Assessment in Learning 2 – Chapter 10

Chapter 10: Statistics and Computer: Tools for Analyzing of Assessment

Data
Presented by Group 10
Members Topic Distribution
Fabilane, Ryan Jeffrey Q. Made the content for his
assigned topic.
Provided test questions.
Gayapa, Kristian Blair G. Made the content for his
assigned topic.
Provided test questions.
Macawili, Jhonrey T. Made the content for his
assigned topic.
Provided test questions.

Reporter: Jhonrey
Overview
For most educators, just hearing the term statistics conjure images causing anxiety.
Even to those educators who do not consider themselves numerically deficient,
statistics intimidates them. In descriptive statistics, which will be the focus of
discussion in this chapter, the emphasis is on describing a set of scores. Description
may take the form of tables, graphs or as a single number (e.g., an average).
In this chapter, the basic concepts of statistics, the relevant statistical treatment that
can facilitate the interpretation and analysis of data, as well as the use of computer as
aid in analyzing and data presentation, will be covered.
Chapter Intended Learning Outcome
At the end of this chapter, you should be able utilize processed data and results in
reporting and interpreting learners' performance
Engage
Many teachers think that statistics requires advance mathematical skills and tedious
calculations. The elementary statistical concepts necessary in organization,
interpretation, analysis, and presentation for evaluation of grades and scores of
students is not what majority thinks of. At present, not only calculators are at hand to
facilitate computations, but most especially computers and some software which are
available for statistical computation and treatment.
The statistics that is discussed in this chapter is descriptive in nature and brief
overview of inferential statistics is given.

The three types of statistical measures covered in this chapter are:

(a) Measures of Central Tendency

(b) Measure of Variations; and
 (c) Measures of Relationship.
The statistical treatment for individual data subject to interpretation is also covered
in this chapter

Reporter: Kristian
1. STATISTICS
Statistics is concerned with the organization, analysis, and interpretation of test
scores and other numerical data. Statistical techniques help teachers to (1) analyze
and describe results of measurement obtained in their own classrooms, (2)
understand the statistics used in test manuals and research reports, and (3) interpret
the various types of derived scores used in assessment.
Statistical methods enable us to look at information from a small collection of people
or items and make inferences about a larger collection of people or items. Procedures
for analyzing data, together with rules of inference, are central topics in the study of
statistics. Brase & Brase (2012) define statistics as the study of how to collect,
organize, analyze, and interpret numerical information from data.

Reporter: Ryan
2. DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Descriptive Statistics
This is used to describe a group of individuals or describe the data that have been
collected; to describe variables that were grouped in order to determine the measure
of certain dependent variable that needs to be measured. Various data analysis
techniques provide meaningful description of scores with small number of
numerical indices. Such indices are calculated using samples drawn from a
population and are called statistics. On the other hand, when indices are calculated
using the entire population, it is called parameters. This type of statistics is used
for summarizing and describing data sets.
Inferential Statistics
When there is a need to make a decision, estimate prediction, or generalize about a
population based on a sample, then inferential statistics will be utilized. There are
two types of tests in inferential statistics. These types are: (a) Parametric; and (b)
Nonparametric.
In parametric test, a test of significance is used if the data represent an interval or
ratio scale of measurement and other assumptions have been met. On the other
hand, non- parametric test is used when data represent an ordinal or nominal scale,
when a parametric assumption has been greatly violated, or when the nature of the
distribution is not known.

3. STATISTICAL TOOLS
To carry out meaningful comparisons among sets of tests scores, a statistical tool is
needed. Measures of central tendency and measures of variability are the most
commonly used statistical tools.
Reporter: Jhonrey
3.1 Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of Characteristics
Central
Tendency
The Mean • Most frequently used index of distribution's central tendency.
• It is simply an arithmetic average of all the scores in
the distribution.
• Since it is computed using every score in the distribution, it
is an extremely representative measure.
• Its strength is also its weakness because several atypically
high or atypically low scores (sometimes called liars) can
distort the value of the mean.
The Median • The second most frequently used index of central tendency.
• It is the point that divides the scores into two equal halves.
• One advantage of median as a measure of central tendency is
that it is not unduly affected by peculiarly large or small
scores.
• Unlike the mean, the median treats each of these wild scores
as merely another score, no more no less than other
scores.
• As the mean, the median's strength is also its weakness, the
median fails to reflect the magnitude of the impact of every
score in the distribution, even when certain of those scores
are very high or very low.
The Mode • It is the most frequently occurring score in the distribution.
• With most reasonably large set of scores, the mode will
occur somewhere near the middle of the distribution, so it
can also serve as an index of the distribution's central
tendency.
• In some cases, a distribution has two or even three most
frequently occurring scores. In such cases, statistician refer
to it as bimodal or trimodal distribution. Multimodal
distribution refers to those with three or more frequently
occurring Scores.
• Since the mode takes into account even fewer data than the
• median, and fewer than the mean, it is not used often in
describing a distribution's central tendency
 In a normally distributed set of scores, the mean, the median, and the mode are
identical. Imagine a bell-shaped symmetrical curve, the value of all these indicators will
coincide.
Oftentimes, if this is the case, only one of these indicators is used to describe how the
distribution's scores tend to center. In such cases, that indicator is usually the mean.
When there is a great difference between the numerical values of the mean and the
median, it is a good idea to describe the distribution's central tendency by providing
both the media and the mean, better yet the mode as well (Popham, 2000).

Reporter: Kristian
3.2 Measures of Variability
Aside from describing how a set of scores tends to the center of distribution, the
information about how variables the score are, is also important. It is also relevant to
know how spread out the scores are.
Measures of Characteristics
Variability
The Range • Most readily calculated index of distribution's
variability.
• It is calculated by subtracting the lowest score from
the highest score.
• The simplicity of the range's computation is just the
only redeeming virtue, because there are only two
scores involved in its computation. If there is an
abnormally highest and/or lowest score, the resulting
range will yield
a misleading indication of the distribution's overall
variability.
The Quartile • It is based on the range of the middle 50% of the
Deviation scores, instead of the range of the entire set.
• Itis also called semi-interquartile range.
Quartiles are points on the scale (like averages and
percentiles), the quartile deviation represents a
distance on the scale. It indicates the distance that is
necessary to go above and below the median to
include approximately the middle 50% of the scores.
The • It offers a way of thinking about the average
Standard variability of a set of scores when they compute the
Deviation mean.
• It tells the average distance from the mean for
each of the scores in the distribution.
• The more spread out the scores are, the larger the
value of the standard deviation. The less spread out
the scores, the smaller the standard deviation is.
• The most useful measure of variability
• Because it takes into account the amount that each
score deviates from the mean, it is a more stable
measure of variability than the others.
 In summary the quartile deviation is used with median and is reasonable for
analyzing small number of scores. These statistics are obtained by counting and thus
are not affected by the value of each score; they are especially useful when one or more
scores deviate markedly from the others in the set of scores. On the hand, the standard
deviation is used with the mean. It is a most reliable measure of variability, and is
especially useful in testing. Also, it is useful in describing the set of scores in a group, it
serves as basis for computing standard scores, the standard error of measurement,
and other statistics used in analyzing and interpreting scores.

Reporter: Ryan
3.3 Standard Scores
Aside from the Measures of Central Tendency and Measures of Variability, another
group of standard scores that may be used in assessment are discussed in the
following table.
Standard Characteristics
Score
Z-Score • The simplest of the standard scores, and the one on which
others are based.
• It expresses test performance simply and directly as the
number of standard deviation units a raw score is above or
below the mean.
• A Z-Score is always negative when the raw score is smaller
than the mean. Thus z-score is seldom used directly in test
norms, but are transformed into a standard score system
that uses only positive numbers.
T-Score • It was originally given to a type of normalized score based
on a group of unselected twelve-year-old children.
• It refers to any set of normally distributed standard
scores that has a mean of 50 and a standard deviation
of 10.
• T-score is obtained by multiplying the z-score by 10 and
adding the product to 50. This formula is true only when
the original distribution of raw scores is normal.
• The reason that T-scores is preferred reporting test results
is that only positive integers are O to z-scores for produced.
The Stanines • These are simple type of normalized standard score that
illustrates the process of normalization.
• They are a single digit scores ranging from 1 to 9.
• It is named as such because the distribution of raw score
is divided into nine parts wherein stanine 5 is precisely
the center of the distribution and includes all cases within
one-fourth of a standard deviation on either side of the
mean.
• Major strengths of stanines are the following:
• The Stanine system uses a nine-point scale in which 9 is
high, 1 is low and 5 is average
• Stanines are normalized standard scores that make it
possible to compare student's performance on various
assessments.
• It makes easy to combine different types of data because
 it is computed as percentile ranks but are expressed in
standard score form.
• It uses a single-digit score, it is easily recorded and takes
up less space than others scores.
The Percentile • Indicates student's relative position in a group in terms of
Rank the percentage of students' scoring lower (Linn &
Gronlund, 2000). One of the most widely used and easily
understood methods of describing assessment
performance.

In summary, standard scores provide a student's relative position in a group in terms of

standard deviation units above or below the mean. In a normally distributed set of
scores, the different standard score scales and the percentile scale are interrelated, thus
making it possible to convert from one to another. One of the shortcomings of standard
scores is that students and parents find it difficult to understand. Another limitation is
that, interpretation is difficult unless the scores are evenly distributed.

Reporter: Kristian
3.4 Indicators of Relationship
There are techniques of describing the relationships of the scores in different subject
areas. These are: (1) Graphic Presentation; (2) The Product-Moment Correlation
Coefficient; and (3) The Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient.
3.4.1 Graphic Presentation
• By using graphic display techniques, the relationships between two variables
can be described according to its magnitude (strong or weak) and its direction
(positive negative). This technique though shows that it is difficult to get a firm
grasp on graphically displayed relationship because of the imprecision of visually
derived estimates.
3.4.2 The Product-Moment Correlation
• This is the most widely used indicator or the magnitude and direction of the
relationship between two variables, the product-moment correlation coefficient
(popularly known as Pearson correlation coefficient named after the English statistician,
Karl Pearson.
• This product-moment correlation coefficient ranges from +1.00 to -1.00. An r of
+1.00 represents a perfect positive relationship while a value of -1.00 represents a
perfect negative relationship. An r of zero indicates that there is no linear
relationship that exist between two variables. This correlation approach is used
with linearly related data, meaning, data whose scatterplots shows a more or less
straight-line relationship.
34.3 The Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient
• The Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient is another technique for estimating the
magnitude and direction of the relationship between two variables. This technique
was introduced by Sir Charles Spearman. Spearman's correlation coefficient (rs) is
interpreted in essentially the same way as Pearson product moment r, but simpler
to compute. Aside from its computational simplicity, it may be used with data that
represent only an ordinal scale and not necessarily an interval.
• Recall that there are different measurement scales that are normally used in
 education, most especially by educators involved in assessment activities. These
scales are interval scales, ratio scale, and ordinal scale. An interval scale is one
that allows you to believe that there are equal intervals that are equidistant points
on the scale. A ratio scale, is an interval scale for which a zero point exists. An
ordinal scale is based on rank.

Reporter: Jhonrey
4. COMPUTER: AID IN STATISTICAL COMPUTING AND DATA
PRESENTATION
In the previous paragraphs of this chapter, fundamental concepts of statistics and
statistical tools used for different statistical methods were discussed. In the succeeding
paragraph, simple computations of statistical treatment will be discussed with
emphasis on the use of computer and the software MS Excel, a software developed by
Microsoft, to make computation more efficient and less prone to error.

Basic Steps in Opening the MS Excel Program

1. Click the icon of MS Excel or if not available, click start button to choose all programs
and double click on MS Excel to open the program. This is the initial window that will
appear and if you're using the latest version of MS Excel, simply click on blank
document option. If you have a previously created file to work on, then simply double
click Open Other Worksheets. (figure on the left)
2. Once a worksheet has been opened, it is now ready for data entry. You may now
encode the scores (data) that will be processed. (figure on the right)
Now we may start encoding our data. We start our discussion with Charts and
Frequency Distribution.

Charts and Frequency Distribution

The table below contains the grades of 10 students in their Mathematics and English
subjects. The first column is the student class number, second column is the Math grade
and the third column is the English grade.
Using the encoded data, it may be converted into charts and/or diagrams.
A scatter diagram was created by using the insert chart function of MS Excel. Detailed
steps on how to have scatter diagrams are as follows:
1. Click the Insert Tab, then among the Chart options, choose insert Scatter.
• Note that other types of charts may be chosen based on preference of the user
on how thev would want to present their data. Bar graphs, pie charts, line graphs,
etc. are just some of the charts available and can be utilized.

Computing for the Measures of Central Tendency, Variability and Correlation

Statistical functions are available in MS Excel. Click the FORMULAS tab and the different
available formulae logically organized will be displayed. Choose the More Functions icon,
then choose Statistical. Several statistical formulae are provided on the list. For the
Mean, the function average will be used.
• For example: For the Mean, choose AVERAGE from the list, once you click the
function average, the following screen will be displayed.
Fill-in the required fields to indicate which among the encoded data will be considered in
the computation of the mean, press ok, and automatically the mean will be computed
and placed on the space where you indicated to place the result, for this case, the ones
enclosed with rounded edge box.
Similar steps shall be followed for other statistical formulae, such as Standard Deviation
(STDEV), Median (MEDIAN), Mode (MODE), Range (RANGE), Pearson (PEARSON), z-
test (ZTEST) same user interface is displayed so it is easier for the user to encode the
necessary information such as the raw data that will be included in
processing/computation. Not all may be available in MS Excel, nevertheless majority of
those statistical computations are.
In the older version of MS Excel, the statistical formulae are not available. Instead, most
of the formulae are packaged all together and displayed into a single table
 containing the computed values. This is packaged under Descriptive Statistics function,
Statistics Summary. The information contained in the "packaged function" consist of
the following: Mean, Median, Mode, Standard Deviation, Sample Variance, Kurtosis,
Skewness, Range, Minimum, Maximum, Sum, and Count.
Another software that was really designed to support statistical computations is the
SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences), which has evolved into Statistical Product
and Service Solution. All the statistical formulae are available in this software.

EXPLORE
A. Based on the basic concepts of statistics discussed, give your interpretation and /or
proposed solutions to the following cases.
1. The result of achievement test (national level) was released and Luz got a percentile
rank of 98%. What does this mean?
2. The guidance office facilitated the achievement test (school level) in high school and
they were also tasked to do the checking and published the results. The teachers were
then tasked to do the interpretation for their own advisory class. If the teachers need to
give a report indicating the average performance of the students and the degree of
difference of the student's performance, what branch of statistics is concerned? Why is it
so?
3. Lorenzo Angelo's raw score in the test for Computer subject is 75 which is 90th
percentile. What does this mean? A
4. Gabriel is one-half standard deviation above the mean of Science class and two
standard deviation above the mean for his Computer class. What does it mean as regards
to his performance in these two subjects?

1. Luz's Percentile Rank of 98%: This means that Luz performed better than 98% of all the students
who took the national achievement test. In other words, only 2% of students scored higher than Luz.

2. Branch of Statistics: Descriptive Statistics: The teachers are concerned with **descriptive
statistics** when they need to report the average performance and the degree of difference in
students' performance. Descriptive statistics helps summarize data through measures such as the
mean (average), range, and standard deviation, which provide insight into the general performance
and variability of scores within the group.

3. Lorenzo Angelo's Percentile Rank of 90th: This means that Lorenzo Angelo scored higher than
90% of the students who took the test for the Computer subject. His score of 75 places him in the top
10% of all test-takers for this particular subject.

4. Gabriel's Performance in Science and Computer:

- In **Science**, being one-half standard deviation above the mean indicates that Gabriel's score is
slightly above average. It suggests he performed better than the average student but not significantly
higher.
 - In **Computer**, being two standard deviations above the mean means his performance is much
higher than most of his peers. This places him well above average in his Computer class. The two-
standard-deviation difference implies a much stronger performance in Computer than in Science.