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Detection and Measurement of Radiation

The document discusses methods for detecting and measuring radiation, focusing on ionization, scintillation, and chemical changes, while excluding α-emitters due to their specialized requirements. It details the use of various detection apparatuses, including Geiger-Müller counters and liquid scintillation counters, and emphasizes the importance of proper sample preparation and measurement conditions. Additionally, it covers the measurement of gamma radiation using sodium iodide crystals and the role of semiconductor detectors as an alternative method.

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ianwanchez
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14 views26 pages

Detection and Measurement of Radiation

The document discusses methods for detecting and measuring radiation, focusing on ionization, scintillation, and chemical changes, while excluding α-emitters due to their specialized requirements. It details the use of various detection apparatuses, including Geiger-Müller counters and liquid scintillation counters, and emphasizes the importance of proper sample preparation and measurement conditions. Additionally, it covers the measurement of gamma radiation using sodium iodide crystals and the role of semiconductor detectors as an alternative method.

Uploaded by

ianwanchez
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF

RADIATION
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

There are three general methods of measuring


radioactivity emanating from β and ‫ ﻻ‬emitters
These are based on
• Ionization
• Scintillation, and
• Effects of chemical changes
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

Measurement of radioactivity from α-emitters is not


included in this discussion as it is not commonly
utilized & requires:
• special measuring equipment

• specialized handling and

• specialized containment facilities


DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

The half-life is measured with a suitable detection


apparatus such as:

• an ionization chamber
• a Geiger-Müller counter
• a scintillation counter (solid crystal, liquid) or
• a semiconductor detector
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

The preparation to be tested is used as such or diluted


or dried in a capsule after appropriate dilution
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

The radioactivity chosen, having regard to


experimental conditions, must be of a sufficiently high
level to allow detection during several estimated half-
lives, but not too high to minimize count rate losses,
for example due to dead time
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

• The radioactive source is prepared in a manner that


will avoid loss of material during handling

• If it is a liquid (solution), it is contained in bottles or


sealed tubes

• If it is a solid (residue from drying in a capsule), it is


protected by a cover consisting of a sheet of
adhesive cellulose acetate or of some other material
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

• The same source is measured in the same


geometrical conditions & at intervals usually
corresponding to half of the estimated half-life
throughout a time equal to about three half-lives

• The correct functioning of the apparatus is checked


using a source of long half-life & if necessary,
corrections for any changes of the count rate have to
be applied (see Measurement of Radioactivity)
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

• A graph can be drawn with time as the abscissa &


the logarithm of the relative instrument reading (e.g.
count rate) as the ordinate

• The calculated half-life differs by NMT 5% from the


half-life stated in the Pharmacopoeia, unless
otherwise stated
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

Measurement based on ionization


• The Geiger-Muller counter is based on ability of
radiation to cause ionization in a gas in the tube

• Beta-particles enter the tube through a mica end-


window

• Argon is the gas most commonly used as it


undergoes ionization readily
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

Measurement based on ionization

• The ionization encompasses the whole tube resulting


in closing of the electrical gap between the central
positively charged metal rod (anodic) & the
negatively charged (cathodic) metallic cylinder
enclosure of the tube
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

Measurement based on ionization

• This “short-circuiting” results in a momentary burst


in flow of current due to the ionization

• The flow in current produced is amplified &


presented as an analogue, digital & or presented as
an audio output
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

Measurement based on ionization


• The Geiger-Muller counter has the advantage of
providing a high output

• However, all pulses of current produced are of the


same magnitude irrespective of energy of the β-
particle initiating the pulse of current

• It is therefore a non-proportional counter


DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

Measurement based on ionization

• A proportional counter is one where the output


signal is proportional in intensity to the energy of the
radiation causing that signal

• Efficiencies of the Geiger-Muller counter are not high


for low energy β-emitters & it is not possible to
detect 3H
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

Measurement based on ionization

Although the efficiency for ‫ﻻ‬-radiation is very low (<


1%), it is sufficient, for use of the instrument as a
detector for contamination monitoring purposes
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

Liquid scintillation counting

• The measurement of low energy β-emitters such as


3
H & 14C, which have wide application in tracer work
e.g. in drug metabolism was greatly improved by the
introduction of liquid scintillating counters

• In this method, the sample is dissolved in a solvent


that excludes water (e.g. toluene or dioxane)
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

Liquid scintillation counting


• A scintillant material, such as diphenyoxazole (PPO)
is added to the solution

• A scintillant agent has the property that it can be


raised to an excited electronic state from which it
emits a visible light or a near ultraviolet light in the
process of reverting to the ground state

• In other words, fluorescence may occur


DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

Liquid scintillation counting

The term ‘scintillant’ is used to refer to the whole


sequence of events where the energy of the fast-
moving electron (i.e. the emitted β-particle) is
transferred via the solvent to the scintillant
molecules, which are thereby raised to the excited
electronic level and which fluoresce with emission of
light that is detected by photomultipliers
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

Liquid scintillation counting

• Because of the very low levels of light intensity


involved, the photomultipliers need to be operated
at high sensitivity

• The consequence of this approach generates an


increase in electronic noise produced within the
photomultiplier tubes
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

Liquid scintillation counting


• To reduce this background electronic noise, 2
photomultiplier tubes are used in the ‘coincidence
counting’ mode, that is only output pulses which are
coincident in time are counted
• Scintillation events will produce coincident pulses in
the 2 detectors, but the random noise pulses
developed independently in each of the
photomultiplier tubes will not, in general be
coincident
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

Measurement of gamma-radiation

• A solid scintillation process is used in this instance,


as a detector in the form of a single crystal of sodium
iodide having a trace (about 0.1%) trace impurity
level of thallium, NaI(Tl)

• Sodium iodide is hygroscopic, thus it is protected


from exposure to atmospheric moisture in the
detector by coating with a thin film of aluminium
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

Measurement of gamma-radiation
• The sample to be measured sits in a hole drilled in
the sodium iodide crystal

• The hole typically is 2 inches in diameter and 2


inches deep

• The ‘well’ in the crystal minimizes the fraction of


radiation from the sample which does not pass
through the detecting crystal
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

Measurement of gamma-radiation
• The interaction of the‫ ﻻ‬-radiation with the high
density NaI-crystal results in the production of a
‘centre’ in an excited electronic level (the thallium
plays a role in this process)
• Decay back to the ground state level results in the
emission of visible light which travels through the
transparent or translucent single crystal & is
detected by the photomultiplier as in the liquid
scintillation counter
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

Measurement of gamma-radiation

The process is a proportional counting method, and


hence gamma energies and gamma spectra can be
determined by the process of pulse height analysis
(PHA)
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

Semiconductor Detector

An alternative measurement method uses an


instrument based on a semiconductor detector
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

END

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