CSP 101

Introduction to Computer

Background
The computer is fast becoming the universal machine of the twenty-first century.
Early computers were large in size and too expensive to be owned by individuals.
Computers were owned by government and research institutes. Thus they were
confined to the laboratories and few research institutes. They could only be
programmed by computer engineers. The basic applications were confined to
undertaking complex calculations in science and engineering. Today, the computer
is no longer confined to the laboratory. Computers, and indeed, computing have
become embedded in almost every item we use. Computing is fast becoming
ubiquitous. Its application in engineering, communication, space science, aviation,
financial institutions, social sciences, humanities, the military, transportation,
manufacturing, the extractive industries to mention but a few.

Computer
Computer is drive from the word “Compute” (meaning calculate). A computer is an
electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory
that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules, produce
information (output), and store the information for future use.
In other word, Computer is a programmable electronic device that receives input,
stores and processes data, and provides output in a useful format. Data is all kinds of
facts, including, pictures, letters, numbers and sounds. The “machine” part of the
computer is called the hardware, while the programmable part is called the software.
Computer Science is a broad disciple concern with the science and technology of
information processing. Computer Science can be defined as the theory,
experimentation and engineering that form the basis for the design, use and
maintenance of any system based on computers. Also, as defined by Association for
Computing Machinery (ACM), computer, science is the “study of computers and
algorithmic processes, including their principles, their hardware and software design,
their applications and their impact on the society. Computer Scientist is the one
studies or practices computer science
A program is a set of instructions that a computer follows to perform a given task. For
example, Microsoft Word and Adobe Photoshop. Microsoft Word is a word processing
program that allows you to create, edit, and print documents with your computer. Thus,
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the basic function performed by a computer is the execution of a program. Programs
are commonly referred to as software. Software controls everything the computer does.
All of the software that we use to make our computers useful is created by individuals
working as programmers or software developers.

Functionalities of a computer
Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:

Fig.1 Computer System Architecture

Computer Components
Any kind of computers consists of HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE.

Hardware:
Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements that constitutes a computer
system. Computer hardware refers to the physical parts or components of a computer
such as the monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer data storage, hard drive disk (HDD),
system unit (graphic cards, sound cards, memory, motherboard and chips), etc. all of
which are physical objects that can be touched.
The major hardware components of the personal computer consist of the following;
Input devices, processing devices and output device.

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 Fig. 2 Complete Personal Computer System

Input Devices
Input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment to provide data
and control signals to an information processing system such as a computer or other
information appliance. Input devices are the computer hardware that accepts data and
instructions from a user. Input devices have been built in many forms to help in
communicating with the computer. Also, translate data from form that humans
understand to one that the computer can work with. Most common are keyboard and
mouse

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Example of Input Devices:-
1. Keyboard 2. Mouse (pointing device) 3. Microphone
4. Touch screen 5. Scanner 6. Webcam
7. Touchpads 8. MIDI keyboard 9.
10. Graphics Tablets 11. Cameras 12. Pen Input
13. Video Capture Hardware 14. Microphone 15. Trackballs
16. Barcode reader 17. Digital camera 18. Joystick
19. Gamepad 20. Electronic Whiteboard 21.

Note: The most common use keyboard is the QWERTY keyboard. Generally standard
Keyboard has 104 keys.

Processing Devices
Basically two components handle processing in a computer: the central processing
unit (CPU) and the memory unit.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

A CPU is brain of a computer. It is the single most important item within computer. It
is responsible for all functions and processes. Regarding computing power, the CPU is
the most important element of a computer system. CPU (also now called
microprocessor).

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 Fig. 3 Intel I9 microprocessor (CPU)

The CPU's speed is measured in billions of circles per second (GHz). This relates to the
frequency that the CPU runs at, and the higher the GHz rating the faster the computer
will run. Modern PCs run at speeds well in excess of 2 GHz. Note that 1GHz is
approximately 1,000,000,000 Hz (CPU circles per second).

CPU consists of an arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), a control unit and a set of registers.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Executes all arithmetic and logical operations.
Arithmetic calculations like as addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. Logical operation like compare numbers, letters, or special
characters.
 Control Unit (CU): is the part of the CPU that supervises the general
operations of the computer. The control unit (CU) can be thought of as “the
brain within the brain” in that it oversees the various functions of the CPU.
The control unit is the circuitry in charge of fetching data and instructions from
main memory, as well as controlling the flow of data from the registers to the
ALU and backs the resister.
1. Read the code for the next instruction to be executed.
2. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
3. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory.
4. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
5. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct
the hardware to perform the requested operation.
 Registers: are devices that hold data inside the computer’s memory long
enough to execute a particular function. They are the CPU’s own internal
memory.

The Memory Unit

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The memory unit is the rapid-access storage section of the computer that facilitates
temporary storage of data. The unit retains information to be immediately available for
processing. In addition, the unit retains processed information until it can be transmitted
to output devices. Often the memory unit is called primary memory. Random access
memory (RAM) is an example of primary memory.

Primary Memory:-
1. RAM: Random Access Memory (RAM): This is where the computer stores a
program while the program is running, as well as the data that the program is working
with. RAM is a memory scheme within the computer system responsible for storing
data on a temporary basis, so that it can be promptly accessed by the processor as
and when needed. It is volatile in nature, which means that data will be erased once
supply to the storage device is turned off. RAM stores data randomly and the
processor accesses these data randomly from the RAM storage. RAM is considered
"random access" because you can access any memory cell directly if you know the
row and column that intersect at that cell.

Fig. 4. The RAM

ROM (Read Only Memory): ROM is a permanent form of storage. ROM stays active
regardless of whether power supply to it is turned on or off. ROM devices do not allow
data stored on them to be modified. It is a special chip held on computer system board.
It contains software that is required start the computer. It is responsible for copying the
operating system into RAM when the computer is switched on.

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 Fig. 5. ROM

Difference Between RAM and ROM

RAM ROM
Stand for Random Access Memory Read Only Memory
Storage capability Volatile memory (it requires Nonvolatile Memory (it’s
power to store data) doesn’t )
Data access Data can be erased, read and Data read only data
modified
Temporary storage Permanent storage
Stores data in GBs Stores data in Mobs

Data uses Used in normal operations Used for startup process of

computer or bootstrap the
computer

Secondary Memory:-
Stores data and programs permanently, it’s retained after the power is turned off.

1. Hard drive (HD): A hard disk is part of a unit, often called a "disk drive," "hard
drive," or "hard disk drive," that store and provides relatively quick access to large
amounts of data on an electromagnetically charged surface or set of surfaces.
2. Optical Disk: an optical disc drive (ODD) is a disk drive that uses laser light as part
of the process of reading or writing data to or from optical discs. Some drives can
only read from discs, but recent drives are commonly both readers and recorders, also
called burners or writers. Compact discs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs are common types
of optical media which can be read and recorded by such drives. Optical drive is the
generic name; drives are usually described as "CD" "DVD", or "Blu-ray", followed
by "drive", "writer", etc. There are three main types of optical media: CD, DVD, and
Blu-ray disc. CDs can store up to 700 megabytes (MB) of data and DVDs can store
up to 8.4 GB of data. Blu-ray discs, which are the newest type of optical media, can

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 store up to 50 GB of data. This storage capacity is a clear advantage over the floppy
disk storage media (a magnetic media), which only has a capacity of 1.44 MB.
3. Flash Disk: A storage module made of flash memory chips. A Flash disks have no
mechanical platters or access arms, but the term "disk" is used because the data are
accessed as if they were on a hard drive. The disk storage structure is emulated.

Fig. 6. Storage Memory

Output devices

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An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate
the results of data processing carried out by an information processing system (such
as a computer) which converts the electronically generated information into human
readable form.

Fig. 7. Output Devices

Example on Output Devices:
1. Monitor 2. LCD Projection Panels
3. Printers (all types) 4. Computer Output Microfilm (COM)
5. Plotters 6. Speaker(s)
7. Projector

Note Basic types of monitors are A- Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). B- Liquid Crystal
Displays (LCD). C- Light-emitting diode (LED).
Printer types: 1-Laser Printer. 2-Ink Jet Printer. 3-Dot Matrix Printer

Software
The software is a set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do. You can’t see
or touch the software, although you can see packages that contain the software. It is
typically distributed on CD-ROM disc and is installed on the computer hard drive.

Software Types
A. System software: is the special type of software used in operating computer
hardware. It includes the operating system and all the utilities that enable the
computer to function. It is responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing
the individual hardware components of a computer system so that other software
and the users of the system see it as a functional unit without having to be concerned
with the low-level details such as transferring data from memory to disk, or
rendering text onto a display. Generally, system software consists of an operating
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system and some fundamental utilities such as disk formatters, file managers,
display managers, text editors, user authentication (login) and management tools,
and networking and device control software.

Systems software can be subdivided into: Operating systems, Language

translators, System development software and Utility Programs.
Operating systems: Operating system is a program that controls and co-ordinate all
aspects of the computer system. It acts as a buffer between the user and the computer
itself. It coordinates the operation of the other hardware and software components
of the computer system. It is responsible for starting up application programs,
running them, and managing the resources that they need. When an application
program is running, the operating system manages the details of the hardware for it.
For example, when you type characters on the keyboard, the operating system
determines which application program they are intended for and does the work of
getting them there.
Modern operating systems for desktop computers come with a user interface that
enables users to easily interact with application programs (and with the operating
system itself) by using windows, buttons, menus, icons, the mouse, and the
keyboard. Examples of operating systems are: UNIX, Linux, Android, Mac OS, and
Windows.
The main function of an operating system is to manage the resources of the
computer system. These resources include CPU, memory, and input/output devices,
backing store and files and other programs.
Other functions if the operating system includes:
 Allocation of storage facilities to programs and the user
 Coordination of all hardware and application software
 Controls the input and output devices
 Interpretation of the user command and thus facilitating communication with
computer;
 Error handling. For example, detecting and reporting inoperative or
malfunctioning peripherals;
 Protection of data files and programs from corruption by other users;
 Security: protection of data files and programs from unauthorized use;
 Accounting: accounting and logging of the use of the computer resources.
 Program loading to the main memory for processing.

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 Types of operating systems include:
➢ Single Program OS: allow one user’s program at a time
➢ Simple Batch Systems: Provides multiprogramming of batch programs but
have few facilities for multi-access
➢ Multi-access and Time-sharing: Allows multiple access to system resources
and therefore share processors time to cope with numerous users
➢ Real-time system: Used in any real time data processing technique
Language translators: These are computer programs designed to convert high-level
language programs into machine code. Common types of language processors are
Assembler, Compilers and Interpreters.
System development software: are designed to aid program development and
testing. These include Editors, Debugging program and File managers. All the three
may be bundled into a single program call integrated development environment
(IDE).
Utility software. Utility software are designed to help analyze, configure, optimize
or maintain a computer. Utility software ensures efficient and effective operations
of the computer infrastructure (including the computer hardware, operating system,
and application software and data storage). Examples include anti-virus, backup,
data compression, disk defragmenters and disk partitions.
Device drivers: Device drivers are software component that permits a computer
system to communicate with a device. They manage data from different I/O devices.
In most cases, the driver also manipulates the hardware in order to transmit the data
to the device. For example, a printer driver is a device driver that translates computer
data into a form understood by the intended printer.

B. Application software is used by the user to perform special task. Application

software may consist of a single program, such as an image viewer; a small
collection of programs (often called a software package) that work closely together
to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet or text processing system; a larger
collection (often called a software suite) of related but independent programs and
packages that have a common user interface or shared data format, such as
Microsoft Office, which consists of closely integrated word processor, spreadsheet,
database, etc.; or a software system, such as a database management system, which
is a collection of fundamental programs that may provide some service to a variety
of other independent applications.

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 Comparison Application Software and System Software
System Software Application Software
Computer software, or just software is a
General term primarily used for digitally Application software, also known as an
stored data such as computer programs and application or an "app", is computer software
other kinds of information read and written designed to help the user to perform specific
by computers. App comes under computer tasks.
software though it has a wide scope now.
Example: 1) Opera (Web Browser)
1) Microsoft Windows 2) Microsoft Word (Word Processing)
2) Linux 3) Microsoft Excel (Spreadsheet software)
3) Unix 4) MySQL (Database Software)
4) Mac OSX 5) Microsoft PowerPoint (Presentation
5) DOS Software)
6) Adobe Photoshop (Graphics Software)
Interaction: Users always interact with application
Generally, users do not interact with system
software while doing different activities.
software as it works in the background.

Dependency: System software can run independently of Application software cannot run without the
the application software. presence of the system software.
System S/W are installed on the computer Application S/W are installed according to
when operating system is installed user’s demand
It provides platform for running application Application S/W cannot run without the
S/W presence of system S/W

Unit of Measurements
Storage measurements: The basic unit used in computer data storage is called a bit
(binary digit). Computers use these little bits, which are composed of ones
and zeros, to do things and talk to other computers. All your files, for
instance, are kept in the computer as binary files and translated into words
and pictures by the software (which is also ones and zeros). This two number
system, is called a “binary number system” since it has only two numbers
in it. The decimal number system in contrast has ten unique digits, zero
through nine.
Bit. Stands for binary digit, bit is a unit of storage that can be 1 or 0. Bit is usually
abbreviated as b. Often hardware is specified as a 32-bit computer, which means that
the hardware can process 32 bits at a time. Software is also described as 16 bit, 32 bit
or 64 bit software.
Nibble. A nibble consists of 4 bits.
Byte. A byte (B) consists of eight bits i.e. 23 = 2 Nibbles = 1 unit of information.
Kilobyte. A kilobyte (KB) consists of 210 bytes =1024 bytes.

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Megabyte. A megabyte (MB) consists of 220 bytes =1024 kilobytes, approximately
1,000,000 bytes.
Gigabyte. A gigabyte (GB) consists of 230 bytes =1024 megabytes, approximately
1,000,000,000 bytes.
Terabyte. A terabyte (TB) consists of 240 bytes, approximately 1,000,000,000,000 bytes.

Computer Storage units

Bit BIT 0 or 1
Byte B 8 bits
Kilobyte KB 1024 bytes
Megabyte MB 1024 kilobytes
Gigabyte GB 1024 megabytes
Terabyte TB 1024 gigabytes

Example: If 1 byte equal to 8 bits, how many bits are there in 1 kilobyte?
Speed measurement: The speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is measured by
Hertz (Hz), which represent a CPU cycle. The speed of CPU is known as Computer
Speed.
CPU SPEED MEASURES
1 hertz or Hz 1 cycle per second
1 MHz 1 million cycles per second or 1000 Hz
1 GHz 1 billion cycles per second or 1000 MHz

CLASSES OF COMPUTER
 Analog Computers: Analog computers are usually mechanical. They received
input in some continues physical form at some fixed starting point, like fluids at
certain levels or wires connecting electrical components together to model the
problem being solved. This class of computer are special purpose machines that
surfaced in the late forties (1948). They are used solving scientific and
mathematical equations or problems. An example is the thermal analyzer. Data
and figures are represented by physical quantities such as angular positions and
voltage.
 Digital Computers: They are machines made up of combinations of chips, flip-
flops, buttons and other electronic devices to make them function at a very fast
speed. A digital computer has its numbers, data letters or other symbols

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 represented in digital format. They are mostly special purpose machines unless
minor specifications are included in the design.
 Hybrid computers: Hybrid computers are computers that comprise features of
analog computers and digital computers. The digital component normally serves
as the controller and provides logical operations, while the analog component
normally serves as a solver of differential equations.
Classification by Purpose or Scope
Using scope as a criterion, computers can be classified into two broad categories.
 Dedicated or Special Purpose Computers: These are computers that are
designed to carry out only specified task. The series of instructions that these
types of computer follow to carry out its operation is in-built and cannot be
modified. E.g. robots used in car manufacturing plants and sensor computers
such as fire detectors.
 General Purpose Computers: These are digital computers designed to
perform a wide variety of operations. They can be programmed to carry out
scientific oriented applications or business oriented ones just by changing the
series of instructions in its memory.

TYPES OF COMPUTER
Super Computers
 A super computer is the most powerful computer available at any given time.
These machines are built to process huge amounts of information and do so very
quickly and physically larger.
 Supercomputers are built specifically for researchers or scientists working on
projects that demand very huge amounts of data variables; an example is in
nuclear research, where scientists want to know exactly what will happen during
every millisecond of a nuclear chain reaction. (To demonstrate the capability of
super computers, for an air pollution control project that involves more than
500,000 variables, it will take a mini computer about 45 hours to complete the
simulation process while it will take a super computer 30 minutes only).
 They are big in size, generate a lot of heat and are very expensive. (Super
computers are made by CRAY Company).

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 Fig. 8. Gordo Supercomputer

Mainframe Computers
 The largest types of computers in common use are the mainframe computers.
They are designed to handle tremendous amounts of input, output and storage.
 They are used mainly by large organization like the PHCN, NITEL, and CBN.
 Other users access mainframe computers through terminals. Terminals consist
of a type of keyboard and a video display i.e. monitors. The mainframe is usually
in the computer room (Mainframe computers are made by IBM, Boroughs &
Univac).

Mini Computers
 These are physically small compared to mainframes and are generally used for
special purposes or small-scale general purposes.
 The best way to explain the capabilities of mini computers is to say they lie
between mainframes and personal computers. Like mainframes, they can handle
a great deal more input and output than personal computers.
 Although some minicomputers are designed for a single user, many can handle
dozens or even hundreds of terminals.
 Advances in circuitry means modern mini computers can out-perform older
mainframes of the 60s. (Examples are Digital Equipment
Company’s PDP II and Vex rang)

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Workstations
 Between mini computers and microcomputers – in terms of processing power is
a class of computers known as workstations.
 A workstation looks like a personal computer and is typically used by one
person, although it is still more powerful than the average personal computer.
 The differences in the capabilities of these types of machines are growing
smaller. They significantly differ from micro computers in two ways: the central
processing unit (CPU) of workstations are designed differently to enable faster
processing of instructions and most of the micro computers can run any of the
four major operating systems.
 Workstations [(Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)] use UNIX
operating system or a variation of it. (A note of caution: Many people use the
term workstation to refer to any computer or terminal that is connected to
another computer. Although this usage was once a common meaning of the term,
it has become out dated) (The biggest manufacturers of workstations are Sun
Microsystems).

Micro Computers/Personal Computers

 The term microcomputers and personal computers are used interchangeably to
mean the small free- standing computers that are commonly found in offices,
homes and classrooms.
 Many micro computers are built specially to be used in watches, clocks, and
cameras. Today, PCs are seriously challenging mainframes and mini computers
in many areas. In fact today PCs are more powerful than mainframes of just a
few years ago, and competition is producing smaller, faster models every year.

TYPES OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS

 THE DESKTOP: This is the first type of PCs and the most common. Most
desktops are small enough to fit on a desk, but are a little too big to carry around.

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 Figure 1. Desktop Computer

 THE LAPTOP: They weigh about 10pounds (4.5kg). They are battery –
operated computers with built–in screens. They are designed to be carried and
used in locations without electricity. Laptops typically have an almost full –sized
keyboard.

Fig. 9. Laptop Computers

 THE NOTEBOOK: They are similar to laptops and PCs, but smaller. They
weigh about 6 to7 pounds (2.7 – 3.2kg). As the name implies, they are
approximately the size of a notebook and can easily fit inside a brief case.

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 Fig. 10. Notebook Computers

 THE PALMTOP: They are also known as personal digital assistance (PDAs)
and are the smallest of portable computers. Palmtops are much less powerful
than notebooks or desktops models and feature built-in applications such as
word processing. They are mostly used to display important telephone numbers
and addresses.
 Tablet PC: The tablet PC is the newest development in portable, full-featured
computers. Tablet PCs offer all the functionality of a notebook PC, but they are
lighter and can accept input directly from a special pen—called a stylus or a
digital pen—or even the user’s fingers. They can display an image of a
keyboard on the screen and allow the user to type. Many tablet PCs also have a
built-in microphone and special software that accepts input from the user’s
voice. A few models even have a fold-out keyboard, so they can be transformed
into a standard notebook PC. Tablet PCs run specialized versions of standard
programs and can be connected to a network.

Fig. 11. Tablet PC

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  Network Servers: Most organizations’ networks are based on PCs that
are linked together in a network to allow file and information sharing between
users. In such cases a special, central computer called a network server is
added to the network.

Fig. 12. Network Servers

FUNCTIONS OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS

Personal computers can do a lot of things. The most common tasks computers perform
include:

 Writing documents such as memos, letters, reports and briefs

 Budgeting and performing accounting tasks
 Analyzing numeric information
 Searching through lists or reports for specific information
 Scheduling and planning projects.
 Creating illustrations
 Communicating by using electronic mail
 Advertising products and services.

Data, Information and Knowledge

Data: Facts and figures which relay something specific, but which are not organized in
any way and which provide no further information regarding patterns, context, etc. So

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data means "unstructured facts and figures that have the least impact on the typical
manager."

Information: For data to become information, it must be contextualized, categorized,

calculated and condensed. Information thus paints a bigger picture; it is data with
relevance and purpose. It may convey a trend in the environment, or perhaps indicate a
pattern of sales for a given period of time. Essentially information is found "in answers
to questions that begin with such words as who, what, where, when, and how many".

Knowledge: Knowledge is closely linked to doing and implies know-how and

understanding. The knowledge possessed by each individual is a product of his
experience, and encompasses the norms by which he evaluates new inputs from his
surroundings.

The content of the human mind can be classified into four categories:

1. Data: symbols

2. Information: data that are processed to be useful; provides answers to "who", "what",
"where", and "when" questions

3. Knowledge: application of data and information; answers "how" questions

4. Wisdom: evaluated understanding.

We need to understand that processing data produced Information and process
Information produces Knowledge and so on

Characteristics of Computer
Speed, accuracy, diligence, storage capability and versatility are some of the key
characteristics of a computer. A brief overview of these characteristics are

• Speed: The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of instructions
per second. Some calculations that would have taken hours and days to complete
otherwise, can be completed in a few seconds using the computer. For example,
calculation and generation of salary slips of thousands of employees of an
organization, weather forecasting that requires analysis of a large amount of data
related to temperature, pressure and humidity of various places, etc.

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 • Accuracy: Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example, the computer
can accurately give the result of division of any two numbers up to 10 decimal places.
• Diligence: When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get tired or
fatigued. It can perform long and complex calculations with the same speed and
accuracy from the start till the end.

• Storage Capability: Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the
computer and also retrieved whenever required. A limited amount of data can be
stored, temporarily, in the primary memory. Secondary storage devices like floppy
disk and compact disk can store a large amount of data permanently.

• Versatility: Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of tasks

with the same ease. At one moment you can use the computer to prepare a letter
document and in the next moment you may play music or print a document.
Computers have several limitations too. Computer can only perform tasks that it has
been programmed to do.

• Computer has No IQ: Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work
without instruction from the user.
• Consistency: Computers have the ability to consistently follow instructions without
getting tired.
• Repetitiveness: Computers have the ability to continue processing over an extended
period.
Computer cannot do any work without instructions from the user. It executes
instructions as specified by the user and does not take its own decisions.

Important Features of the Computer System

 Computer is programmable: The term programmable means each task perform

by a computer is directed by the set of instruction. This instruction is called a
computer program. Computer program direct a computer to perform specific
operation.
 Convert Data into Information: The data processing is one of the common use
of the computer. The computer process raw data and produce information.
 It is digital Electronic machine: The computer is called digital electronic
machine because it contain electronic component and computer. The term digital
simply mean the computer understand the language of 1 and 0 called the binary
number system.
 Execute only machine instruction and understand only binary (0 or 1):
computer can understand and execute instruction only in binary. These

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 instructions are called machine instruction. Machine instruction in binary consist
of two discrete numbers 1 and 0.

Computer Viruses
Viruses: A virus is a small piece of software that piggybacks on real programs. For
example, a virus might attach itself to a program such as a spreadsheet program.
Each time the spreadsheet program runs, the virus runs, too, and it has the
chance to reproduce (by attaching to other programs) or wreak havoc.

E-mail viruses: An e-mail virus travels as an attachment to e-mail messages, and

usually replicates itself by automatically mailing itself to dozens of people in
the victim's e-mail address book. Some e-mail viruses don't even require a
double-click -- they launch when you view the infected message in the
preview pane of your e-mail software [source: Johnson].

Trojan horses: A Trojan horse is simply a computer program. The program claims to
do one thing (it may claim to be a game) but instead does damage when you
run it (it may erase your hard disk). Trojan horses have no way to replicate
automatically.

Worms: A worm is a small piece of software that uses computer networks and security
holes to replicate itself. A copy of the worm scans the network for another
machine that has a specific security hole. It copies itself to the new machine
using the security hole, and then starts replicating from there, as well.

What are some tips to avoid viruses and lessen their impact?
• Install anti-virus software from a reputable vendor. Update it and use it
regularly.
• In addition to scanning for viruses on a regular basis, install an "on access"
scanner (included in most anti-virus software packages) and configure it to start
each time you start up your computer. This will protect your system by
checking for viruses each time you run an executable file.
• Use a virus scan before you open any new programs or files that may contain
executable code. This includes packaged software that you buy from the store
as well as any program you might download from the Internet.
• If you are a member of an online community or chat room, be very careful
about accepting files or clicking links that you find or that people send you
within the community.

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 • Make sure you back up your data (documents, bookmark files, important email
messages, etc.) on disc so that in the event of a virus infection, you do not lose
valuable work.

Some Applications of Computer

Modern computers have a countless of applications various fields, ranging from the arts
to the sciences and from personal finance to enhanced communications.
Communication: Computers make all modern communications possible. Local area
networks link the computers in separate departments of businesses or universities, and
the Internet links computers all over the world. Journalists and writers use word
processors to write articles and books, which they then submit electronically to
publishers.
Science and Research: Scientists and researchers use computers in many ways to
collect, store, manipulate, and analyze data. Computer-aided design (CAD) programs
enable engineers and architects to design three-dimensional models on a computer
screen. Some simulation programs can generate models of weather conditions to help
meteorologists make predictions. Flight simulators are valuable training tools for pilots.
Government: Government agencies are the largest users of mainframes and
supercomputers. Computers are essential for compiling census data, handling tax
records, maintaining criminal records, and other administrative tasks. Governments
also use supercomputers for weather research, interpreting satellite data, weapons
development, and cryptography.
Education: Computers have proved to be valuable educational tools. Computer-
assisted instruction (CAI) uses computerized lessons that range from simple drills and
practice sessions to complex interactive tutorials. These programs have become
essential teaching tools in medical schools and military training centers, where the
topics are complex and the cost of human teachers is extremely high. Educational aids,
such as encyclopedias and other reference works, are available to PC users—either on
compact or digital video discs or through the Internet.
Arts and Entertainment: Video games are one of the most popular PC applications.
The constantly improving graphics and sound capabilities of PCs have made them
popular tools for artists and musicians.
Painting and drawing programs enable artists to create realistic images and animated
displays much more easily than they could with more traditional tools. Musicians can
use computers to create multiple-voice compositions and to play back music with
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hundreds of variations. Speech processors allow a computers to simulate talking and
singing.
In school, students use computers for tasks such as writing papers, searching for articles,
sending email, and participating in online classes.
At work, people use computers to analyze data, make presentations, conduct business
transactions, communicate with customers and coworkers, control machines in
manufacturing facilities, and do many other things.
At home, people use computers for tasks such as paying bills, shopping online,
communicating with friends and family, and playing computer games.
On daily bases we use cell phones, iPods, BlackBerries, car navigation systems and
many other devices are computers too.
The uses of computers are almost limitless in our everyday lives.
Computers can do such a wide variety of things because they can be programmed. This
means that computers are not designed to do just one job, but to do any job that their
programs tell them to do.
Brief History of a Computer
A complete history of computing would include a multitude of diverse devices such
as the ancient Chinese abacus, the Jacquard loom (1805) and Charles Babbage’s
“analytical engine” (1834). It would also include a discussion of mechanical, analog
and digital computing architectures. As late as the 1960s, mechanical devices, such
as the Merchant calculator, still found widespread application in science and
engineering. During the early days of electronic computing devices, there was much
discussion about the relative merits of analog vs. digital computers. In fact, as late as
the 1960s, analog computers were routinely used to solve systems of finite difference
equations arising in oil reservoir modeling. In the end, digital computing devices
proved to have the power, economics and scalability necessary to deal with large
scale computations. Digital computers now dominate the computing world in all
areas ranging from the hand calculator to the supercomputer and are pervasive
throughout society. Therefore, this brief sketch of the development of scientific
computing is limited to the area of digital, electronic computers.

The evolution of digital computing is often divided into generations. Each generation
is characterized by dramatic improvements over the previous generation in the
technology used to build computers, the internal organization of computer systems,
and programming languages. Although not usually associated with computer
generations, there has been a steady improvement in algorithms, including algorithms

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used in computational science. The following history has been organized using these
widely recognized generations as mileposts.

First Generation - 1946-1956: Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.
They are characterized by:
i. Very big, taking up entire rooms
ii. Very expensive to operate
iii. Using a great deal of electricity
iv. Generated a lot of heat
v. Often malfunctions
vi. Relied on machine language to perform operations,
vii. Able to solve only one problem at a time.

Fig. 13. Vacuum tube

The first electronic computer, ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
was developed in 1946 at the University of Pennsylvania, USA.
The ENIAC was about 50 feet long (3 feets=1 metre), weighed 30 tons (1 ton=1,000
kg), contained 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 register, 10,000 capacitors and required
150, 000 watts of electricity.

The Second Generation (1956 – 1964)

I. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of
computers.
II. One transistor replaced the equivalent of 40 vacuum tubes.
III. Allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy efficient
and more reliable.
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IV. Still generated a great deal of heat that can damage the computer.
V. They used assembly language to perform operations.
VI. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and
printouts for output.
VII. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their
memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology

Fig. 14. Transistor

The Third Generation (965 – 1970)

 The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third
generation of computers.
 Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of
computers.
 Much smaller and cheaper compare to the second generation computers.
 It could carry out instructions in billionths of a second.
 Keyboard is used as input device.
 Monitor and printouts are used for output

Fig. 15. Integrated Circuit

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The Fourth Generation (1971 – 1985)
 The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands
of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip.
 As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together
to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet.
 Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and
handheld devices.

Fig. 16. Microprocessor

The Fifth Generation (1985 to Date) • Based

on Artificial Intelligence (AI).

 Still in development.
 The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial
intelligence a reality
 The goal is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are
capable of learning and self-organization.

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Computer Generations and Their Characteristics

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