-particles. Each
particle on striking the zinc sulphide screen produced a
flash of light. These flashes of light (scintillations) could be
seen through the eye-piece. With this device it was
possible to count α-particles from 50 to 200 per second.
A modern scintillation counter also works on the above
principle and is widely used for the measurement of α- or
β-particles. Instead of the zinc sulphide screen, a crystal of
sodium iodide with a little thallium iodide is employed. The
sample of the radioactive substance contained in a small
vial, is placed in a ‘well’ cut into the crystal. The radiation
from the sample hit the crystal wall and produce
scintillations. These fall on a photoelectric cell which
produces a pulse of electric current for each flash of light.
This is recorded in a mechanical counter. Such a
scintillation counter can measure radiation upto a million
per second.

(5) Film Badges:

A film badge consists of a photographic film encased in a
plastic holder. When exposed to radiation, they darken the
grains of silver in photographic film. The film is developed
and viewed under a powerful microscope. As α- or β-
particles pass through the film, they leave a track of black
particles. These particles can be counted. In this way the
type of radiation and its intensity can be known. However,
γ-radiation darken the photographic film uniformly. The
amount of darkening tells the quantity of radiation. A film
badge is an important device to monitor the extent of
exposure of persons working in the vicinity of radiation.
The badge-film is developed periodically to see if any
significant dose of radiation has been absorbed by the
wearer.