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Lecture 10a-Forming

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Lecture 10a-Forming

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Harsh Shah
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ME206 – Manufacturing Process I

Lecture 11 – Overview of Metal forming

Amber Shrivastava
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay

Acknowledgement: Prof. Pradeep Dixit

1
Metal Forming 2

• Large group of manufacturing processes in which plastic deformation


is used to change the shape of metal workpieces
• The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that exceed the yield
strength of the workpiece metal
– The metal takes a shape determined by the geometry of the die
• Stresses to plastically deform the metal are “usually” compressive
– Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
• However, some forming processes
– Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
– Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
– Still others apply shear stresses (shear spinning)
• Deformation types
– Bulk deformation : Rolling, Forging, Extrusion, Wire and bar
drawing
– Sheet metalworking : Bending, Deep drawing, Punching/blanking
Bulk Deformation Processes 3

• Characterized by significant deformations (High V/A) and massive shape


changes
• Metal forming operations which cause significant shape change by
deforming metal parts whose initial form is bulk rather than sheet
– Starting work shapes include cylindrical billets and rectangular bars
– "Bulk" : relatively higher volume to surface area ratios
• Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between opposing rolls
• Forging – work is squeezed and shaped between opposing dies
• Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die opening, thereby taking the
shape of the opening
• Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar is reduced by pulling it
through a die opening
Bulk deformation processes
50-1800 mm x 50-300 mm 150-400 mm (square) 40 x 40 mm

4
Rolling, Forging, Drawing, Extrusion 5

Rolling Forging Drawing

Wire drawing

Parts made by extrusion


Sheet Metalworking 6

• Forming related operations on metal sheets, strips, and coils


• High surface area-to-volume ratio of starting metal, which
distinguishes these from bulk deformation
• Often called press-working because presses perform these operations
– Parts are called stampings
– Usual tooling: punch and die

Basic sheet metalworking Basic sheet metalworking


operations: bending operations: drawing
Material Properties in Metal Forming 7

• Desirable material properties:


– Low yield strength (easy to deform, else will require larger forces)
– High ductility
• These properties are affected by temperature:
– Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when temperature
is raised
– Easier to deform the material at higher temperature (Hot working)
• Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary interest in metal
forming because material is plastically deformed
• Other factors: Strain rate and friction/lubricant
Behaviour in Metal Forming
• Engineering stress (𝜎)/strain Vs True stress
(𝜎𝑡 )/strain: 𝜎𝑡 = 𝜎(1 + 𝜀), 𝜀𝑡 = ln(1 + 𝜀)
• Plastic region of stress-strain curve is
primary interest because material is
plastically deformed
• In plastic region, metal's behavior is
𝜎𝑡 = 𝜎(1 + 𝜀)
expressed by Hollomon‟s equation or the
flow curve, : 𝜀𝑡 = ln(1 + 𝜀)

– 𝜎𝑓 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛
– 𝜎𝑓 (Flow stress) –The instantaneous
value of stress required to continue
deforming the material.
– K = strength coefficient; and n = strain
hardening exponent (<1)
• For any metal, K and n in the flow curve
depend on temperature

8
Values of n and K for common materials

9
Flow Stress (f) 10

• For most metals at room temperature, strength increases when


deformed due to strain hardening
• Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required to continue
deforming the material
σf = Kεn
where f = flow stress, i.e., the yield strength as a function of strain

• Average flow stress (σf ) is determined by integrating the flow curve


equation between zero and the final strain value defining the range
of interest
εf
0
σdε Kεf n
σf = =
εf n+1

where (σf ) = average flow stress; and f = maximum strain during


deformation process. n = strain hardening exponent
Strain hardening
• Strain hardening is a process in which
a ductile material becomes harder and
stronger when it is plastically deformed
• As cold work is increased
– Yield strength (sy) increases.
– Tensile strength (TS) increases
– Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.
– % Cold working = Change in cross-
sectional area/original area
low carbon steel

11
Mechanical Property Alterations : Cold Working
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength & ductility
for Cu for %CW = 35.6%?
Copper
Cold
Work (15.2 mm) 2 - (12.2 mm) 2
%CW = x 100 = 35.6%
2
(15.2 mm)

Do = 15.2 mm Dd = 12.2 mm

60
tensile strength (MPa)
yield strength (MPa)

700 800

ductility (%EL)
40
500 600
300 MPa Cu
300 Cu 400 340 MPa 20
Cu 7%
100 200 00
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work

sy = 300 MPa TS = 340 MPa %EL = 7% 12


Temperature in Metal Forming 13

• For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on temperature


– Both strength (K) and strain hardening (n) are reduced at
higher temperatures
– In addition, ductility is increased at higher temperatures
• Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower forces
and power at elevated temperature
• Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
– Cold working
– Warm working
– Hot working
Effect of temperature/strain rate on flow stress

• Increasing temperature, reduces the flow stress


• Flow stress reduces with strain rate
• At room temperature, effect of strain rate (𝜀 ) is almost negligible

14
Yield strength Vs temperature

Increasing the temperature


increases the formability of
aluminum, decreasing the strength
and increasing the ductility.

Yield strength of various materials


(indicated by pressure required to
forge a standard specimen) as a
function of temperature.

15
Friction and Lubrication
• Friction –retard metal flow and increase power and wear
• Lubrication –reduce friction & heat, improve surface finish
• – Choosing a Lubricant –Type of operation, reactivity, work
materials, cost and ease of applications
• Cold working –mineral oil, fats, fatty oils, water-based emulsions,
soaps and coating
• Hot working –mineral oil, graphite and glass

16
Cold Working 17

• Performed at room temperature or slightly above


• Many cold forming processes are important mass production operations
• Minimum or no machining usually required
• Strength increases due to strain hardening

Pros of cold working: Cons of cold working:


• Better accuracy, closer • Higher forces and power required in
tolerances the deformation operation
• Better surface finish • Ductility and strain hardening limit
• Strain hardening increases the amount of forming that can be
strength and hardness done
• No heating of work required – Metal must be annealed to allow
further deformation
– Metal is simply not ductile
enough to be cold worked
Recrystallization Temperature
TR = recrystallization temperature = temperature at which
recrystallization just reaches completion in 1 h.
0.3Tm < TR < 0.6Tm

For a specific metal/alloy, TR depends on:


• %CW -- TR decreases with increasing %CW
• Purity of metal -- TR decreases with increasing purity

18
Warm Working 19

• Performed at temperatures above room temperature but below


recrystallization temperature
• Dividing line between cold working and warm working often
expressed in terms of melting point:
– 0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute temperature) for metal

Pros of warm working: Cons of warm working:


• Lower forces and power than in • Scaling of part surface
cold working
• More intricate work geometries
possible
• Need for annealing may be
reduced or eliminated
• Low spring back
Hot Working 20

• Deformation at temp above the recrystallization temperature


– Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of melting point on
absolute scale
– In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat above 0.6Tm
– Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above 0.6Tm,
enhancing advantage of hot working above this level
• Capability for substantial plastic deformation of the metal - far more
than possible with cold working or warm working
– Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than at room
temperature
– Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero (theoretically)
– Ductility is significantly increased
TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

Adapted from Fig. 8.22,


Callister & Rethwisch 4e.

º
21
Hot working : Pros and Cons
Pros of hot working: Cons of hot working:
• Workpart shape can be • Lower dimensional accuracy
significantly altered in case of bulk forming
• Lower forces and power required • Higher total energy required
• Metals that usually fracture in (due to the thermal energy to
cold working can be hot formed heat the workpiece)
• Strength properties of product are • Work surface oxidation (scale),
generally isotropic poorer surface finish
• No work hardening occurs during • Shorter tool life
forming

22
Classification of States of Stress in metal forming

23
Forming operations and their stress states
Rolling 7 – Biaxial compression Deep drawing
5,1 – Biaxial tension, compression
Uniaxial tension

Forging 9 – Triaxial compression Tube/wire drawing


8 – Biaxial compression, tension

Extrusion 9 – Triaxial compression Stretching


2 – Biaxial tension

Bending
2,7– Biaxial tension, compression

24
General state of stress
• Nine components of stress:
– 3 normal stress, 6 shear stress
• Normal stress component (𝜎𝑥𝑥 ):
– Force acting normal to the plane. Tensile or compressive
• Shear stress component (𝑥𝑦 ) or (𝑥𝑦 ):
– Force acting parallel to the plane
• Principal plane : that plane where shear stress is zero

25
Theories of Failure
• The limit of the stress state on a material
– Ductile Materials -Yielding
– Brittle Materials -Fracture
• In a tensile test, Yield or Failure Strength of a material.
• In a multiaxial state of stress, how do we use Yield or Failure
Strength?

26
Plastic deformation theories
• During the rolling process, It is important to find out:
– How much is the roll separating forces
– What would be the torque/power required to drive the rolls
– How much would be the maximum possible reduction in the
thickness in a single pass
– How much would be the power loss
• As the metal forming involves plastic deformation of material, theories
related to the yield criterion is essential.
• Two popular theories related to plastic deformation
– Tresca yield criterion
– Von-Mises yield criterion

27
Theories of Failures in SOM
• Failure occurs when the materials start showing inelastic behaviour
• Ductile material > Yielding.
• Brittle material > sudden failure
• „Yield stress‟ measured from the „uniaxial tension test‟ is kept as
bench mark to predict material failure
• Popular theories:
– Maximum principal stress theory (Rankine‟s theory) – For brittle
– Maximum principal strain theory (St Venants)
– Maximum shear stress theory (Teresca Theory) – For ductile
– Maximum strain energy theory
– Distortion energy theory (Von-Mises theory) – For ductile
• In a tensile test, Yield or Failure Strength of a material.
• In a multiaxial state of stress, how do we use Yield or Failure
Strength?

28
Failure theories
• Principal Plane/ Stress : where shear stress is zero
• Assuming that in uniaxial tensile stress, Yield stress (𝜎𝑌 )
• In a 3D object, if the Principal stresses are 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , 𝜎3
where Maximum principal stress (𝜎1 ) and minimum
principal stress 𝜎3
𝜎1 −𝜎3
• Maximum shear stress :
2
𝜎𝑌
• Maximum shear stress in uniaxial tensile test 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 :
2

• Material failure will occur, if :


• 𝜎1 > 𝜎𝑌
𝜎1 −𝜎3 𝜎𝑌
• ≥
2 2

29
Failure theories (2)
1
• Maximum principal strain theory: 𝜀𝑌 = 𝜎1 − 𝜐 𝜎2 + 𝜎3
𝐸
𝜎𝑌
– Max strain in uniaxial tensile test =
𝐸
• Total strain energy theory: Area under stress strain
graph
1 𝜎𝑌 2
– Strain energy in uniaxial tensile test = 𝜎𝜀 =
2 2𝐸
– Strain energy with principal stresses:
1
– 𝜎1 2 + 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎3 2 − 2𝜐(𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 )
2
• Distortional theory (Von-Mises theory):
– 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 2 + 𝜎1 − 𝜎3 2 = 2 𝜎𝑌 2

30
Tresca‟s maximum shear stress criterian
• Tresca maximum Shear Stress Theory:
– Plastic flow initiates when the maximum shear stress reaches a
limiting value, defined as „shear yield stress 𝐾‟
– If the principal stresses at a point in the material are 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , and
1
𝜎3 (𝜎1 >𝜎2 >𝜎3 ), then the maximum shear stress 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎1 − 𝜎3
2
– Plastic deformation occurs when 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 is equal to 𝐾
– Yielding is independent of the intermediate principal stress 𝜎2
• How to find the value of 𝐾 ?

31
VonMises‟s maximum distortion energy criterian
• In 1913, VonMises proposed that the plastic deformation occurs
when the shear strain energy reaches a critical value
• Shear strain energy per unit volume () in terms of principal
stresses:
1
• 𝜀= (𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 +(𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 +(𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2
6𝐺
• So, the plastic flow initiates, when:
– (𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 +(𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 +(𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 = 6𝐺𝜀
– (𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 +(𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 +(𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 = 𝐶 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
• Here, the Von-mises criterian consider all principal stresses
• How to find C ?

32
Tensile and shear yield stress
• For most of the materials, their tensile yield stress (𝜎𝑌 ) is determined
by the uniaxial tensile test
• When yielding occurs under uniaxial tensile loading, then
– 𝜎1 =𝜎𝑌 , 𝜎2 =0, 𝜎3 =0
• From Von-mises criteria: (𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 +(𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 +(𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 = 𝐶
– 𝐶 = 2𝜎𝑌2
• Now, for yielding under a pure torsion test (only shear stress)
– 𝜎1 = 𝐾 , 𝜎2 = 0 , 𝜎3 = −𝐾
• Keeping the values again in vonmises criteria:
– 𝐶 = 6𝐾2
• Comparing both terms:
– 2𝜎𝑌2 = 6𝐾2
𝜎𝑌
– 𝐾= ………. (Von-Mises‟s criteria)
3
𝜎𝑌
• Similarily, Using Tresca‟s criteria: 𝐾 = … … ………. (Tresca‟s criteria)
2

Vin-Mises yield crietria is widely used 33


Yield Criteria

• Von Mises yield criteria:


– Depends on all three values of principal stresses
• Tresca‟s criteria:
– Does not consider intermediate principal stress
34
Example
• A metal cylinder is compressed at a strain rate of 0.01 /s from a
height of 1 cm to a height of 0.3 cm. what is the time required for the
compression?
– Ans : 2 min
• The stress-hardening behavior of an annealed low-carbon steel is
approximated by 𝜎 = 700𝜀 0.2 MPa. Estimate the yield strength after
the bar is cold worked 50%.
– Ans : 650 MPa
• Suppose another bar of this same steel was cold worked to an
unknown amount and then cold worked 15% more and found to have
a yield strength of 525 MPa. What was the unknown amount of cold
work?
– Ans: 0.72%

35

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