INDUSTRIAL METAL WORKING PROCESSES MSE

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What is Metalworking?
Metalworking is the process of forming and shaping metals to create useful tools, objects, equipment parts, and
structures.
Different types of metal working process like
• Casting • Cutting • Joining • Forming
What is Forming Processes?
Forming is a mechanical process used in manufacturing industries wherein materials (mostly metals) undergo plastic
deformations and acquire required shapes and sizes by application of suitable stresses such as compression, shear
and tension.
In the forming process, no material is removed, it is completely displaced and deformed into the required shape.

Classification of Forming Processes

 Powder Metal Forming  Bulk Forming
1. Powder Forging 1. Rolling Process
2. Powder Injection 2. Extrusion Process
3. Powder Extrusion Molding 3. Forging Process
 Sheet Forming 4. Wire Drawing
1. Bending 5. Squeezing
2. Deep Drawing
3. Shearing

Considering the temperature, there are three types of Forming Process.

• Hot working process • Cold working process

• Warm Forming process

Hot Working process

Hot working of metals takes place above re-crystallization. By hot working processes the metal is given desired shape
by subjecting then two forces which cause then to undergo plastic deformation at the temperature above the re-
crystallization range. Hot working involves deformation above recrystallization temperature, between 0.5T m to
0.75Tm.
Pros of Hot Working

 Decrease in yield strength, therefore it is easier to work

and uses less energy or force
Cons of Hot Working
 Increase in ductility
 Undesirable reactions between the metal and the
 Elevated temperatures increase diffusion which can
surrounding atmosphere (scaling or rapid oxidation of
remove or reduce chemical in homogeneities
the workpiece).
 Pores may reduce in size or close completely during
 Less precision tolerances due to thermal contraction
deformation
and wrapping from uneven cooling.
 Grain structure may very throughout the metal for
various reasons.
 Requires a heating unit of some kind such as a gas or
diesel furnace or an induction heater which can be very
expensive.
Cold Working

Cold working is the plastic deformation of metals below the recrystallization temperature. In most cases of
manufacturing, such cold forming is done at room temperature.
Sometimes, however, the working may be done at elevated temperatures (250-300°C) that will provide increased
ductility and reduced strength, but will be below the recrystallization temperature.

Why not cold working? Why cold working?

 Higher forces required for deformation  No heating required

 Heavier and more powerful equipment required  Better surface finish obtained
 Less ductility available  Superior dimension control
 Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-free  Better reproducibility and interchangeability of
 Strain hardening occurs* (may require parts
intermediate anneals)  Improved strength properties
 Imparted directional properties may be  Directional properties can be minimized
detrimental
 May produce undesirable residual stresses

Warm Working Process

In this case, forming is performed at temperatures just above room temperature but below the recrystallization
temperature.
It stands between Hot and Cold Forming process. The working temperature is taken to be 0.3 Tm where Tm is the
melting point of the work piece.
Advantages:
1) Enhanced plastic deformation properties
2) Lower forces required
3) Intricate work geometries possible
4) Annealing stages can be reduced.

Strengthening by Cold Working

The ability of a metal to deform depends on the ability of dislocations to move. Restricting dislocation motion makes
the material stronger.
Strengthening by increase of dislocation density (Strain Hardening = Work Hardening = Cold Working)

• Ductile metals become stronger when they are

deformed plastically at temperatures well below the
melting point.
• The reason for strain hardening is the increase of
dislocation density with plastic deformation.
• The average distance between dislocations decreases
and dislocations start blocking the motion of each
other Effect of degree of cold working on the
strength and ductility of cold work materials
The percent cold work (% CW) is often used to express the degree of plastic deformation:

where A0 is the original cross-section area, Ad is the area after deformation.

%CW is just another measure of the degree of plastic deformation, in addition to strain.
Strain Hardening Exponent

The strain hardening exponent (also called the strain hardening index), usually denoted n, a constant often used in
calculations relating to stress–strain behavior in work hardening.

σ = Kϵn
Where, σ represents the applied true stress on the material,
ɛ is the true strain, and K is the strength coefficient.

The new yield strength, σyi, is higher than the initial yield
strength σyo. The reason for this effect - strain hardening.
Effect of strain hardening exponent on
the deformation behaviors of materials
 High work hardening coefficient facilities more deformation and complex forming operations without premature
failure
 The slop of the curve in the plastic regime is used to define the work hardening coefficient
 True Strain at the onset of necking is numerically equal to n of the materials.
 The higher value of n, the higher strain that a piece of materials can experience before it begins to neck.
This observation is important to sheet metal operations that involves the stretching of work piece. copper,
brass and stainless steel have high values of n that can be stretched uniformly to a greater extent.
Effect of Cold Working on Mechanical Properties
Small amount of drawing up to 10% produces large change in strength and ductility.
Additional amount of drawing up to at least 50% caused relatively smaller change beyond 10% of area that
vary according to linear relationship by
S = kSA(1+R)
Here,
S = strength
K = a constant depending upon the materials and type of test
Sa = strength of the normalized tubing free from cold drawing
R = reduction of area
Values of k for

Ultimate tensile strength= 1.27

Maximum compressive strength = 1.33
Tensile yield strength (for 0.2% offset) = 1.67
Compressive yield strength (0.2% offset) = 1.45
Rate of Deformation Effects
Deformation rate is defined as the speed at which a tension test is being carried out, in units say m/s or
ft/min. Strain rate is the change in strain (deformation) of a material with respect to time. It is a function of
the specimen length.
 Increasing the strain rate increases the strength

 The slop of the curves is called strain rate sensitivity exponent, m.

 Sensitivity of strain rate increases with temperature

 The slop is relatively flat at room temperature that is m is very low

 With increasing m, materials stretches further before it fails,

thus increasing m delay necking

 Ductility enhancement caused by high m in superplastic forming

in sheet metal

Forging
Forging is perhaps oldest metal working process and was known even during prehistoric days when metallic
tools were made by heating and hammering.
Forging is the operation where the metal is heated and then a force is applied to manipulate the metal in
such a way that the required final shape is obtained.
It is a deformation process in which the work piece is compressed between two dies, using either impact
load or hydraulic load (or gradual load) to deform it.

Why Forging Over Other Manufacturing?

1. Stronger Components: Refines and directs grain flow, enhancing ductility and fatigue resistance.
2. Stronger Component: Forging provides better mechanical properties, ductility and fatigue and impact
resistance because this process refines and direct the grain flow according to the shape of the piece.
3. Useable for a wide range of metals: Almost all metal like ferrous and nonferrous, any kind of steel.
4. Significant Savings: Provides cost savings. No metal loss, no need to cutting grinding or finishing
process.
5. Wide range of shapes and sizes: Flexibility
Forging Operations
1. Upsetting: It is the process of increasing the cross-section at expense of the length of the work piece.

2. Drawing Down: Reduces cross-section, increasing length.

3. Punching and Drifting: Punching means an operation in which a punch is forced through
the work piece to produce a rough hole. Punching is usually followed by drifting i.e., forcing a drift in
the punched hole through and through. This produces at better hole as regards its size and finish.

4. Cutting: This operation is done by means of hot chisels and consists of removing extra, metal from the
job before finishing it.
5. Bending: Bending of bars, flats and other such material is often done by a blacksmith.
6. Forge Welding: Sometimes, it may become necessary to join two pieces of metal. Forge
welding of steel is quite common and consists of heating the two ends to be joined to white heat
(1050°C – 1150°C). Then the two ends of steel are brought together having previously been given a
slight convex shape to the surfaces under joining.
Types of Forging
1. Smith Forging: This is the traditional forging operation done openly or open dies by the village black
smith, modern shop floor by manual hammering or by power hammering.
2. Drop Forging: Done by closed impression dies by means of drop hammers.
3. Press Forging: Similar to drop forging where force is applied by hydraulic press.
4. Machine Forging: Unlike the drop or press forging where the materials is drawn out in machine forging.

Drop Forging and Die Drop Forging

 This is the modern equivalent of smith forging where the limited force of the blacksmith has been replaced by
mechanical or steam hammer.

 This process can be carried out by open forging where the hammer is replaced by a die and the metal is
manipulated manually on the anvil.

 Barreling is caused by frictional forces that oppose the outward flow of the workpiece at the die interfaces
minimized by using an effective lubricant.

 Cogging or drawing out is an open-die forging operation where thickness of a bar is reduced by successive
forging steps at specific intervals
 Die drop forging is the type of closed die forging where the top and the anvil of the open die forging is replaced
by lower and upper dies. It is used for mass production.

 Fullering impression: Since drop forging involves only a reduction in cross section with no upsetting, the very first
step to reduce the stock is fullering. The impression machined in the die to achieve this is called fullering
impression.

 Edging impression: Also called as preform. This stage is used to gather the exact amount of material required at
each cross-section of the finished component. This is the most important stage in drop forging.

 Bending impression: This is required for those parts which have a bend shape. To improve the grain flow,
therefore a bending impression is incorporated after edging impression.

 Blocking impression:
It is also called as semi finishing impression. Blocking is a step before finishing. In forging, it is difficult for the
material to flow to deep pockets, sharp corners etc. Hence before the actual shape is obtained, the material is
allowed to have one or more blocking impressions where it requires the shape very near to final one. The blocking
impression is characterized by large corner radii and fillet but no flash.

 Finishing impression:
This is the final impression where the actual shape required obtained. In order to ensure that the metal completely
fills the die cavity, a little extra metal is added to the stock. The extra metal will form the flash and surround the
forging in the parting plane.

 Trimming: In this stage, extra flash present around the forging is trimmed to get the forging in the usable form.

Upset Forging
Upset Forging increases the diameter by compressing its length.
It is specially done in high speed machine that are usually set up to work in the horizontal plane to facilitate
the quick exchange of work piece from one station to the next.
There are three rules, which are based on geometric proportions:
Rule 1: The limit of length of unsupported stock that can be upset in one blow without excessive buckling is
not more than three times the diameter of the bar.
Rule 2: When the length of unsupported bar stock is more than three times its diameter, the bar can be
upset in one blow provided that the diameter of the upset is not more than one and one-half times the
diameter of the stock
Rule 3: Where the length of unsupported bar stock is more than three times its diameter, and the diameter of the upset is not
more than one and one-half times the diameter of the stock, the bar can be upset in one blow provided the amount of
unsupported stock beyond the face of the die is not greater than one and one-half times the diameter of the stock.

Press Forging
Press forging can be defined as forming process of placing metal between two dies by applying
mechanical or hydraulic pressure.
Press forging is usually done on a forging press, a machine that exerts a gradual pressure on a forging die.
The metal shape is usually formed by a single punch stroke for each die station.

• Press forging is a process of applying progressive pressure to the die clamping the work piece.
• This can be done as an open die or closed die forging process. In an open die press forging process, the metal is
surrounded only by one side of the die. For die pressing or closed die forging, the metal work piece is enclosed
in a mold and pressure is applied to the mold.

• The work piece has plastic deformation and fills the mold cavity. In both the processes, the forged part is pushed
out of the die cavity by means of an ejector.

• Both, hydraulic presses and mechanical presses are employed for press forging operation. The mechanical
presses are used for light work while the hydraulic presses are employed for heavy work.

• The mechanical press operates faster than the hydraulic presses but provides less squeezing force.

• The contact of the workpiece in the die is measured in seconds whereas drop forging and hammer forging is
measured in milliseconds.

Comparison: Press Forging vs. Drop Forging

PRESS DROP
1. In press forging, the metal is shaped by means of a single, 1. In drop forging, the metal is shaped by means of a series
continuous stroke. of blows.
2. The pressure applied is slow, steady and continuous in a 2. The pressure applied is impact, and in multi-stroke in
single squeezing action in press forging. drop forging.
3. The deformation obtained is uniform, simultaneous and 3. The deformation of metal is more at the surface layers
deep penetrating at the center of the metal part. than that of center of the metal part.
4. The impressions obtained in press forging are clean. 4. The jarred impressions are obtained.
5. In press forging, the draft angles used are less. 5. The draft angles used are more than that of press forging.
6. The tong holds are not required. 6. Tong holds are normally required for manipulating dies.
7. The initial cost is higher than the drop forging. 7. The initial cost is less comparatively.
8. The process is recommended when machine utilization is 8. The drop forging is suitable for almost all types of
quite high. medium size forgings.
9. The process forging is a faster process and has higher 9. The drop forging is relatively slow process and has
production rates. moderate production rates.
Structure and Properties of Forging
The impact forge applies a stress period compared to a long period results in totally different structure.
Forging of a large piece of metal at high temperature will result in a very inhomogeneous structure, the
outside layers showing a typical Hot worked structure whilst the center is still as cast.
Any attempt to achieve greater penetration by increasing impact load usually leads to internal crack.
The second one from press forging is a homogeneous product having high quality as the process is slower
and continuous.

Fig: Microstructure developed after drop forging and press forging

Grain Flow Lines

Fiver flow or Grain flow is a directional orientation of metal grains and any inclusions that have been
deformed by forging. Individual grains are elongated in the direction of the metal flow or plastic
deformation.

Effect of Friction in Forging

One effect of friction between W/P and the tool is to cause the vertical profile to become barrel shaped, because the
central portion deforms more than the upper and lower surface. Deformation is inhomogeneous. This requires higher
load and greater total energy expenditure than for homogeneous deformation. This extra energy is called Redundant
work.

Second effect is to increase the deformation load due to friction, and to emphasize the special role of friction in
deformation processes. Press tool is loaded below its yield point, but the w/p exceeds the yield point that results
elastic and plastic friction. This creates a large friction stress.

Forging Defects
1. Incomplete Penetration: Dendritic ingot structure at the interior of forging is not broken. Actual forging takes
place only at the surface.

Cause: Use of light rapid hammer blows.

 Remedy:
Forging should be carried out slowly if not solved use forging press instead of drop forging for full penetration.

2. Surface Cracking: Caused by low temperature or friction; remedy includes stress relieving.
Cause:
1. Excessive working on the surface at too low temperature
2. As a result of hot shortness
3. Due to sticking friction.
4. High sulfur in furnace leading to hot shortness
Remedy: To increase the work temperature stress relieving.
3. Cracking at the Flash: This crack penetrates into the interior after flash is trimmed off.
Cause: Very thin flash
Remedy:
 Increasing flash thickness,
 hot trimming
 stress relieving
 relocating the flash to a less critical region of the forging

4. Cold Shut (Fold): Two surfaces of metal fold against each other without welding completely.
Cause:

 Sharp corner (less fillet),

 excessive chilling,
 high friction

Remedy: increase fillet radius on the die.

5. Scale pockets and Under fills: They are loose scale/ lubricant residue which accumulate in deep
recesses of the die.
Cause: Incomplete descaling of the work

Remedy: Proper descaling of work prior to forging

6. Internal Cracks: Addressed by proper die design and slow cooling.

Cause: Secondary tensile stresses developed during forging

Remedy: Proper die design

7. Residual stresses in Forging:

Causes: Inhomogeneous deformation and improper cooling (quenching) of forging.

Remedy: Slow cooling of the forging in a furnace or under ash cover over a period of time.
FORGING ANALYSIS

#Determine the sliding force of a friction hill.

It is possible to derive a mathematical expression for the friction hill by considering the forces and stresses
operating in the deformation process. Let’s consider that a case of a plain strain deformation of an open die
forging.
friction থাকায়
move হতে দেয়
না

freely move হতে

পারে

মাঝে friction নাই | inhomogeneous deformation হয়, বেশি energy লাগে (redundant work) | deformation সবচেয়ে কম centerline
বরাবর | force always uniform হয় না.
A piece of metal thickness (or height) h, width 2a, and length l is compressed between a pair of parallel
platens. According to the figure 1, the work piece is kept on lower die in stationary condition and the upper
die is allowed to move downward for applying pressure. As it keeps moving downward, the height of the
workpiece also changing due to continuous pressure.

Figure 1 Figure 2

Now, we assuming the constant volume relationship during the deformation process.

the direction of upper die. As a result, a friction force, F will develop at the interface region of the
While the height keeps on decreasing, the lateral flow of material will occur (barreling) perpendicular to

workpiece and the dies. Consider the state of the forces on a vertical element inside the metal of width dx
and distance x from the center line.
Since this element is stationary the resultant forces acting it must be zero (Figure 2).
(Q+dQ) hl – Qhl – 2F = 0 Resisting force যেখানে কাজ
করছে, তার cross section বিবেচনা
 hldQ = 2F………….(i) করলে a আসে না

Assuming that Coulomb Friction conditions operate (this is usually the case in cold working when sliding
occurs) and μ is the coefficient of friction, the following relationship can be written
 τfriction = μP
=¿μP
F

A
=¿μP
F

 F = dx.l.μP
dxl

2(dx.l.μP) = hldQ
value of F putting in (i)

 hdQ = 2μPdx……(ii)

The above equation can be integrated directly if the relationship between P and Q is known. This can be
found, since it is known that the element is at the point of yielding, therefore Tresca's Yield Criterion must
hold. If it is assumed that P and Q are the major and minor principal stresses for the element, then

 P-Q = σ0
 dP-dQ = dσ0
 dP = dQ [dσ0=0,
Where σ0 is the yield stress of the metal]

 hdQ = 2μPdx
Equation (ii) can be rewritten and integrated as,

=
dQ 2 μdx

P h
 ∫ =∫
dP 2μ
dx
P h
 lnP = + c ………………(iii)
2 μx

Here c is the integration constant. Equation (iii) can be rewritten as,

h

P = c ' exp
2 μx

the value of c’ can be determined since at x=± a , and

h

P = (2/√3)σ0
= 1.115σ0 = 2k
[ plane strain condition ]
( k= critical resisting stress)
Or, P=σ0 [ homogeneous strain condition ]
N:B: Lubricant use করলে friction কমে যায়। ফলে তা plane strain থেকে homogenous এর দিকে অগ্রসর
হয়।

Now, putting the value of P and x into equation (iii) we can rewrite as,
 lnσ0 =
2μ±a
+c
h
 c = lnσ0
−2 μ ± a
h
 lnP = lnσ0
−2 μx −2 μ ± a
(from iii again)
h h
 lnP−¿lnσ0 =
2μ
(x ± a)
h
 ln(P/σ0) =
2μ
(a ± x)
h
 P/σ0 = exp
2μ
(x ± a)
h
from Taylor series,
e = 1+x+ + +……………..
2 3
x x x
2! 3!
= 1+
2 μ (x ±a) 2 μ( x ± a)
h
e h
(neglecting others)

 P/σ0= 1+
2 μ( x ± a)
h
This is the equation of friction hill due to sliding friction.

 P= σ0 + σ0
[cold work condition]
2 μ( x ± a)
h

For minimum value of P (at the edge) = σ0

Pmin = σ0
When, x=± a

When, x=0
Pmax = σ0(1+
2μa
¿
h

Now, Pmean = (Pmin+ Pmax)/2

 P= σ0 [1+
μa
¿
h
This is the final euation of friction hill. It is also called the pressure distribution equation of a cold workpiece
due to forging.
STICKING FRICTION
# Determine the sliding force of a friction hill.
for sticking friction, μ ≥ 0.5 [ contact surface deform হতে দেয় না ]

It is possible to derive a mathematical expression for the friction hill by considering the forces and stresses
operating in the deformation process. Let’s consider that a case of a plain strain deformation of an open die
forging.
friction থাকায়
move হতে দেয়
না

freely move হতে

পারে

A piece of metal thickness (or height) h, width 2a, and length l is compressed between a pair of parallel
platens. According to the figure 1, the work piece is kept on lower die in stationary condition and the upper
die is allowed to move downward for applying pressure. As it keeps moving downward, the height of the
workpiece also changing due to continuous pressure.

Figure 1 Figure 2

Now, we assuming the constant volume relationship during the deformation process.
the direction of upper die. As a result, a friction force, F will develop at the interface region of the
While the height keeps on decreasing, the lateral flow of material will occur (barreling) perpendicular to

workpiece and the dies. Consider the state of the forces on a vertical element inside the metal of width dx
and distance x from the center line.
Since this element is stationary the resultant forces acting it must be zero (Figure 2).

Yfriction = F/A = μP = σ0/2 = K

Now,

dQh = 2μPdx
P-Q = const.


dP = dQ


hdP = 2Kdx


Now, by integrating them,



∫ 2 K =∫
dP dx

h
= +c
P x

x = a, Q = 0, at edge
2K h

 P-Q= 2K
 P = 2K
=
2K ±a
 +c
2K h
 c = 1−
±a
h
= +(1− )
P x ±a

2K h h
=1+( ± ¿
P x a

2K h h
=1+ (x ± a)
P 1

2K h
 P =2K (1+
x±a
¿

Pmin at edge, x=± a so,

h

P =2K (1+
a
¿

Now, Pmean = (Pmin+ Pmax)/2

h

 P= 2K [1+
a
¿
2h
This is the final equation of friction hill due to the sticking friction.
[Hot work condition]
Problem:
A steel billet is to be forged. If the billet is 20 m long,0.9 m wide and 0.2 m thick, calculate and compare the
flash: This load required at the commencement and the completion of the forging. Assume plain strain
conditions so that width remains constant throughout, the tool bite is 0.3 m and tensile yield strength is
500MN/m2 at the start of the forging and 150 MN/m2 at completion.
Problem:
A cylindrical part is warm upset forged in an open die. The initial diameter is 45 mm and initial height is 40
mm. The height after forging is 25 mm. The yield strength of the work materials is 285 MPA and its flow
curve is defined a strength coefficient of 600 MPA and a strain hardening exponent of 0.12. Determine the
force in the operations a) just as the yield point is reached (yield at strain =0.002), b) at a height of 35 mm ,
c) at a height of 30 mm, d) at the height after forging.