APPLIED PHYSICS-1

FIRST SEMESTER

PREPARED BY:
Madhu Bala
Lavanaya Mahajan
Mayur Rohilla
 UNIT 1
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
- .

1.1 DEFINITION OF PHYSICS AND PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Physics: Physics is the branch of science, which deals with the study of nature and properties of
matter and energy. The subject matter of physics includes heat, light, sound, electricity, magnetism
and the structure of atoms.

Physical Quantities: All quantities in terms of which laws of physics can be expressed and which
can be measured are called physical quantities.

For example : Distance, Speed, Mass, Force etc.

1.2 UNITS: FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED UNITS

Measurement: In our daily life, we need to express and compare the magnitude of different
quantities; this can be done only by measuring them.

Measurement is the comparison of an unknown physical quantity with a known fixed physical
quantity.

Unit: The known fixed physical quantity is called unit.

OR

The quantity used as standard for measurement is called unit.

For example, when we say that length of the class room is 8 metre, we compare the length of class
room with standard quantity of length called metre.

Length of class room = 8 metre

Q = nu

Physical Quantity = Numerical value × unit

Q = Physical Quantity
n = Numerical value
u = Standard unit
e.g. Mass of stool = 15 kg
Mass = Physical quantity
15 = Numerical value
Kg = Standard unit
Means mass of stool is 15 times of known quantity i.e. Kg.
Classification of Units: Units can be classified into two categories.

 Fundamental
 Derived

Fundamental Quantity: The quantity which is independent of other physical quantities. In

mechanics, mass, length and time are called fundamental quantities. Units of these fundamental
physical quantities are called Fundamental units.

e.g. Fundamental Physical Quantity Fundamental unit

Mass Kg, Gram, Pound
Length Metre, Centimetre, Foot
Time Second

Derived Quantity: The quantity which is derived from the fundamental quantities is a derived
quantity. For example area, speed etc.

Area = Length  Breadth

= Length  Length
= (Length)2
Speed =Distance / Time
=Length / Time
The units for derived quantities are called Derived Units.

1.3 SYSTEMS OF UNITS: CGS, FPS, MKS, SI

For measurement of physical quantities, the following systems are commonly used:-

(i) C.G.S system: In this system, the unit of length is centimetre, the unit of mass is gram
and the unit of time is second.
(ii) F.P.S system: In this system, the unit of length is foot, the unit of mass is pound and the
unit of time is second.
(iii) M.K.S: In this system, the unit of length is metre, unit of mass is kg and the unit of time is
second.
(iv) S.I System: This system is an improved and extended version of M.K.S system of units. It
is called international system of unit.

Table of Fundamental Units

Sr. No. Name of Physical Quantity Unit Symbol

1 Length Metre m

2 Mass Kilogram Kg

3 Time Second s

4 Temperature Kelvin K
 5 Electric Current Ampere A

6 Luminous Intensity Candela Cd

7 Quantity of Matter Mole mol

Table of Supplementary unit

Sr. No Name of Physical Quantity Unit Symbol

1 Plane angle Radian rad

2 Solid angle Steradian sr

1.4 DEFINITION OF DIMENSIONS

Dimensions: The powers, to which the fundamental units of mass, length and time written as
M, L and T are raised, which include their nature and not their magnitude are called dimensions
of a physical quantity.
For example Area = Length x Breadth
= [ L1] × [L1] = [L2] = [M0L2T0]
Power (0, 2, 0) of fundamental units are called dimensions of area in mass, length and time
respectively.
e.g. Density = mass/volume
= [M]/[L3]
= [ M1L-3T0]
DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND SI UNITS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Dimensional Formula: An expression along with power of mass, length & time which
indicates how physical quantity depends upon fundamental physical quantity.
e.g. Speed = Distance/Time
= [L1]/[T1] =[M0L1T-1]

It tells us that speed depends upon L & T. It does not depend upon M.

1.5 Dimensional Equation: An equation obtained by equating the physical quantity with its
dimensional formula is called dimensional equation.

The dimensional equation of area, density & velocity are given as under-
Area = [M0L2T0]
Density = [M1L-3T0]
Velocity = [M0L1T-1]
Dimensional formula & SI unit of Physical Quantities
Sr. Physical Quantity Formula Dimensions Name of S.I unit
No.

1 Force Mass × acceleration [M1L1T-2] Newton (N)

2 Work Force × distance [M1L2T-2] Joule (J)

3 Power Work / time [M1L2T-3] Watt (W)

4 Energy ( all form ) Stored work [M1L2T-2] Joule (J)

5 Pressure, Stress Force/area [M1L-1T-2] Nm-2

6 Momentum Mass × velocity [M1L1T-1] Kgms-1

7 Moment of force Force × distance [M1L2T-2] Nm

8 Impulse Force × time [M1L1T-1] Ns

9 Strain Change in dimension [M0L0T0] No unit

/ Original dimension

10 Modulus of Stress / Strain [M1L-1T-2] Nm-2

elasticity

11 Surface energy Energy / Area [M1L0T-2] Joule/m2

12 Surface Tension Force / Length [M1L0T-2] N/m

13 Co-efficient of Force × Distance/ [M1L-1T-1] N/m2

viscosity
Area × Velocity

14 Moment of inertia Mass × (radius of [M1L2T0] Kg-m2

gyration)2

15 Angular Velocity Angle / time [M0L0T-1] rad per sec

16 Frequency 1/Time period [M0L0T-1] Hertz

17 Area Length × Breadth [M0L2T0] Metre2

18 Volume Length × breadth × [M0L3T0] Metre3

height

19 Density Mass/ volume [M1L-3T0] Kg/m3

20 Speed or velocity Distance/ time [M0L1T-1] m/s

21 Acceleration Velocity/time [M0L1T-2] m/s2

 22 Pressure Force/area [M1L-1T-2] N/m2

PRINCIPLE OF HOMOGENEITY OF DIMENSIONS

It states that the dimensions of all the terms on both sides of an equation must be the same.
According to the principle of homogeneity, the comparison, addition & subtraction of all physical
quantities is possible only if they are of the same nature i.e., they have the same dimensions.
If the power of M, L and T on two sides of the given equation are same, then the physical
equation is correct otherwise not. Therefore, this principle is very helpful to check the correctness
of a physical equation.

Example: A physical relation must be dimensionally homogeneous, i.e., all the terms on both sides
of the equation must have the same dimensions.

In the equation, S = ut + ½ at 2

The length (S) has been equated to velocity (u) & time (t), which at first seems to be
meaningless, But if this equation is dimensionally homogeneous, i.e., the dimensions of all the
terms on both sides are the same, then it has physical meaning.

Now, dimensions of various quantities in the equation are:

Distance, S = [L1]
Velocity, u = [L1T-1]
Time, t = [T1]
Acceleration, a = [L1T-2]
½ is a constant and has no dimensions.
Thus, the dimensions of the term on L.H.S. is S=[L1] and
Dimensions of terms on R.H.S=
ut + ½ at2 = [L1T-1] [T1] + [L1T-2] [T2] = [L1] + [L1]
Here, the dimensions of all the terms on both sides of the equation are the same. Therefore,
the equation is dimensionally homogeneous.
1.6 DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS, APPLICATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS

Dimensional Analysis: A careful examination of the dimensions of various quantities

involved in a physical relation is called dimensional analysis. The analysis of the dimensions of a
physical quantity is of great help to us in a number of ways as discussed under the uses of
dimensional equations.

Uses of dimensional equation: The principle of homogeneity & dimensional analysis has put to
the following uses:

(i) Checking the correctness of physical equation.

(ii) To convert a physical quantity from one system of units into another.
1. To check the correctness of Physical relations: According to principle of Homogeneity of
dimensions, a physical relation or equation is correct, if the dimensions of all the terms on both
sides of the equation are the same. If the dimension of even one term differs from those of
others, the equation is not correct.

Example 1 Check the correctness of the following formulae by dimensional analysis.

(i) 𝐹 = 𝑚v 2 /r (ii)𝑡 = 2𝜋√𝑙/𝑔
Where all the letters have their usual meanings
Sol. 𝑭 = 𝒎𝐯 𝟐 /𝐫
Dimensions of the term on L.H.S
Force, F = [M1L1T-2]
Dimensions of the term on R.H.S
𝒎𝐯 𝟐 /𝐫 = [M1][L1T-1]2 / [L]
=[M1L2T-2]/ [L]
=[M1L1T-2]

The dimensions of the term on the L.H.S are equal to the dimensions of the term on R.H.S.
Therefore, the relation is correct.
𝒍
(ii) 𝒕 = 𝟐𝝅√𝒈

Here, Dimension of term on L.H.S

t = [T1] = [M0L0T1]

Dimensions of terms on R.H.S

Dimension of length = [L1]
Dimension of g (acc. due to gravity) = [L1T-2]

2𝜋 being constant have no dimensions.

𝒍
Hence, the dimensions of terms 2𝜋√𝒈 on R.H.S
= (L1/ L1T-2] )1/2 = [T1] = [M0L0T1]
Thus, the dimensions of the terms on both sides of the relation are the same i.e.,
[M0L0T1].Therefore, the relation is correct.

2. To convert a physical quantity from one system of units into another.

Physical quantity can be expressed as
Q = nu
Let n1u1 represent the numerical value and unit of a physical quantity in one system and n2u2 in
the other system.
If for a physical quantity Q; M1L1T1be the fundamental unit in one system and M2L2T2 be
fundamental unit of the other system and dimensions in mass, length and time in each system
can be respectively a,b,c.
 u1 = [ M1aL1bT1c]
u2 = [ M2aL2bT2c]
As we know
n1u1 = n2u2
n2 =n1u1/u2
 M1a L1bT1c 
n2  n1  a b c 
 M 2 L2T2 
 
 M  a  L  b  T  c 
n2  n1  1   1   1  
 M 2   L2   T2  
 
While applying the above relations the system of unit as first system in which numerical value
of physical quantity is given and the other as second system
Thus knowing [M1L1T1], [M2L2T2] a, b, c and n1, we can calculate n2.

Example 1 Convert a force of 1 Newton to dyne.

Sol. To convert the force from MKS system to CGS system, we need the equation
Q=n1u1=n2u2
n1u1
Thus n2 
u2
Here n1 =1, u1=1N, u2=dyne
 M1 L1T12 
n2  n1  
 M 2 L2T2 
2
 
2
 M  L  T 
n2  n1  1  1  1 
 M 2  L2  T2 
2
 kg   m  s 
n2  n1    
 gm   cm  s 
2
 1000 gm   100cm  s 
n2  n1    
 gm   cm  s 
n2  1(1000)(100)
n2  105
Thus 1N= 10 5 dynes.

Example 2 Convert work of 1 erg into Joule.

Sol: Here we need to convert work from CGS system to MKS system
Thus in the equation
n1u1
n2 
u2
n1=1
u1=erg (CGS unit of work)
u2= joule (SI unit of work)
 n1u1
n2 
u2
M1 L12T12
n2  n1
M 2 L22T22
2 2
 M  L   T 
n2  n1  1  1   1 
 M 2  L2   T2 
2
 gm   cm   s 
2
n2  n1     
 kg   m   s 
2
 gm   cm   s 
2
n2  n1     
 1000 gm   100cm   s 
n2  1(103 )(102 )2 n2  107
Thus, 1 erg= 107 Joule.
 UNIT 2
FORCE AND MOTION

2.1 SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

Scalar Quantities:
Scalar quantities are those quantities which are having only magnitude but no direction.
Examples: Mass, length, density, volume, energy, temperature, electric charge, current,
electric potential etc.

Vector Quantities:
Vector quantities are those quantities which are having both magnitude as well as direction.
Examples: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, electric intensity, magnetic intensity
etc.

Representation of Vector: A vector is represented by a straight line with an arrow head. Here,
the length of the line represents the magnitude and arrow head gives the direction of vector.

Figure:1

Types of Vectors

Unit Vector: A vector divided by its magnitude is called a unit vector. It has a magnitude one unit
and direction same as the direction of given vector. It is denoted by𝐴̂.
𝐴⃗
𝐴̂ =
𝐴
Collinear Vectors: Two or more vectors having equal or unequal magnitudes, but having same
direction are called collinear vectors

Figure: 2
Zero Vector: A vector having zero magnitude and arbitrary direction (be not fixed) is called zero
vector. It is denoted by O.

2.2 ADDITION OF VECTORS, TRIANGLE &PARALLELOGRAM LAW

Addition of Vectors

(i) Triangle law of vector addition.

If two vectors can be represented in magnitude

and direction by the two sides of a triangle taken in the
same order, then the resultant is represented in
magnitude and direction, by third side of the triangle
taken in the opposite order (Fig. 2.5).

Magnitude of the resultant is given by

Figure: 3
𝑅 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 2𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
And direction of the resultant is given by
𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 =
𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

(ii) Parallelogram (||gm) law of vectors:

It states that if two vectors, acting simultaneously at a point, can have represented both in
magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, the resultant is represented by
the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point (Fig. 2.6).

Magnitude of the resultant is given by

𝑅 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑃𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
And direction of the resultant is given by
𝑄 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛  =
𝑃 + 𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

2.3 SCALAR AND VECTOR PRODUCT Figure: 4

Multiplication of Vectors
(i) Scalar (or dot) Product: It is defined as the product of magnitude of two vectors and the cosine
of the smaller angle between them. The resultant is scalar. The dot product of vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗⃗ is
defined as

Figure: 5
 (ii) Vector (or Cross) Product: It is defined as a vector having a magnitude equal to the product of
the magnitudes of the two vectors and the sine of the angle between them and is in the direction
perpendicular to the plane containing the two vectors.
Thus, the vector product of two vectors A and B is equal to
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑛̂

2.4 FORCE AND ITS UNITS, CONCEPT OF RESOLUTION OF FORCE

Force: Force is an agent that produces acceleration in the body on which it acts.
Or
It is a push or a pull which change or tends to change the position of the body at rest or in uniform
motion.
Force is a vector quantity as it has both direction and magnitude. For example,
(i) To move a football, we have to exert a push i.e., kick on the football
(ii) To stop football or a body moving with same velocity, we have to apply push in a direction
opposite to the direction of the body.

SI unit is Newton.
Dimension formula: [MLT -2]
Resolution of a Force
The phenomenon of breaking a given force into two or more forces in different directions
is known as 'resolution of force'. The forces obtained on splitting the given force are called
components of the given force.
If these are at right angles to each other, then these components are called rectangular
components.
Let a force F be represented by a line OP. Let OB (or Fx) is component of F along x-axis
and OC (or Fy) is component along y-axis (Fig. 2.8).

Figure: 6

Let force F makes an angle θ with x-axis.

In Δ OPB
𝑃𝐵
sin𝜃 =
𝑂𝑃
 PB = OP sin𝜃
Fy = F sin𝜃
𝑂𝐵
cos𝜃 =
𝑂𝑃
OB = OP cos𝜃
Fx = F cos𝜃
Vector𝐹⃗ = 𝐹⃗𝑥 + 𝐹⃗𝑦
Resultant: 𝐹 = √𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2

2.5 NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

Sir Isaac Newton gave three fundamental laws. These laws are called Newton's laws of motion.
Newton’s First Law: It states that everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion
in a straight line until some external force is applied on it.
For example, the book lying on a table will not move at its own. It does not change its position
from the state of rest until no external force is applied on it.
Newton’s Second law: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to
the applied force and the change takes place in the direction of force applied.
Or
Acceleration produced in a body is directly proportional to force applied.
Let a body of mass m moving with a velocity u. Let a force F be applied so that its
velocity changes from u to v in t second.
Initial momentum = mu
Final momentum after time t second = mv
Total change in momentum = mv-mu.

Thus, the rate of change of momentum will be

𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
𝑡
From Newton's second law
𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑢 𝑚(𝑣−𝑢)
𝐹 or 𝐹 
𝑡 𝑡

𝑣 − 𝑢 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
but = = Acceleration(a)
𝑡 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Hence, we have
F ma
or F = k ma
Where k is constant of proportionality, for convenience let k = 1.
Then F = ma

Newton’s Third law: To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction or action and reaction
are equal and opposite.
When a body exerts a force on another body, the other body also exerts an equal force on the first
body, in opposite direction.
From Newton's third law these forces always occur in pairs.
 FAB (force on A by B) = -FBA (force on B by A)

2.6 LINEAR MOMENTUM, CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM, IMPULSE

Linear Momentum (p): The quantity of motion contained in the body is linear
momentum. It is given by product of mass and the velocity of the body. It is a vector and its
direction is the same as the direction of the velocity.

Let m be the mass and v is the velocity of a body at some instant, then momentum is given by
p = mv
Example, a fast-moving cricket ball has more momentum in it than a slow moving one. But a slow-
moving heavy roller has more momentum than a fast cricket ball.
Units of momentum:
The SI unit is kg m/s i.e. kg.ms-1.
Dimension formula = [M1L1T-1].

Conservation of Momentum

If external force acting on a system of bodies is zero then the total linear momentum of a
system always remains constant.
i.e. If F=0
𝑑𝑝
Thus,𝐹 = =0
𝑑𝑡
Hence, p (momentum) is constant.

Recoil of the Gun: When a bullet is fired with a gun the bullet moves in forward direction and
gun is recoiled/pushed backwards. Let
m = mass of bullet
u = velocity of bullet
M = mass of gun
v = velocity of gun
The gun and bullet form an isolated system, so the total momentum of gun and bullet
before firing = 0
Total momentum of gun and bullet after firing=m.u+M.v
Using law of conservation of momentum
0 = m.u+M.v
M.v = -m.u
−𝑚𝑢
𝑣 =
𝑀
This is the expression for recoil velocity of gun.
Here negative sign shows that motion of the gun is in opposite direction to that of the bullet.
Also, velocity of gun is inversely proportional to its mass. Lesser the mass, larger will be the
recoil velocity of the gun.

Impulse

Impulse is defined as the total change in momentum produced by the impulsive force.
 OR
Impulse may be defined as the product of force and time and is equal to the total change in
momentum of the body.
F.t=p2– p1= total change in momentum

Example A kick given to a football or blow made with hammer.

2.7 CIRCULAR MOTION

The motion of a body in a circle of fixed radius is called circular motion.
For example, the motion of a stone tied to a string when whirled in the air is a circular
motion.

Angular Displacement: The angle described by a body moving in a circle is called angular
displacement.
Consider a body moves in a circle, starting from A to B so that
∠BOA is called angular displacement

SI unit of angular displacement is radian (rad.)

Figure: 7
Angular Velocity: Angular velocity of a body moving in a circle is the rate of change of angular
displacement with time. It is denoted by ω (omega)
If θ is the angular displacement in time t then
𝜃
𝜔=
𝑡
SI unit of angular velocity is rad/s
Time Period: Time taken by a body moving in a circle to complete one cycle is called time period.
It is denoted by T
Frequency (n): The number of cycles completed by a body in one second is called frequency.
It is reciprocal of time period
1
𝑛=
𝑇
Angular Acceleration: The time rate of change of angular velocity of a body.
It is denoted by α. Let angular velocity of a body moving in a circle change from ω 1 to ω2 in
time t, then
𝜔1 − 𝜔2
𝛼=
𝑡
SI unit of ‘’ is rad/s 2

Relationship between linear and angular velocity

Consider a body moving in a circle of radius r Let it start from A and reaches to B after time t,
so that ∠BOA = θ (Fig. 2.9).
Now
 𝑎𝑟𝑐
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝐴𝐵 𝑆
𝜃= =
𝑂𝐴 𝑟
𝑆 = 𝑟𝜃
Divide both sides by time (t)
𝑆 𝜃
=𝑟
𝑡 𝑡
𝑆
Here = 𝑣is linear velocity
𝑡
𝜃
And = 𝜔 is angular velocity
𝑡
Hence 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔
CENTRIPETAL AND CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
Centripetal Force
The force acting along the radius towards the centre of circle to keep a
body moving with uniform speed in a circular path is called centripetal
force. It is denoted by FC.
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝑐 =
𝑟
For example, a stone tied at one end of a string whose other end
is held in hand, when round in the air, the centripetal force is
supplied by the tension in the string.

Centrifugal Force: A body moving in circle with uniform speed experience a force in a direction
away from the centre of the circle. This force is called centrifugal force.

For example, cream is separated from milk by using centrifugal force. When milk is rotated
in cream separator, cream particles in the milk being lighter, experience less centrifugal
force.

APPLICATION OF CENTRIPETAL FORCE IN BANKING BANKING OF ROADS

Banking of Roads: While travelling on a road, you must have noticed that the outer edge of
circular road is slightly raised above as compared to the inner edge of road. This is called banking
of roads (Fig. 2.10).
Angle of Banking: The angle through which the outer edge of circular road is raised above the
inner edge of circular roads is called angle of banking.
Application of centripetal force in banking of roads
Let
m = mass of vehicle
r=radius of circular road
v=uniform speed (velocity) of vehicle
θ = angle of banking
At the body two forces act. Figure : 8
(i) Weight (mg) of vehicle vertically downwards.
(ii) Normal reaction (R).
R makes an angle θ and divides the forces into two components
(i) Rsinθ towards the centre
(ii) Rcosθ vertically upwards and balance by weight of (mg) vehicle
2
Rsinθ provides the necessary centripetal force (𝑚𝑣𝑟 )
𝑚𝑣 2
R Sinθ= - - - - - (1)
𝑟
and R Cosθ = mg - - - - -(2)
Divide equation 1 by 2
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑅𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑟
𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑚𝑔
𝑣2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑟𝑔
𝑣2
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑟𝑔

2.8 ROTATIONAL MOTION WITH EXAMPLES

The rotation of a body about fixed axis is called Rotational motion. For example,
(i) Motion of a wheel about its axis
(ii) Rotation of earth about its axis.

2.9 DEFINITION OF TORQUE AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM

Torque ()
It is measured by the product of magnitude of force and perpendicular distance of the line of
action of force from the axis of rotation.

It is denoted by τ,
  Fxr
Where F is force and r is perpendicular
distance.

Unit: Newton (N)

Dimension Formula: [M1L2T-2]

Angular Momentum (L) figure : 9

Angular momentum of a rotating body about its axis of rotation is the algebraic sum of the
linear momentum of its particles about the axis. It is denoted by L.

L = Momentum × perpendicular distance

 L= p × r

or L= mvr

Unit: Kg m2/sec

Dimensional Formula = [ML2T–1]

MOMENT OF INERTIA AND ITS PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Moment of Inertia

Moment of Inertia of a rotating body about an axis is defined as the sum of the product of the
mass of various particles constituting the body and square of respective perpendicular distance
of different particles of the body from the axis of rotation.

Expression for the Moment of Inertia:

Let us consider a rigid body of mass M having n number of
particles revolving about any axis. Let m1, m2, m3 ..., mn be the
masses of particles at distance r1, r2, r3... rn from the axis of
rotation respectively (Fig. 4.2).

Moment of Inertia of whole body

I = m1r12 + m2r22 + ... mnrn2 Figure: 10
n
or I   mi ri 2
i 1

Physical Significance of Moment of Inertia

It is totally analogous to the concept of inertial mass. Moment of inertia plays the same role
in rotational motion as that of mass in translational motion. In rotational motion, a body, which is
free to rotate about a given axis, opposes any change in state of rotation. Moment of Inertia of a
body depends on the distribution of mass in a body with respect to the axis of rotation
 UNIT 3
WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

3.1 WORK (DEFINITION, SYMBOL, FORMULA AND SI UNITS)

Work

Work is said to be done when the force applied on a body displaces it through certain distance
in the direction of applied force.

Work= Force × Displacement

 
In vector form, it is written as F × S = FS Cos
It is measured as the product of the magnitude of force and the distance covered by the body in
the direction of the force. It is a scalar quantity.
Unit: SI unit of work is joule (J). In CGS system, unit of work is erg.
1 J = 107 ergs Dimension
of work = [M1L2T–2]

Example1. What work is done in dragging a block 10 m horizontally when a 50 N force is applied
by a rope making an angle of 30° with the ground?
Sol. Here, F = 50 N , S = 10 m , = 30
W = FS Cos θ
W = 50 × 10 × Cos 30°
W  50x10x 3
2
= 612.4 J

Example2.A man weighing 50 kg supports a body of 25 kg on head. What is the work done when
he moves a distance of 20 m?
Sol. Total mass = 50 + 25 = 75 kg
θ = 90°
Distance = 20 m
W = FS × 0 (Cos 90o = 0)
W=0
Thus, work done is zero

FRICTION: FRICTION IS DEFINED AS THE RESISTANCE OFFERED BY THE SURFACES THAT

ARE IN CONTACT WHEN THEY MOVE PAST EACH OTHER.

APPLICATIONS IN DAILY LIFE: 1. Walking –We can walk only if we apply frictional
force.Friction is what holds your shoe to the ground. The friction present on the ice is very little,
this is the reason why it is hard to walk on the slippery surface of the ice.
 2.Writing – A frictional force is created when the tip of the pen comes in contact with the
surface of the paper. Rolling friction is what comes into play while writing with a ballpoint pen
while sliding friction arises when one writes with a pencil.

3.Skating – A thin film of water under the blade is necessary to make the skate slide. The heat
generated by the skate blade rubbing against the surface of ice causes some of the ice to melt
right below the blade where the skater glides over the ice. This water acts as a lubricant
reducing friction.

4.Lighting a matchstick – When the head of the matchstick is rubbed against a rough surface,
heat is generated and this heat converts red phosphorous to white phosphorous. White
phosphorous is highly inflammable and the match stick ignites. Sometimes, matchsticks fail to
ignite due to the presence of water. Water lowers friction.

5.Driving of the vehicle on a surface- While driving a vehicle, the engine generates a force on
the driving wheels. This force initiates the vehicle to move forwards. Friction is the force that
opposes the tyre rubber from sliding on the road surface. This friction avoids skidding of
vehicles.

6.Applications of breaks in the vehicle to stop it- Friction braking is the most widely used braking method
in vehicles. This process involves the conversion of kinetic energy to thermal energy by applying friction to
the moving parts of a vehicle. The friction force resists the motion and in turn, generates heat. This
conversion of energy eventually bringing the velocity to zero.

3.2 ENERGY (DEFINITION AND ITS SI UNITS), EXAMPLES OF TRANSFORMATION

OF ENERGY

Energy
Energy of a body is defined as the capacity of the body to do the work. Like work, energy is
also a scalar quantity.
Unit: SI system - Joule, CGS system - erg
Dimensional Formula: [ML2 T–2].
Examples of Transformation of Energy
The energy change from one form to another is called transformation of energy. For example-

 In a heat engine, heat energy changes into mechanical energy

 In an electric bulb, the electric energy changes into light energy.
 In an electric heater, the electric energy changes into heat energy.
 In a fan, the electric energy changes into mechanical energy which rotates the fan.
 In the sun, mass changes into radiant energy.
 In an electric motor, the electric energy is converted into mechanical energy.
 In burning of coal, oil etc., chemical energy changes into heat and light energy.
 In a dam, potential energy of water changes into kinetic energy, then K.E rotates the turbine
which produces the electric energy.
 In an electric bell, electric energy changes into sound energy.
  In a generator, mechanical energy is converted into the electric energy.

3.3 KINETIC ENERGY (FORMULA, EXAMPLES AND ITS DERIVATION)

Kinetic Energy (K.E.): Energy possessed by the body by virtue of its motions is called kinetic
energy. For example (i) running water (ii) Wind energy; work on the K.E. of air (iii) Moving bullet.

Expression for Kinetic Energy

Consider F is the force acting on the body at rest (i.e., u = 0), then it moves in the direction of
force to distance (s).

Figure: 11

Let v be the final velocity.

Using relation v 2  u 2  2aS
v2  u 2
a
2S
v2  0
a
2S
v2
a --------------(1)
2S
Now, work done, W= F.S
or W= maS (using F =ma) ------------- (2)
By equation (1) and (2)
v2
W  m. .S
2S
or W  12 mv 2
This work done is stored in the body as kinetic energy. So kinetic energy possessed by the body is
(K.E.) = 12 mv 2

3.4 POTENTIAL ENERGY (FORMULA, EXAMPLES AND ITS DERIVATION)

Potential Energy (P.E.): Energy possessed by the body by virtue of its position is called potential
energy. Example
(i) Water stored in a dam
(ii) Mango hanging on the branch of a tree
Expression for Potential Energy (P.E)
It is defined as the energy possessed by the body by virtue of its position above the surface of earth.
W=FxS
Work done = Force × height
= mg × h = mgh
h
This work done is stored in the form of gravitational potential energy.
Hence Potential energy =mgh.

Figure: 12

Law of Conservation of Energy

Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be converted from one form to another.

3.5 CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY OF A FREE FALLING BODY

Let us consider K.E., P.E. and total energy of a body of mass m falling freely under gravity
from a height h from the surface of ground.

According to Fig. 3.3

At position A:
Initial velocity (u) = 0
K.E = 12 mv 2
P. E. = mgh

Total Energy=K.E + P.E

=0 + mgh
=mgh ------------- (1)
At position B
Potential energy=mg(h – x) Figure: 13
Velocity at point B= u
From equation of motion K.E. = 1
2 mu 2

As V 2  U 2  2aS
Hence u 2  02  2 gx
or u 2  2 gx
1
Putting this value we get, KE= 2 m(2 gx)
or K.E. = mgx

Total Energy =K.E + P.E

=mgx + mg(h – x)
=mgh --------(2)
At position C
Potential energy = 0(as h = 0)
Velocity at Point B= v
From equation of motion K.E. = 1
2 mv 2
 As V 2  U 2  2aS
Hence v 2  02  2 gh
or v 2  2 gh
Putting this value we get KE= 12 m(2 gh)
or K.E. = mgh

Total Energy =K.E + P.E

=mgh + 0
=mgh ---------(3)
From equations (1), (2) and (3), it is clear that total mechanical energy of freely falling body at all
the positions is same and hence remains conserved.

3.6 POWER

Power is defined as the rate at which work is done by a force. The work done per unit time is
also called power.
If a body do work W in time t, then power is
W
P
t
Units of Power: SI unit of power is watt (W)
Power is said to be 1 W, if 1 J work is done in 1 s.
1J
1W 
1s
Bigger units of power are:
Kilowatt (KW) =103W
Megawatt (MW) =106 W
Horse power (hp) = 746 W
1 2 -3
Dimension of power = [M L T ]

Example 5 A man weighing 65 kg lifts a mass of 45 kg to the top of a building 10 meters high in
12second. Find;

(i) Total work done by him.

(ii) The power developed by him.
Solution Mass of the man, m1= 65 kg
Mass lifted m2= 45 kg
Height through which raised h = 10 m
Time taken t = 12 seconds.
(i) Total work done by the man, W = mgh
= 110 × 9.81 × 10 = 10791.0J
W 10791J
(ii) Power developed P   899.25W
t 12s
 CHAPTER - 4
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Topics to be covered:
1. Definition of Elasticity, Deforming force, Restoring force, example of Elastic and plastic
body,
2. Definition of Stress and strain, Hooke’s law, Modulus of Elasticity
3. Pressure (definition, atmospheric pressure, gauge pressure, absolute pressure, Pascal’s Law
4. Surface tension: definition, SI unit, applications of surface tension, effect of temperature on
Surface tension
5. Viscosity: definition, unit, examples, effect of temperature on viscosity.
Deforming Forces: The forces which bring the change in configuration of the body are called
deforming forces.

Restoring Force: It is a force exerted on a body or a system that tends to move it towards an
equilibrium state.
Elasticity: It is the property of solid materials by virtue of which a body returns to their original
shape and size after the deforming forces have been removed from the body.
Elastic Body: It is the body that returns to its original shape after a deformation. Examples are Golf
ball, Soccer ball, Rubber band etc.
Plastic Body: It is the body that does not return to its original shape after a deformation. Examples
are Polyethylene (PE), Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene (PS) and Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) etc.

Stress: It is defined as the restoring force per unit area of a material. i.e.
Stress = Restoring Force/ area taken.
Strain: It is defined as the ratio of change in configuration to the original configuration, when a
deforming force is applied to a body.

The strain is of three types:

1. Longitudinal strain = Change in length (∆l) / original length (l)
2. Volumetric strain = Change in volume (∆v) / original volume (v).
3. Shearing strain = Lateral Displacement /Distance between surfaces

= ∆𝜃 / l = tan Ф
Hookʼ 𝐬 𝐋𝐚𝐰 /𝐌𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐄𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲:
Hook’s law: According to this law, "Within elastic limits, the stress applied on a body is directly
proportional to the strain." i.e.
Stress 𝛼 Strain
Stress = E × Strain ;
Where E = proportionality constant which is known as modulus of elasticity.
Modulus of Elasticity: The ratio of stress and strain is called modulus of elasticity. i.e
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
E=
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Types of Modulus of Elasticity: There are three types of Modulus of Elasticity given as below:
1. Young’s Modulus(Y): The ratio of normal stress to the longitudinal strain is defined as Young’s
modulus and is denoted by the symbol ' Y '.

Since strain is a dimensionless quantity, the unit of Young’s modulus is the same as that of stress
i.e. N 𝑚−2 .

2. Bulk Modulus (B): The ratio of normal (hydraulic) stress to the volumetric strain is called bulk
modulus. It is denoted by symbol ' B '.
B = ΔP /(ΔV/V)
Where:
B: Bulk modulus
ΔP: change of the pressure or force applied per unit area on the material
ΔV: change of the volume of the material due to the compression
V: Initial volume of the material.
SI unit of bulk modulus is the same as that of pressure i.e. Nm-2 or Pa .
Shear Modulus or Modulus of rigidity (): The ratio of shearing stress to the corresponding
shearing strain is called the shear modulus of the material and is represented by ʻ ʼ . It is also
called the modulus of rigidity.

 = Tangential stress /Shear strain

Unit of shear modulus is N/ 𝑚−2 𝑜𝑟 Pressure.

It is defined as the force per unit area over the surface of a body. It is denoted by ' P '.
i.e P = F/A
SI unit = Nm2 or Pa (Pascal)

Atmospheric Pressure: Atmospheric pressure at that spot is the force acting on a unit area around
a location as a result of the full height of the air column of the atmosphere above it.
Absolute Pressure: Absolute pressure is the pressure measured in proportion to absolute zero
pressure in a vacuum.
Gauge Pressure: Gauge pressure is the difference between absolute pressure and atmospheric
pressure at a point. If the gauge pressure is above the atmospheric pressure, it is positive, otherwise
negative.
Pascal Law: "A change in the pressure applied to an enclosed incompressible fluid is transmitted
undiminished to every portion of the fluid and to the walls of its container."
F = p A where
 F = force (N)

p = pressure (Pa, N/m2)

A = area (m2)

Surface Tension: The property of a liquid due to which its free surface behaves like stretched
membrane and acquires minimum surface area. It is given by force per unit length. i.e.
S=F/L
Surface tension allows insects (e.g. water striders), usually denser than water, to float and stride on
a water surface.
SI unit = N/m.
Applications of surface tension: It plays an important role in many applications in our daily life

as given here:
1. Washing clothes
2. Cleaning
3. Cosmetics
4. Lubricants in machines etc.
5. Spreading of ink, colours
6. Wetting of a surface
7. Paints, insecticides
8. Creating fuel-spray in automobile engines
9. Passing of liquid in porous media etc.
Effect of Temperature on Surface Tension:
Surface tension decreases when temperature increases and vice versa. This is because
cohesive forces decrease with an increase of molecular thermal activity. The influence of the
surrounding environment is due to the adhesive action liquid molecules have at the interface.
Viscosity: The property of liquid due to which it oppose the relative motion between the layers of
fluid. It is also known as liquid friction.
SI unit of viscosity is Pascal-second (Pas) and CGS unit is Poise.

Effect of Temperature on Viscosity:

1. In liquids the source for Viscosity is considered to be atomic bonding. As we understand that,
with the increase of temperature the bonds break and make the molecule free to move. So, we can
conclude that the viscosity decreases as the temperature increases and vice versa.
2. In gases, due to the lack of cohesion, the source of viscosity is the collision of molecules. Here,
As the temperature increases the viscosity increases and vice versa. This is because the gas
molecules utilize the given thermal energy in increasing its kinetic energy that makes them random
and therefore resulting in more the number of collisions.
 CHAPTER - 5
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Topics to be covered:
1. Definition of heat and temperature (on the basis of kinetic theory)

2. Difference between heat and temperature

3. Principle and working of mercury thermometer
4. Modes of transfer of heat (Conduction, convection and radiation with examples)
5. Properties of heat radiation
6. Different scales of temperature and their relationship.
Heat: Heat is the form of energy that is transferred between two substances at different
temperatures. The direction of energy flow is from the substance of higher temperature to the
substance of lower temperature.

Heat on the basis of kinetic theory: According to the kinetic theory, heat of a body is total kinetic
energy of all its molecules. If a body have ‘n’ number of molecules having mass m and velocities
v1, v2, v3, --------,vn. Then
Total heat energy in the body (H) = Sum of kinetic energy of all molecules
1
= m ( 𝑣12 + 𝑣22 + 𝑣32 + ……………..+𝑣𝑛2 )
2
Temperature: Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a system.
Temperature is measured in the Kelvin or Celsius scales, with Fahrenheit. For the above given n
molecules, the Temperature is written as:
Sum of kinetic energy of all molecules
Temperature (T) = number of molecules
1 1
= { √[ m (𝑣12 + 𝑣22 + 𝑣32 + ……………..+𝑣𝑛2 )]}
𝑛 2

Difference between Heat and Temperature:

SR. Heat Temperature
NO.
1 Heat is a form of energy that can transfer Temperature is the degree of hotness and
from hot body to cold body. coldness of a body.

2 Heat is the total kinetic energy and Temperature is the average K.E of molecules
potential energy obtained by molecules in in a substance.
an object.

3 Heat flows from hot body to cold body. It rises when heated and falls down when an
object is cooled down.

4 It has a working ability. It does not have the working ability.

5 Its SI unit is “Joule”. Its SI unit is “Kelvin”.

6 It is measured by the calorimeter. It is measured by the thermometer.

7 It is represented by “Q”. It is represented by “T”.

Principle and working of Mercury Thermometer:

Principle: Mercury thermometers are based on the principle that liquids expand when heated and
contract when cooled. So when the temperature increases, the mercury expands and rises up the
tube and when the temperature decreases, it contracts and does the opposite.
Working: In a mercury thermometer, a glass tube is filled with mercury and a standard temperature
scale is marked on the tube. With changes in temperature, the mercury expands and contracts, and
the temperature can be read from the scale, Mercury thermometers can be used to determine body,
liquid and vapor temperature. Mercury thermometers are used in households, laboratory and
industrial applications.

Modes of Transfer of Heat:

1. Conduction: It is defined as that mode of transfer of heat in which the heat travels from particle
to particle in contact, along the direction of fall of temperature without any net displacement of the
particles.

For example, if one end of a long metal rod (iron or brass) is heated, after some time other end of
rod also becomes hot due to the transfer of heat energy from hot atoms to the nearby atoms because
of conduction.

.
2. Convection: The process of transmission of heat in which heat is transferred from one point to
another by the physical movement of the heated particles is called convection.

For example, if a liquid in a vessel is heated by placing a burner below the vessel, after some time
the top surface of liquid also becomes warm. Other examples are heating of water, cooling of
transformers, heating of rooms by heater etc.
3. Radiation: The process of heat transfer in which heat is transmitted from one place to another
without heating the intervening medium is called radiation. Thermal radiations are the energy
emitted by a body in the form of radiations on account of its temperature and travel with the
velocity of light. For example, We receive heat from sun by radiation process.
Properties of Heat Radiations:
1.They do not require a medium for their propagation.
2. Heat radiations travel in straight line.
3. Heat radiations do not heat the intervening medium.
4. Heat radiations are electromagnetic waves.
5. They travel with a velocity 3 × l08 m/s in vacuum.
6. They undergo reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and polarization.
7. They obey inverse square law.

Different scales of Temperature:

The main scales of Temperature are given as below:

1. Celsius Scale
2. Kelvin Scale
3. Fahrenheit Scale
Relation among the Scales of Temperature: Temperature of a body can be converted from one
scale to the other. Let
L = lower reference point (freezing point)
H = upper reference point (boiling point)
T = temperature read on the given scale.

Now ,
Let us take a body whose temperature is determined by three different thermometers

giving readings in ℃ ,℉ and K respectively.

 fig. Different scales of Temperature

Let T1 = C = Temperature in ℃, L1 = 0°C, H1 =100°C

T2 = F = Temperature in ℉, L2 = 32℉, H2 = 212℉

T3 = K = Temperature Kelvin, L3 = 273 K , H3 = 373K

Then
𝐶 −0 𝐹−32 𝐾−273
= =
100−0 212−32 373−273

𝐶 𝐹−32 𝐾−273
= =
100 180 100
𝐶 𝐹−32 𝐾−273
= = ………………… (A)
5 9 5
This is the relation among different scales of Temperature.