Lecture 10a-Forming
Lecture 10a-Forming
Amber Shrivastava
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
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Metal Forming 2
4
Rolling, Forging, Drawing, Extrusion 5
Wire drawing
– 𝜎𝑓 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛
– 𝜎𝑓 (Flow stress) –The instantaneous
value of stress required to continue
deforming the material.
– K = strength coefficient; and n = strain
hardening exponent (<1)
• For any metal, K and n in the flow curve
depend on temperature
8
Values of n and K for common materials
9
Flow Stress (f) 10
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Mechanical Property Alterations : Cold Working
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength & ductility
for Cu for %CW = 35.6%?
Copper
Cold
Work (15.2 mm) 2 - (12.2 mm) 2
%CW = x 100 = 35.6%
2
(15.2 mm)
Do = 15.2 mm Dd = 12.2 mm
60
tensile strength (MPa)
yield strength (MPa)
700 800
ductility (%EL)
40
500 600
300 MPa Cu
300 Cu 400 340 MPa 20
Cu 7%
100 200 00
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
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Yield strength Vs temperature
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Friction and Lubrication
• Friction –retard metal flow and increase power and wear
• Lubrication –reduce friction & heat, improve surface finish
• – Choosing a Lubricant –Type of operation, reactivity, work
materials, cost and ease of applications
• Cold working –mineral oil, fats, fatty oils, water-based emulsions,
soaps and coating
• Hot working –mineral oil, graphite and glass
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Cold Working 17
18
Warm Working 19
TR
º
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Hot working : Pros and Cons
Pros of hot working: Cons of hot working:
• Workpart shape can be • Lower dimensional accuracy
significantly altered in case of bulk forming
• Lower forces and power required • Higher total energy required
• Metals that usually fracture in (due to the thermal energy to
cold working can be hot formed heat the workpiece)
• Strength properties of product are • Work surface oxidation (scale),
generally isotropic poorer surface finish
• No work hardening occurs during • Shorter tool life
forming
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Classification of States of Stress in metal forming
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Forming operations and their stress states
Rolling 7 – Biaxial compression Deep drawing
5,1 – Biaxial tension, compression
Uniaxial tension
Bending
2,7– Biaxial tension, compression
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General state of stress
• Nine components of stress:
– 3 normal stress, 6 shear stress
• Normal stress component (𝜎𝑥𝑥 ):
– Force acting normal to the plane. Tensile or compressive
• Shear stress component (𝑥𝑦 ) or (𝑥𝑦 ):
– Force acting parallel to the plane
• Principal plane : that plane where shear stress is zero
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Theories of Failure
• The limit of the stress state on a material
– Ductile Materials -Yielding
– Brittle Materials -Fracture
• In a tensile test, Yield or Failure Strength of a material.
• In a multiaxial state of stress, how do we use Yield or Failure
Strength?
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Plastic deformation theories
• During the rolling process, It is important to find out:
– How much is the roll separating forces
– What would be the torque/power required to drive the rolls
– How much would be the maximum possible reduction in the
thickness in a single pass
– How much would be the power loss
• As the metal forming involves plastic deformation of material, theories
related to the yield criterion is essential.
• Two popular theories related to plastic deformation
– Tresca yield criterion
– Von-Mises yield criterion
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Theories of Failures in SOM
• Failure occurs when the materials start showing inelastic behaviour
• Ductile material > Yielding.
• Brittle material > sudden failure
• „Yield stress‟ measured from the „uniaxial tension test‟ is kept as
bench mark to predict material failure
• Popular theories:
– Maximum principal stress theory (Rankine‟s theory) – For brittle
– Maximum principal strain theory (St Venants)
– Maximum shear stress theory (Teresca Theory) – For ductile
– Maximum strain energy theory
– Distortion energy theory (Von-Mises theory) – For ductile
• In a tensile test, Yield or Failure Strength of a material.
• In a multiaxial state of stress, how do we use Yield or Failure
Strength?
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Failure theories
• Principal Plane/ Stress : where shear stress is zero
• Assuming that in uniaxial tensile stress, Yield stress (𝜎𝑌 )
• In a 3D object, if the Principal stresses are 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , 𝜎3
where Maximum principal stress (𝜎1 ) and minimum
principal stress 𝜎3
𝜎1 −𝜎3
• Maximum shear stress :
2
𝜎𝑌
• Maximum shear stress in uniaxial tensile test 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 :
2
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Failure theories (2)
1
• Maximum principal strain theory: 𝜀𝑌 = 𝜎1 − 𝜐 𝜎2 + 𝜎3
𝐸
𝜎𝑌
– Max strain in uniaxial tensile test =
𝐸
• Total strain energy theory: Area under stress strain
graph
1 𝜎𝑌 2
– Strain energy in uniaxial tensile test = 𝜎𝜀 =
2 2𝐸
– Strain energy with principal stresses:
1
– 𝜎1 2 + 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎3 2 − 2𝜐(𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 )
2
• Distortional theory (Von-Mises theory):
– 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 2 + 𝜎1 − 𝜎3 2 = 2 𝜎𝑌 2
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Tresca‟s maximum shear stress criterian
• Tresca maximum Shear Stress Theory:
– Plastic flow initiates when the maximum shear stress reaches a
limiting value, defined as „shear yield stress 𝐾‟
– If the principal stresses at a point in the material are 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , and
1
𝜎3 (𝜎1 >𝜎2 >𝜎3 ), then the maximum shear stress 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎1 − 𝜎3
2
– Plastic deformation occurs when 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 is equal to 𝐾
– Yielding is independent of the intermediate principal stress 𝜎2
• How to find the value of 𝐾 ?
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VonMises‟s maximum distortion energy criterian
• In 1913, VonMises proposed that the plastic deformation occurs
when the shear strain energy reaches a critical value
• Shear strain energy per unit volume () in terms of principal
stresses:
1
• 𝜀= (𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 +(𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 +(𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2
6𝐺
• So, the plastic flow initiates, when:
– (𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 +(𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 +(𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 = 6𝐺𝜀
– (𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 +(𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 +(𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 = 𝐶 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
• Here, the Von-mises criterian consider all principal stresses
• How to find C ?
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Tensile and shear yield stress
• For most of the materials, their tensile yield stress (𝜎𝑌 ) is determined
by the uniaxial tensile test
• When yielding occurs under uniaxial tensile loading, then
– 𝜎1 =𝜎𝑌 , 𝜎2 =0, 𝜎3 =0
• From Von-mises criteria: (𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 +(𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 +(𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 = 𝐶
– 𝐶 = 2𝜎𝑌2
• Now, for yielding under a pure torsion test (only shear stress)
– 𝜎1 = 𝐾 , 𝜎2 = 0 , 𝜎3 = −𝐾
• Keeping the values again in vonmises criteria:
– 𝐶 = 6𝐾2
• Comparing both terms:
– 2𝜎𝑌2 = 6𝐾2
𝜎𝑌
– 𝐾= ………. (Von-Mises‟s criteria)
3
𝜎𝑌
• Similarily, Using Tresca‟s criteria: 𝐾 = … … ………. (Tresca‟s criteria)
2
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