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PART I: BASIC GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH

UNIT I: PARTS OF THE SPEECH
English consists of nine word families that actually constitute the
parts of the speech. They are namely: nouns, pronouns, articles,
adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and verbs.

1.1. ENGLISH NOUNS

A noun is a word describing the name of a person (people), a thing,
an object, a feeling, an idea or an animal. Nouns can be classified into
two main categories: common nouns and proper nouns.
1.1.1. Common nouns
Common nouns are those describing two or more than two people
or things at once. e.g. car, policeman, office, computer, book…as used
in:
 I have a book.  This office is mine.
 He is a policeman.  I need a computer.
 My car is new.
1.1.2. Proper nouns
Proper nouns are names of people, continents, countries, towns,
specific geographic settings, languages, rivers, lakes, special
trademarks, months of the years, days of the week… e.g. Nelson
Mandela, America, Africa, Europe, the Democratic Republic of Congo,
English, Spanish, Paris, New York, Nile, Ford… as used in:
- Nelson Mandela is from South Africa.
- He speaks English.
- It rains in September.
- New York is the capital city of The United States of America.

N.B: In writing, proper nouns always start with capital letters, while
common nouns will start with initial small letters unless they are
located at the initial position in a sentence as in: - Books are
expensive.

1.1.3. Count versus non count nouns

There are two ways of seeing objects in English. Most often objects
are seen as separate things; sometimes, objects are seen as a whole or
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as one thing. This allows to distinguish between count and non count
nouns.
1. Count nouns refer to objects seen as separate things.
e.g. a job, a man, a lake, a pen…
N.B: count nouns can be singular or plural. They can be used with
indefinite articles when they are in singular.
2. Non count nouns refer to object seen as one thing or things which
cannot be easily counted.
e.g. transportation, power, heat, water, food, money…
N.B: Non count nouns also named uncountable nouns cannot be used
with indefinite articles and cannot take the plural inflection and are
always used with singular verb forms.
1.1.4. Verbal nouns
Sometimes, verbs are used as nouns and constitute what is called
verbal nouns. Verbal nouns also known as gerund are nouns deriving
from verbs .e.g. Coming, travelling, meeting …
In a sentence structure, they can be used as subject or object.
e.g.
 Meeting today will be very difficult.
 Let us meet for talking.

1.1.5. PLURAL OF COUNT NOUNS

Plural of count nouns can be regular or irregular
A) Plural of regular count nouns
To form the plural of most regular count nouns add ‹‹S›› and do not
use a or an before the plural noun.
e.g. a car two cars
a boat three boats
(vowel + y) a display three displays
(vowel + o) a radio four radios

Some regular plural count nouns require spellings changes:

1. If a noun ends in consonant + y, change y to l, then add – es.
e.g. Activity activities
Lorry lorries
Cavity cavities
2. If a noun ends in sh, ch, ss, x, z add-es. e.g.:
Bush bushes Church churches
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Boss bosses Box Boxes

3. If a noun ends in consonant + O, add-es
e.g. potato potatoes
Mango mangoes
 To this rule, exception is made of the words:
Photo photos
Piano pianos
4. If a noun ends in fe or f, change f to v, and then add-es.
e.g. Knife knives
life lives
 There are some exceptions to this last rule.
Chief chiefs
Chef chefs
B) Irregular plural nouns
Some English nouns do not take any form of “s” in plural. They have
irregular plural forms or special plurals.
1. Some nouns change spelling in the plural
e.g. Mouse Mice
Child Children
Man Men
Person people
Foot Feet
2. Some do not change form in plural
e.g. a deer two deer
a sheep three sheep
a fish four fish
a) Pronunciation of regular plural nouns
The plural ending “s” can be pronounced in three different ways. It‟s
pronounced:
[z]: after voiced sounds like (I, m, b, g, d, n, r, y…) or after vowels.
e.g. Rooms, bars, windows, words
[s]: after voiceless sounds like (p, t, k, f)
e.g. Socks, chips, ports, steps
[iz]: the final – s is pronounced iz after:
 S = as in voices, classes, spaces, offices;
 Z = as in exercices, noises,…
 Sh = as in flashes, dashes, dishes, slashes
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 Ch = as in switches, matches;
 Ge/dge = as in pages, colleges, oranges.

1.2. ENGLISH ARTICLES

English people use two kinds of articles which namely are:
indefinite and definite articles.
1. Indefinite article
There are two forms of indefinite articles in English, which are: a
and an. A is used before words beginning with a consonant sound or
before an aspirated “h”; and “an” is used before words beginning with a
vowel sound or before a non aspirated “h” as in:
 A truck  An electrician
 A ship  An engineer
 A helicopter  An hour
N.B: use the indefinite article:
a) Before a non specific noun e.g.: My car has a windscreen.
b) To introduce a noun phrase for the first time
e.g. My boss got an accident.
c) With singular count nouns only
e.g. I have a car, a motorcycle, a helicopter and a canoe.
2. Definite article
There is only a single form of definite article in English, it is “the”.
Use the definite article “the”
a) Before nouns describing specific information in a sentence.
e.g. - The Sun is bright today.
- The teacher‟s car is new.
b) When the noun phrase has already been introduced in the discourse.
e.g. James has a new T.V set. The T.V set is a new Philips make.
c) With singular count nouns, plural count nouns or with non count
nouns.
e.g. - The engine is accurate
- The data base is up dated.

N.B: don’t use articles:

1. Before uncountable nouns as in:
 Mathematics, Statistics, Accountant, Economics, Marketing,
Enterprise management, labor organization, labor law, Business
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law, Adult psychology and so on are our faculty curriculum

courses.
 Ignorance, jealousy, xenophobia and sorcery are serious obstacles
to African society development.
 Corrupting, cheating, fighting, killing, stealing are unacceptable
behaviors.
2. Before the names of seasons and meal as in:
 Summer time is the best period for studies;
 He rests during lunch hours.
Please say:
 The 1995 summer was very long.
 The lunch I had yesterday at university cafeteria was delicious.
3. Before some names of countries, lakes and mountains as
illustrated in:
 Lake kivu contains methane gaz
 Kilimandjaro is located in Kenya
Please say:.
 The Netherlands is member of European Union.
 The Kilimandjaro Mountain is quite impressive.

4. Before the words: school, market, hospital, bed, church as in:

 We went to bed at noon.
 She has been admitted in hospital after falling from a tree.
please say:
 The bed he made was too small for him.
 She was admitted in the Kinshasa general hospital
5. In some common expressions such as:
 They play football, tennis, basket-ball or volley-ball on Sundays.
 She goes swimming on Saturdays mornings.
Please say:
 The last Sunday‟s football game between TP Mazembe and the
Brazilian team was very exciting.
Task 15: Fill in the blanks with definite or indefinite article if necessary.
 My father bought……..black car
 ………old man can‟t walk alone at night.
 My boy friend took me to……party last Sunday
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 I am travelling to……… Netherlands next year.

 He write…….. article in……… faculty review.
 My luggage was transferred to…….. Lusaka by mistake.

1.3. ENGLISH ADJECTIVES

1. Description of adjectives
e.g.: - a small train - a long path
- a flat surface - a short round
- Different types - old menus
- Careful use
An adjective is a word describing the value or the quality of a
person, a place or a thing. It describes things or people. Among
adjectives a distinction is built between adjectives describing:
a) Colour: Dark, light, clean, black, brown, red, yellow, blue, blonde,
grey, green, white, purple, pink, multicolour…
b) Length: long, short, medium length
c) Hair type: straight, wavy, curly, short, long
d) Human height: tall, medium height, short
e) Weight: thin, average weight, over weight
Personality: Adjectives opposites
Shy = out going
Talkative = quiet
Messy = neat
Funny = serious
Nervous = calm
Energetic = lazy
Sad = happy
Strong = weak
English adjectives do not get into agreement with the noun phrase
they are related to. That is to say that they keep the same form and do
not vary according to the plural or singular of the related noun. Besides,
they are always located before (not after) the noun they are related to.

2. Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives

Positive comparative superlative
1. old older oldest
2. Young younger youngest
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3. Hot hotter hottest

4. Clever cleverer cleverest
5. Careful more careful most careful
6. fine finer finest
7. Late later latest
8. Happy happier happiest
9. Easy easier easiest
10. Interesting more interesting most interesting

3. Comparative forms with “as”

e.g.:
 Girls are as intelligent as boys.
 University of Kinshasa students pays as much academic.
 Fees as their colleagues of UNILU.

4. Comparative forms with “than” e.g.:

* I am older than you.
* Some students find English more difficult than French.

Task 16: Fill in the blanks with “as” or “than”

* A stone is harder ……a brick.
* Please, eat as much…. You can.
* He is taller ……you are.
* Women live longer………men.
* Messi plays football much better…… you do.
* My shirt is almost the same color…..yours.

1.4. ENGLISH PRONOUNS

Pronouns are generally used to take the place of nouns. They are
used instead of a noun to avoid repetition. There are several types of
pronouns in English:
A. Personal pronouns
Subject personal pronouns
 I  We
 You  You
 He (She, It)  They
Object personal pronouns
 Me  Him (Her, It)
 You  Us
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 You  Them
e.g:
I am Congolese. John is my friends. I like Him.
You are a student. Tell them my name.
He speaks French. I gave her some money

N.B: some words are used as pronouns or as adjectives. This is the

case for possessives, demonstratives, interrogatives….
B. Demonstratives:
Demonstrative can be pronouns or adjectives. There are four
demonstratives in English. They are; this, that, these and those. Each
of these can be used as adjective or as pronouns. Demonstrative are
generally used to indicate that the pointed object(s) or people (is/are)
near/ far from the speaker. They can be singular (this/ that) or plural
(these/those)

Singular Plural
This These Near the speaker
That Those Far from the speaker
e.g.
This pen is blue. This is our English course.
That window is open. That belongs to the teacher.
These people are students. These are new comers.
Those girls are friends. Those are workers.
C. Possessives
A distinction is made between possessives adjectives and
possessive pronouns.
Possessive Adjectives
 My  Our
 Your  Your
 His, her, its  Their
Possessive Pronouns
 Mine  ours
 Yours  yours
 His, hers, its  theirs
N.B. possessive (adjectives or pronouns) get into agreements with the
possessor, not with the noun they are related to.
e.g. – Jack is at the hospital. His son is sick.
- James is at school. His daughter is graduating today.
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- Mary is at the hospital. Her son is sick.

-Mariam is at school. Her daughter has a graduation ceremony.
D. Interrogatives pronouns and adjectives
e.g. Who said you were going to fail the English course?
What kind of final exam do you really suggest?
Which language do you like? English, French or Chinese?
E. Relative pronouns
English relative pronouns are: That, who, whom, which.
e.g. – The man to whom I talked to said he was sorry about what
happened.
- The college from which Bertin graduated is one of the best
institutions in the D.R.C.
F. Reflexive or emphatic pronouns
e.g. - I sometimes talk to myself
- You have hurted yourself.
- She looked at herself at a piece of glass
G. Compound indefinite pronouns
Anybody anyone anywhere anything
Everybody everyone everywhere everything
Nobody no one nowhere nothing
Somebody someone somewhere something
e.g. - can anyone (anybody) help me?
- Someone (somebody) is waiting for you.

H. Distributive pronouns
Distributive pronouns are; each, every, everyone, everybody, everything.
e.g. - Each must do his/her best.
- Everybody knows him.
- Everything she says is true.

I. Quantifiers
English quantifies are: a lot, a little, a few, much, many.
e.g. - How much money does he earn per month?
- Look at how little rice he gave me.
- How many boys do you have in your family?

Task 17: Fill in the blanks with the missing pronouns

1. The teacher……………is helping us to master the English
language is Bertin Kombenongo.
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2. She introduced………to the class audience.

3. They help…….. to cook dinner.
4. …………students will fail if they do not work hard.
5. It is ………..duty to teach you good English.

1.5. ENGLISH ADVERBS

Adverbs are words that alter the meaning of the verb (adjective, or
another adverb) slightly. There are different kinds of adverbs in English.
Among these, mention is regularly made of:
A. Adverb of manner
Adverb of manner are those used to answer the question “How?”.
They are generally formed by adding “Ly” to the adjective.
- Kind - kindly
- Careful - carefully
- General - generally
- Friend - friendly
But:
- Happy - Happily
- Angry - Angrily
- Comfortable - comfortably
- Probable - probably
e.g.:
* How are they listening * They are carefully listening
to the teacher? to the teacher.
* How does he work to * He hardly works to earn
earn his money? his money.
* How did you do the quiz? * I did it correctly.
* How did he replied to the * he replied intelligently
teacher‟s question? to the teacher‟s question.

B. Adverb of frequency
Adverb of frequency answer the question “How often?”. They tell
how many times a habit is repeated. They tell in a general way what
percent of time this habit occurs. They might look in a chart as follows;
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Not very often,

Occasionally
Hardly ever,

Sometimes

Quite often

Very often
Normally

Ussually

Always
Almost
always
Rarely

seldom

Often
Never

0% 100%
e.g. - Students sometimes need a rest.
- They very often wake up early in the morning.
- They rarely go to bed before 8.P.M.
C. Adverbs of place
Adverb of place answer the question “where”
e.g. : Where does he stand?
Where did she go?
Where are we now?
Where did you buy your pen?
Where is your sister?

D. Adverb of degree
Adverb of degree answers the question “to what extent?”
e.g. To what extent is this coffee bad?
To what extent can she drive?
To what extent are you involved in this matter?
N.B: Adverbs in general can be used at the initial, medium or final
position in a sentence.
e.g. - It is terribly hot to day.
- Sometimes, students are very lazzy
- Paul has always spoken English
- John is a very intelligent student.

1.6. ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions are words that relate one thing to another. They are of
two orders: prepositions of location and prepositions of direction.
a) Prepositions of location
Use preposition of location to talk about place. They usually
combine with position verbs (be, live, work, wait). They are mainly: in,
above, under, next to, on, at, behind, between, in front of, in the back of,
near, closed to, opposite to, until,
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e.g.: - John was waiting at the car park.

- He keeps the key to the car in the cupboard.
b) Prepositions of direction
Use the preposition of direction to talk about the direction? They
combine with verb of motion (such as go, get, drive, fly, move, run, walk,
come, lead…). They can be one word or two words. They are namely; to,
away from, on (to), off (to), in (to), out of, up, until, clown, across, along,
around, over, through.
e.g. - He is sailing through the sea line.
- He is driving to the station.
- The plane is flying away from the airport.
- They got out of the pub.

Task 18: Complete the sentences with one of the prepositions

1. We are……….the classroom.
2. She works…………..the south kivu province
3. They live……………..the people‟s palace in lingwala
4. I go farming……………… Saturdays.
5. Stand straight…………..your feet.
6. Back…………. work now.
7. He weights…………..75 kilogrammes
8. Air planes fly……………the town.
9. We were driving…………..the main road
10. They went………..the stadium to watch the football match

1.7. ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions are connectors.. They are used to join words,
phrases or sentences together. They namely are: and, but, or…
e.g. – I went to the central library and borrowed some books.
- Will you be waiting inside or outside?
- All but you are not saying the truth.
- The head of the class and I will complete the task.
- John is absent but Ann is just late.

1.8. ENGLISH INTERJECTION

An interjection is a short word showing emotion or feeling. It can be
an exclamation expressing emotion: a sound, word, or phrase that
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expresses a strong emotion such as pain or surprise but otherwise has

no meaning

1.9. ENGLISH VERBS

1.9.1. VERB FORMS
Verb is the action word in a sentence. A distinction should be built
between regular and irregular verbs. Regular verbs are these which
follow regular rules of verb conjugation. In sentence constructions, verbs
can get into: affirmative form, negative form, interrogative form, or into
contraction.
Affirmative forms:
 I am a student.
 Bertin speaks English.
 You have a new computer.
Negative forms:
 I‟ m not a student.
 Bertin does not speak Chinese.
 You don‟t have a new car.
Interrogative forms:
 Am I a student?
 Does Bertin speak lingala?
 Do you have a new computer?
Contractions:
 I‟m, you‟re, he‟s, we‟re, you‟re they‟re.
 I‟ve, you‟ve, He‟s, we‟ve, you‟ve, they‟ve
 I‟m not, you aren‟t, He‟s not, we aren‟t, you -
aren‟t, and they aren‟t.
Short answers:
 Yes, we are. No, we aren‟t.
 yes, she did. No, she didn‟t…

1.9.2. AUXILIARIES
In sentence structures, verbs operate as main verbs or as
auxiliaries. Auxiliaries are used to help the main verb to express tenses
and aspects. A distinction is, however, built between primary auxiliaries
and modal auxiliaries.
A) PRIMARY AUXILIARIES
Primary auxiliaries are verbs such as:
To be: used to express progressivity or passivity
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To have: used to express perfect aspect

To do: used to express negation, interrogation or insistance

B) MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS

Can, could, shall, should, may, might, will, would, must, need,
dare, ought to are modal auxiliaries. They are used to express
modalities such as; permission, obligation, capacity, possibility,
probability, prohibition, necessity, futurity…
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UNIT II: SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION

2.1. WHAT IS A SENTENCE?

Linguists have problems in agreeing on how to define the word

sentence. The concept sentence is traditionally (and inadequately)
defined as a word or group of words that expresses a complete idea and
that includes a subject and a verb. It is also described as the largest
independent unit of grammar actually starting with a capital letter and
ending with a period/full stop, question mark, or exclamation mark /point.

On the basis of this definition, some of the sentences written by

ESL students (indeed by all writers) will be correct, and other sentences
will be problematic.

2.2.: PARTS OF A SENTENCE

2.2.1.: SMALLEST PARTS

English language consists of nine word families susceptible to be

grammatically used in a sentence structure as it has been widely
described in the first unit. Each of them plays specific role in sentence
structure as stated bellow.

Parts of a sentence Description

Noun Nominative: Names things, people or
places etc
Pronoun used instead of a noun to avoid repetition
Article Determiners: a, an - indefinite articles,
the - definite articles
Adjective Modifier: Describes things or people
Adverb Alters the meaning of the verb slightly
Preposition Relates one thing to another
Conjunction Connector: Joins words or sentences
together
Interjection A short word showing emotion or feeling
Verb Action or doing word
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2.2. MAIN PARTS OF A SENTENCE

A simple sentence actually consists of a single subject and

predicate. What is a subject? And what is a predicate?

2.2.1. SUBJECTS

A subject is the person or the thing the sentence is 'about'.

Generally it is the person or thing carrying out an action. Often (but not
always) it will be the first part of the sentence. The subject will usually be
a noun phrase (i.e. a noun and the words, such as adjectives, that
modify it). In a statement, the subject is actually followed by a verb.

The subject(s) of a sentence will answer the questions, "who or

what." Once you determine the verb, ask a wh...? question of the verb.
This will locate the subject(s).

For example:

 David works hard.

 Who "works hard"? =David does=the subject.
 Beer and wine are my favorite drinks.
 What "are my favorite drinks"? Beer and wine are=the subjects.

2.2.2. PREDICATE

Predicate always includes the verb and the words which come
after the verb. Once you have identified the subject in a sentence, the
remainder of the sentence tells us what the subject does or did. This part
of the sentence is the predicate of the sentence.

In the sentence “Michael Schumaker drove the race car.” for

example "Michael Schumaker" is the subject; but "drove the race car" is
the predicate.

2.3. TYPES OF SENTENCES

Sentences are categorized in different ways by different writers.

The two most frequent ways are by structure and by purpose.
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2.3.1. TYPES OF SENTENCES BY STRUCTURE

One way to categorize sentences is by the clauses they contain. A

sentence, however, can consist of a single clause or several clauses. To
this extends, the four basic sentence structures are the simple sentence,
the compound sentence, the complex sentence, and the compound-
complex sentence.

2.3.1.1. SIMPLE SENTENCE

A simple sentence is the one which contains a single clause and

this clause is called an independent clause (i.e. When a sentence is a
single clause, it is called a simple sentence). A simple sentence has just
one independent clause. A simple sentence contains a single subject
and predicate. It describes only one thing, one idea or one question, and
has only one main verb.

For example:

 I don't like dogs.

 I love chocolate.
 Our school basketball team lost their last game of the season.
 The old hotel opposite the bus station in the center of the town is
probably going to be knocked down at the end of next year.
 You can't surprise a man with a dog

Even the addition of adjectives, adverbs, and prepositional phrases

to a simple sentence does not change it into a complex sentence. Even if
you join several nouns with a conjunction, or several verbs with a
conjunction, it remains a simple sentence.

For example:

 Jill reads.
 The dog barked loudly.
 The brown dog with the red collar always barks loudly

2.3.1.2. COMPOUND SENTENCE

A compound sentence has at least two independent clauses. It

contains two independent clauses that are joined by a coordinating
conjunction. Every clause in a compound sentence is like a sentence
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with a subject and a verb. A coordinating conjunction goes in the middle

of the sentence, and it is the word that joins the two clauses together,
(The most common coordinating conjunctions are: but, or, and, so).

For example:

 I don't like dogs, and my sister doesn't like cats.

 I love chocolate, and I love eating chocolate
 You can write on paper, or you can use a computer.
 A tree fell onto the school roof in a storm, but none of the students was
injured.
 The sun was setting in the west and the moon was just rising.
 I walked to the shops, but my husband drove.
 I might watch the film, or I might visit my friends.
 My friend enjoyed the film, but she didn't like the actor.

2.3.1.3. COMPLEX SENTENCE

Complex sentences describe more than one thing or idea and have
more than one verb in them. They are made up of more than one clause.
A complex sentence contains an independent clause plus one or more
dependent clauses. An independent clause can stand by itself but a
dependent subordinate clause cannot stand by itself. A dependent
clause starts with a subordinating conjunction. Examples: that, because, while,
although, where, if.

For example:

 I don't like dogs that bark at me when I go past.

 She did my homework, while her father cooked dinner.
 You can write on paper, although a computer is better if you want to
correct mistakes easily.
 I love chocolate because it‟s decadent.

2.3.1.4. COMPLEX-COMPOUND SENTENCE

Complex-compound sentence referred by some writers as

Compound-complex sentence Contains 3 or more clauses (of which at
least two are independent and one or more than one are dependent).

For example:

 I don't like dogs, and my sister doesn't like cats because they make her
sneeze.
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 You can write on paper, but using a computer is better as you can
easily correct your mistakes.
 A tree fell onto the school roof in a storm, but none of the students was
injured, although many of them were in classrooms at the top of the
building.
 I love chocolate because it‟s decadent, and I love eating chocolate
because it‟s delicious.

Those four categories apply to normal, grammatical sentences.

However, some of our most common expressions are sentences that
don‟t follow the rules.

2.3.2. TYPES OF SENTENCES BY PURPOSE

2.3.2.1. DECLARATIVE SENTENCE

A declarative sentence states a fact and ends with a period / full

stop. It is used to make a simple statement. Most sentences in our
speech or in our writings are declarative.

For example:

 I love chocolate
 Clothes make the man.
 He has every attribute of a dog except loyalty.
 Naked people have little or no influence on society. I wonder if all the
RDC politicians are members of a weird religious cult.

2.3.2.2. NEGATIVE SENTENCE

A negative sentence also known as negation is a sentence which is

denying. It generally holds a verb form carrying the negative particle
“not”. Not all verbs can carry the negative inflection “not”. “not” is carried
by auxiliary verbs only. If a main verb in a statement is used without
auxiliary verb, it will borrow the auxiliary (do, does, did) when getting into
negation.

e.g.: - We are not stranger in this country.

- You cannot leave the office before the boss.
- Some students have not got personal computers.
- Politicians do not share the same opinions.
- I do not like travelling by canoe.
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N.B: The particle not is not the only one negative marker in English.
Other negative markers are never, nobody, no one, nothing, nowhere,
and neither. When not is carried by the conjugated verb, other markers
are carried by other sentence components.
e.g.: - Nobody understands her.
- He knows nothing.
- Not everybody can afford such holiday!
- He asked us not to repeat it.
- She went away without adding anything.
- We hardly know anything about him.
- She could scarcely walk, could she?
- Never did he work at night!
- No sooner had he graduated than he left his girlfriend.
- Hardly had she uttered his name than she burst into tears.

2.3.2.3. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE

An interrogative sentence asks a question and ends with a

question mark. ? It is used to ask a question.

For example:

 Do you love chocolate?

 Who knew that dog saliva can mend a broken heart?

2.3.2.4. IMPERATIVE SENTENCE

An imperative sentence is a command or a polite request. It ends

with a period / full stop. It is used for commands with the pronoun you
always implied.

For example:

 Please buy me some chocolate

 When a dog runs at you, whistle for him.

2.3.2.5. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE

An exclamatory sentence expresses excitement or emotion. It ends

with an exclamation mark. It is used for emphasis and emotion.
 21

For example:

 I need chocolate!
 In Washington, it's dog eat dog. In academia, it's exactly the opposite!
 To die for an idea; it is unquestionably noble. But how much nobler it
would be if men died for ideas that were true!

2.3.2.6. CONDITIONAL SENTENCE

Conditional sentence is used to express what one would do if a

condition were met. There are several types of conditional sentences:
the present general (or zero condition), the future more-vivid (or first
condition), the future less-vivid (or second condition), the present
contrafactual (also sometimes called the second condition), and the past
contrafactual (or third condition).

For example:

 If I had a billion dollars, I would buy a castle made of chocolate.

 When a dog runs at you, whistle for him.

Advice: Writing that contains mostly short, simple sentences can be

uninteresting or even irritating to read. Writing that consists of mostly
long, complex sentences is usually difficult to read. Good writers,
therefore, use a variety of sentence types.

Sentences can be extremely simple or incredibly complicated.

Obviously, the more complicated the sentence the more care you need
to take to make sure that all the parts are properly constructed and agree
with one another. However, when you review your work, you should
make sure that all of your sentences contain all the necessary elements -
at the most basic level, at least a subject and a verb.

2.4. PROBLEMATIC 'SENTENCES'

To write a correct sentence, you need to have a good
understanding of what a sentence is. Students who don't have this
understanding, or don't take care, often include problem sentences in
their writing. Native English speakers are just as likely to write problem
sentences as ESL students. There are three main types of problem
sentence:
 22

2.4.1. Run-on sentences

These are two sentences that the writer has not separated with an
end punctuation mark, or has not joined with a conjunction.

o I went to Paris in the vacation it is the most beautiful place I have ever
visited.
o It's never too late to learn to swim you never know when you may fall
from a boat.
o If you're going to the shops can you buy me some eggs and flour I want
to make a cake.
o I like our new math teacher, she always explains the work very clearly.
o He was late to school again, his bus got caught in heavy traffic.

Advice: It is helpful to read your written work aloud. When you speak,
you will make natural pauses to mark the end of your sentences or
clauses. If there is no corresponding end punctuation mark in your
writing, you can be almost certain that you have written a run-on
sentence.

2.4.2. Sentence fragments

Fragment sentences are unfinished sentences, i.e. they don't

contain a complete idea. A common fragment sentence in student writing
is a dependent clause standing alone without an independent clause. In
the each of the following examples the fragment is the second
'sentence':

o I don't think I'm going to get a good grade. Because I didn't study.
o She got angry and shouted at the teacher. Which wasn't a very good
idea.
o He watched TV for an hour and then went to bed. After falling asleep on
the sofa.
o She got up and ran out of the library. Slamming the door behind her.
o I have to write a report on Albert Einstein. The famous scientist who left
Europe to live in the USA.
o After riding my bike without problems for over a year, the chain broke.
40 kilometers from my house!

Advice: If your 'sentence' is a dependent clause, or it doesn't contain

both a subject and a predicate, then it is not a proper sentence. You can
often detect fragments if you read your writing backwards sentence by
sentence, i.e. from the last sentence to the first one. You can usually
correct a fragment by connecting it to the sentence before or after it.
 23

Good writers, who have a full understanding of the sentence,

occasionally choose to write a sentence fragment. So you may see
sentence fragments in the fiction or even some of the non-fiction you
read. As an ESL student, however, you should avoid fragments (except
when writing your own creative stories).

2.4.3. Rambling sentences

A rambling sentence is a sentence made up of many clauses, often

connected by a coordinating conjunction such as and, or, so.

o John usually gets up before 7 o'clock, but yesterday his alarm clock did
not ring, so he was still asleep when his boss called him at 10.30 to ask
where he was and tell him that he would lose his job if he was late
again.
o Although the blue whale has been protected for over 30 years and its
numbers are increasing, especially in the North Pacific, where whale
hunting has been banned, it is still at risk of extinction as its habitat is
being polluted by waste from oil tankers and its main food, the plankton,
is being killed off by harmful rays from the sun, which can penetrate the
earth's atmosphere because there is a huge hole in the ozone layer
over Antarctica.

Advice: A rambling sentence is quite easy to spot. You have almost

certainly written one if your sentence contains more than 3 or 4
conjunctions. If you read the sentence aloud and run out of breath before
reaching the end of it, you have written a rambling sentence. If your
sentence stretches over many lines of writing, you have certainly written
a rambling sentence and most probably a run-on sentence too.

Unlike run-ons or fragments, rambling sentences are not wrong,

but they are tiresome for the reader and one of the signs of a poor writer.
You should avoid them.
 24

UNIT III: VERB TENSES AND ASPECTS

English has two simple verb tenses and many compound tenses,
namely:
 Simple present tense: Bertin speaks English.
 Simple past tense: James worked at the airport for five years.
 Present continuous tense: We are taking a basic grammar
lesson today.
 Past continuous tense: he was revising his grammar lessons.
 Present perfect tense: John has succeeded the English quiz.
 Present perfect continuous: They have been waiting for the
meeting.
 Past perfect tense: he had smoked cigarettes.
 Past perfect continuous: Tom had been listening for news.
 Future: I will/shall succeed the business English exam.
 Future continuous: Students will be reading new books.
 Future perfect: William will have gone to church.
 Future perfect continuous: They will have been planning new
strategies.
 Conditional tense: I would meet john if I have enough time.
 Conditional tense in the past: Workers would have gone into strike.

3.1. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

3.1.1. FORM OF THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

Affirmative form Interrogative form Negative form

S + vb + s/es Do / does + s + vb s + don’t/doesn’t + vb

e.g. I speak English. e.g. do you speak e.g. I don‟t speak Chinese
English?

 Simple present tense is formed by using verb base in all persons

except in third person singular. The third person singular inflection
is “s/es”.
 When a verb ends in /s/z/x/sh/ch/, please add-es. e.g. /he boxes/
he washes / he watches/.
 25

 When a verb ends in consonant + y please change y to i and add

e. e.g. to cry /he cries/ to try/he tries/ to carry /he carries/
 The third person singular inflection s/es is pronounced in three
different ways. It is pronounced:
[ S ] after voiceless consonants /p/t/k/f/
e.g. he stops/he puts/he paints/he cooks/he laughs/
[ Z ]after voiced consonant or after vowel sound
e.g. he runs /he drives/he does/he goes
[ IZ ] after /s/z/dz/ʃ/tʃ/
e.g. he faces/he chooses/he judges/he pushes/he punishes

3.1.2. USE OF THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

Use the simple present tense:

1. To describe established facts or to state general truth.

 The sun rises in the east.
2. To describe permanent facts
 He works in the town. He is a dentist.
3. With or without adverbs of frequency, to express habit in the
present.
 He usually gets up at 5 a.m.
4. In particular cases, to express:
 Immediate successive actions
 ………..he stands up, gets dressed, opens the door and gets
out.
 The future (stating schedules or planning)
 The train leaves at 7 a.m.
3.2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS

A. FORM OF THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS

Affirmative form Interrogative form Negative form
s + am/is /are + vb + ing am/is/are/+ s + vb + ing s/amnot/isn’t/aren’t+ vb
+ ing
e.g. I am (I‟m) working at e.g. Are you working at the e.g.He is not (isn‟t)
ISS/kin. office? working
 26

 The final consonant is doubled before -ing when it appears in a

stressed syllable and when it is used immediately after a vowel.
E.g.:
To put / he‟s putting To begin/ he‟s beginning
To get/ he‟s getting To stop/ he‟s stopping

The final consonant is not doubled before -ing in a non-stressed

syllable. Exception to this rule is made for verbs ending in [L].
E.g. To offer/ he‟s offering; To travel /he‟s travelling

 Verbs describing state, feeling, taste or mental activities are rarely

put into -ing form.
e.g. to like, to love, to prefer, to hate, to see, to hear, to seem, to
understand, to know, to want, to remember, to agree, to believe, to
need, to belong, to suppose, to mean, to forget…

B. USE OF THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS

Use the present continuous:

1. To describe an action taking place at the moment of speech,

e.g. he‟s playing in his room upstairs.
2. With time expressions to express a future event,
e.g. they are flying to South Africa tonight.
3.3. SIMPLE PAST TENSE

A. FORM OF THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE

Affirmative form Interrogative form Negative form
S + vb + d/ed Did + s + vb S + didn’t + vb
e.g. he opened the door. e.g. did I open the door? e.g. I didn‟t open it.
Cv vcv

 There is a specific preterit (past tense) for each irregular verb. e.g.:
To do /he did
To speak / he spoke
 27

To buy/he bought
To teach/he taught
 The past tense inflection -d/-ed can be pronounced in three
different ways. It is pronounced
 [Id] after /t/ and /d/ e.g. started, painted, wanted, decided
 [t] after /p/k/f/s/ʃ/tʃ/θ/ e.g. helped, asked, cooked, finished
 [d] after voiced consonants and vowels sounds e.g.
prepared, cleaned, answered.
 When the verb ends in Y change Y to I and add –ed. e.g. to cry /he
cried to try / he tried
 The final consonant will be doubled before –ed if it is preceded by
a vowel and if it appears in a stressed syllable.

e.g. to stop / he „stopped to prefer / he preferred but to offer /

he offered.

B. USE OF THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE

Use the simple past tense to express

1. A past action, totally completed in the past

E.g. He got up and left the room.
2. With time expressions such as when, two day ago, last week, last
month, last year, in those days.
E.g. Three month ago, he decided to move, and he settled in
America.
3.4. PAST CONTINUOUS

1. FORM OF THE PAST CONTINUOUS

Affirmative form Interrogative form Negative form
s + was/were+vb+ ing was/were+s + vb + ing s+wasn’t/weren’t+vb+ing
e.g.james was singing . e.g.Was he sleeping? e.g.I wasn‟t singing.

2. USE OF THE PAST CONTINUOUS

Use the past continuous:

1. To describe a progressive action in the past.

 28

E.g. When I rang her she was talking to john.

2. To make comment about an action
E.g. He was always complaining.

3.5. PRESENT PERFECT

1. FORM OF THE PRESENT PERFECT

Affirmative form Interrogative form Negative form
s + have / has + past have / has + s + past s + hasn’t / haven’t +
participle participle past participle
e.g. I have played football. e.g. Have you played e.g. I have not played
tennis? baseball.

N.B. When the past participle for regular verbs is VB + d/ ed, there exists
a specific past participle form for each irregular verb.

2. USE OF THE PRESENT PERFECT

Use the present perfect:

1. To make an account of the present impact of a past action or to put

an emphasis on the present result of a past action.
E.g. I have eaten too much chocolate.
2. To build a link between the present and the past times. (with„‟for‟‟ –
„‟since‟‟)
E.g. We have known each other for ten years.
3. With „‟just‟‟ to express a recent past action
E.g. We have just bought a new car.

3.6. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

1. FORM OF THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Affirmative form Interrogative form Negative form
s + have/has + been + vb have/has + s + been + vb please use present
+ ing + ing perfect
e.g. I have been reading e.g. Have you been e.g. I have not solved my
the book. waiting for the train? problem yet.
 29

2. USE OF THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Use the present perfect continuous:

To express a process that started in the past but which is recently

finished but still having an impact in the present/ or which still extends to
the present (it is used with „‟since‟‟ or „‟for‟‟).

E.g. You have been eating chocolate cakes since morning.

3.7. PAST PERFECT

1. FORM OF THE PAST PERFECT

Affirmative form Interrogative form Negative form
s + had + past participle had + s + past participles + hadn’t + past
participle
e.g. i had started the talk. e.g. had you started the e.g. john had not started
talk? the task.

2. USE OF THE PAST PERFECT

Use the past perfect:

1. To express an action that happened before another in the past.

E.g. She started reading the letter he had sent her.
2. To report the „‟present perfect‟‟ from direct to indirect speech.
E.g. „‟I have understood‟‟ he said. He said that he had understood.
3. To express an irreal past action. E.g. If you had listened to me it
would have been easier to solve the problem.

3.8. PAST PREFECT CONTINUOUS

1. FORM OF THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Affirmative form Interrogative form Negative form
s + had + been + vb + had + s + been + vb + ing please use past perfect
ing
e.g. the baby had been e.g. had the baby been e.g. the baby hadn‟t cried.
crying. crying?
 30

2. USE OF THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Use the past perfect continuous to describe a process or an activity
taking place before a given action in the past.

e.g. : - It was obvious she had been eating a lot of chocolate Ị

-He had been reading the book before the meeting started.

3.9. FUTURITY

Future is seen in English more as a verb aspect than as a verb tense. To

this extent, different verb forms and expressions are used to express
future aspect. To express the future aspect use:

1. Will + vb : e.g. I will go to church.

2. Shall + vb : e.g. I shall travel by car.
3. Be + Ing form + time express: e.g. I‟m sitting for an exam next
week.
4. Simple present of the verb + time expression: e.g. the film starts at
8.P.m
5. „‟Be going to‟‟ to express a more certain action in the future. e.g.
We are going to buy a new car.
6. „‟Be about to‟‟ to express an action about to occur. e.g. the plane is
about to take off.
7. „‟Be bound to‟‟ to express an inevitable action in the future. e.g. He
is bound to have a car accident one day Ị He drives too fast.
8. „‟Be to‟‟ to express a duty or an obligation e.g. shall I remind you
that you are to remain silent during the speech.
9. „‟Be to‟‟ in the past to express the fate or the destiny
e.g. - He was to die of a heart attack.
- I know he was to fail the exam.
10. „‟Be due to‟‟ for schedules and dates. e.g. When is she due to
have her baby?
 31

PART II: SPOKEN LANGUAGE

UNIT IV: EVERY DAY SPOKEN ENGLISH
4. 1. PRELUDE
Learning to speak a new language requires on the part of the learner
motivation, willing, commitment, and training on the target language. The
effective training in learning a new language, however, supposes the use
of the target language in effective communicative situations. Here below
are some communicative situations and common expressions to be used
in these every day communicative situations.

4. 2. LANGUAGE IN EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATIVE

STUATIONS
4. 2.1. GREETING PEOPLE
A distinction is generally made between formal greetings and
informal/casual greetings.
Formal greetings
 Good morning........in the morning
 Good afternoon...…in the afternoon
 Good evening……….in the evening

Informal/Casual greetings
 Hello!
 Hi!
 How do you do?
 Nice to see / meet you.

4. 2.2. INTRODUCING ONESELF AND OTHERS

Whenever people introduce themselves or introduce others, they
generally may use a language such as the following:
 Hello, I‟m Bertin Kombenongo.
 Hi, my first name‟s Bertin, my name‟s Kombenongo and my family
name‟s Onema.
 32

 Hello, my name is Dowo and my first name is James.

 Hi, I‟m Kotosoke Onema, but you can call me konem.
 Hello, I‟m James. This is felix Mubenga, my teacher.
 Hello, I‟m David Kongo. Nice to meet you James and Felix.
 Hello, Ann. These are christoph Diwoko my father, Clarice Nsimba
my mother, Alex Ekofo my brother and Jannet Kavira my sister.
 This is Allison.
 Let me introduce you to Mr. Marius.
 Have you met Marius ?
 Do you know Ben ?
 Pleased to/Nice to meet you.
 I‟d like you meet our new manager.

4. 2.3. LEAVE TAKING

When English people leave one another, they use polite expressions
such as:
 Goodbye  Later, please
 Bye  So long
 See you (soon…)  Next time, please
 Tomorrow, please  Cheerio
 Later  Goodnight

4. 2.4. REQUESTING
A) Requests for health
When people who know each other meet, they very often request for
health.
e.g : A: How are you?
B: I‟m fine, thank you.
Here are some of the most frequent requests for health:
 How are you?  How are things?
 How are doing?  How is business?
 How are you getting on?  How is life?
 How are managing?  How is it?
Optional replies to each of these requests for health are:
 Fine, thank you.  I‟m fine, thanks.
 Fine, thanks.  I‟m very well, thank you
 I‟m fine, thank you.  I‟m just fine.
 I‟m fine, and you?  I‟m just OK.
 33

 Just, fine.  Wonderful

 Just, Ok  I‟m sorry, not very fine.
 Pretty nice

B) Requests for information

Very often WH questions are used to request for information. For
example:
 What is this/that?  What‟s your address?
 What are these/Those?  What time is it?
 What is it /are they?  What‟s the time?
 What‟s your occupation?  How old are you?
 What‟s your job?  How much is it?
 What‟s your like?  Where can we send it?
 What‟s your status?  Who is the manager?
 Where are you from?  What for?
 What‟s your name?  Why did you refuse the
 Where do you work? order?
 Where do you study?  Whose order is it?
 Where do you live?

N.B.: Requests are very helpful to increase people‟s competence in the

language. So, ask questions such as:

 What is the spelling of (computer)?

 What is the pronunciation of (c-o-m-p-u-t-e-r)?
 What is the meaning of (computer)?
 What is the French for (computer)?
 What is the English for (écran)?

C) REQUESTING FOR MORE DETAILLS

 What is the necklace made of?
 What size is it?
 What shape is it?
 What is it like?
 How wide is it?
 How long is it?
 How thick is it?
 How heavy is it?
 How does it work?
 What brand is the watch?
 34

4. 2.5. ASKING FOR FAVOUR AND PERMISSION

More polite requests are generally used to ask for favour or permission.
Modal verbs are also used to give favour and permission as illustrated in
the followings:

A. ASKING FOR FAVOUR

 Can/Could I taste the grapes?

 Would you mind if I used your phone?
 May I use your phone?
 Would you tell me your name?
 Would you lend me your pen?
 Would you mind giving me some money?
 I wonder if you would tell me the boss‟s phone number.

B. ASKING FOR OR GIVING PERMISSION

 Do you mind if I stand here?

 May I go to the toilet?
 Would you allow me using your dictionary?
 Shall I meet you this evening?
 You may attend the meeting.
 You can use my work book.
 You can go back home.

4. 2.6. ATTRACTING PEOPLE’S ATTENTION AND ADDRESSING THEM.

 Excuse me.
 Can I help you?
 May I help you?
 What can I do for you?

4. 2.7. GIVING INSTRUCTIONS

Instructions are generally given with verbs in imperative.

 Stand up.
 35

 Open the window.

 Close the door.
 Sit down
 Drive on the right.
 Don‟t turn left.
 Would you please fasten your seat belts.
 Please be kind enough to return the car by Sunday.

N.B: imperatives can be softened by using please at the end as in:

 Stand up, please.

 Open the door, please.
 Close the window, please.
 Sit down, please.

4. 2.8. MAKING SUGGESTIONS

To make suggestions, please, use expressions such as:
 What/How about a glass of wine?
 What/How about tasting it?
 Would you like some coffee?
 Shall l open it for you?
 l suggest you taste this wine.

4. 2.9. EXPRESSING WISHES AND NEEDS

To express your wishes and needs, please say:
 I want……, I would like……
 I would like to go to the hairdresser.
 I want to go there before five.
 I‟d love to meet the manager.
 I feel like buying the suit.
 If only I had the time.
 I can‟t wait to see it.
 I look forward to seeing you soon.

4. 2.10. EXPRESSING LIKES

Likes or dislikes are well expressed when one says:
 I like this fabric.
 36

 I find this colour absolutely beautiful.

 I love this silk scarf.
 I enjoy going shopping in Paris.
 It looks beautiful.
 It looks awful!

4. 2.10. EXPRESSING DISLIKES

 I don‟t like this jacket on you.
 I can‟t stand waiting.

4. 2.23. EXPRESSING PREFERENCE

 I prefer the blue frame.
 I like these sunglasses better.
 I like it best.
 I‟d rather try them on.
 I prefer to try them on.
 Blue is my favourite colour.

4. 2.11. APOLOGIZING

When you have hearted people, use the following expression to beg for
pardon or to apologize.

 I‟m sorry.
 Sorry.
 I‟m very sorry.
 I‟m really very sorry.
 I‟m terribly sorry.
 I‟m disappointed.
 I beg your pardon, please.
 Will you excuse me, please?
 I apologize.
 Please accept my apologies.
 I do beg your pardon.
 Do apologize, please.
 I feel bad about that.

4. 2.12. EXPRESSING CAPACITY

 He can help you.
 Can you come now?
 37

 John could get an appointment.

 Diana will be able to come earlier.
 The clients managed to understand us.
 Tim knows how to use this new device.

4. 2.13. EXPRESSING OBLIGATION

 You must bring it to the after – sales service.
 You have to come back later.
 You‟ve got to tell them what happened.
 You are requested to…

4. 2.14. GIVING OPINIONS

 I think/I believe/I feel this is the best solution.
 In my opinion/In my view, Italy is a good destination.
 I have the feeling (that) a cruise is what you are looking for.
 Actually (= in fact), August is a high season.
 From my point of view, this hotel is more convenient with young
children.
 If you ask me, this hotel is the cheapest.
 This is how I see things.

4. 2.15. EXPRESSING AGREEMENT

 I agree.
 I agree with you/him/her/them.
 That‟s the best solution.
 I‟m in favour of that.
 Excellent! Great! Sounds fine!
 Good idea!
 You are right.
 That‟s true.

4. 2.16. EXPRESSING GRATITUDE/ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

 Thank you. Thanks
 Thank you so much.
 Thank you for coming.
 I appreciate.
 You shouldn‟t have…
 It‟s kind/nice of you.

REPPLIES
 38

 You‟re welcome!
 Don‟t mention it!
 It‟s a pleasure.
 It was a pleasure.

4. 2.17. EXPRESSING INTENTION

 We intend to buy a house in the South.
 I‟m thinking of investing.
 I plan to take a farm.
 We want to buy it soon.

4. 2.18. EXPRESSING CONDITION

 If I have time, I‟ll (will) fix it this afternoon.
 If I had time, I would do it.
 If you had called me earlier, I would have done it.
 You‟d better repair it. If not/otherwise, you‟ll break down.

4. 2.19. EXPRESSING PROHIBITION

 You are not allowed to go in.
 It is forbidden to walk on the rails.
 You mustn‟t smoke in the station.
 You can‟t do that.
 I won‟t let you go.
 No smoking !

4. 2.20. EXPRESSING LACK OF INTEREST OR INDIFFERENCE

 We don‟t mind.
 lt doesn‟t matter.
 We are not interested in painting.
 As you like.
 lt‟s all the same to me.
 lt doesn‟t change things.
 It‟s a matter of complete indifference to me whether you go or stay.

4. 2.22. GIVING ADVICES

 You should stop smoking.
 You shouldn‟t drink so much coffee.
 I advise you to go to hospital.
 Take my advice and have an X-ray.
 If you follow my advice, you‟ll stay in bed.
 39

 You‟d better see a specialist.

4. 2.21. EXPRESSING ANGER OR FURIOUSNESS

This is what an annoyed or unhappy customer can say:
 l can‟t believe it !
 This is too much !
 You‟ve gone beyond the limit.
 Enough is enough !
 That‟s all we needed.
 That‟s the last straw. « The last straw that breaks the camel‟s
back » : « C‟est la goutte qui a fait déborder le vase. »)

4. 2.24. EXPRESSING REFUSAL

 I‟m afraid it is impossible.
 I‟m sorry we can‟t accept.
 I wish l could say yes but…
 He won‟t sign.
 It‟s out of the question!
 You‟re not serious !

4. 2.25. EXPRESSING DOUBT

 You never know.
 I‟m not quite sure but I think…
 I have doubts about…
 It is not at all certain that…
 It‟s difficult to say for certain…
 There is an element of doubt about…
 There‟s no real evidence.
 He may/might be innocent.

4. 2.26. EXPRESSING FUTURE

 It is going to rain.
 We will/we‟ll meet you outside.
 I‟m leaving tomorrow morning.
 The bus leaves in 5 minutes.
 We‟ll go for a walk when it stops raining.
 If it rains we‟ll stay in our room.
 40

4. 2.27. TELLING TIME

 Days of the week are: Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday,

Thursday, Friday, Saturday and Sunday.
 Months of the year are: January, February, March, April, May,
June, July, August, September, October, November, and
December.
 Seasons are: dry season, rainy season, summer, winter, fall,
autumn.
 Cardinal numbers: One, Two, Three, Four, Five, Six, Seven,
Eight, Nine, Ten, Eleven, Twelve, Thirteen, Fourteen, Fifteen,
Sixteen, Seventeen, Eighteen, Nineteen, Twenty, Twenty one,
Twenty two,… Thirty, Forty, Fifty, Sixty, Seventy, Eighty, Ninety,
One hundred, One hundred and one, One hundred and two,…
One thousand, Three thousand, One hundred thousand, One
million…
 Ordinal numbers: First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, Sixth,
Seventh, Eighth, Ninth, Tenth, Eleventh, twelfth, Thirteenth,
Fourteenth, Fifteenth, Sixteenth, Eighteenth, Nineteenth,
Twentieth, Twenty-first, Twenty-second… Thirtieth, Fortieth,
Fiftieth, Sixtieth, Seventieth, Eightieth, Ninetieth, One hundredth,
One thousandth, One millionth, One million and first…

PLEASE USE:

On + day/date
 I‟ll see you on Monday.
 We‟ll see the show on July 23rd.

In + month/season/year
 We‟ll go to the theatre in July.
 I usually travel in summer.
 I met Lioyd in 2002.
At + hour
 The performance starts at 8.
 I never go out late at night.
In the morning/afternoon/evening
 41

 The show is in the evening.

4. 2.28: TELLING PHONE NUMBERS

Use requests such as the following to ask people their phone numbers.
 What‟s your phone number?
 Would you tell me your phone number?
 Tell me your phone number, please.
 I need your phone number, please.
My phone number is
 0810355122  0987761185
 0856642933  0815552260
 0900763884  0985463266
4. 2.39: DOING ARYTHMETICS
 25 + 65 = 90
 43 – 72 = 115
 90 ÷ 2 = 45
 5 × 8 = 40
 42

TASK 13: Calculate and then read aloud the following arithmetics:
 50 × 4 = ?
 20 + ? = 135
 90 ÷ 3 = ?
 240 – 125 = ?
 77 − ? = 32
 273 + 127 =
 43

PART III: BUSINESS ENGLISH

UNIT V: WHAT IS BUSINESS?
5.1. READING PASSAGE
Traditionally, business simply meant exchange or trade for things
people wanted or needed. It refers to activities of interests. Today
business has a more technical meaning. It is viewed as the production,
distribution and sale of goods and services for profit. In other words,
business has to be seen as the activity of making, buying, selling or
supplying things for money.
Businesses are established to perform economic activities. With
rare exceptions (such as cooperatives, corporate bodies, non-profit
organizations and institutions of government), businesses are for-profit
ventures. That is to say, one of the main objectives of the owners and
operators of the business is to receive a financial return for their time and
effort. That is to say, a very important factor in business is the creation of
profit or economic surplus. Profit is the money that remains after all the
expenses are paid. Creating an economical surplus or profit is therefore,
a primary goal of a business activity.

5.2. READING ACTIVITY

1. How many definitions of the concept business are stated in this
reading passage?
2. What is the traditional view of business?
3. What is the technical view of business?
4. What are the other definitions apart from these two?
5. Which one of these definitions appears more relevant to you?
6. Why are businesses actually established?
7. What is the main objective of business operators?
8. What is the very important factor in business?
9. What is the primary goal of any business activity?

5.3. WRITNG ACTIVITY

Task: Within at least two lines build a very clear difference between the
following concepts:
a. Profit - Expenses
 44

b. Production - Distribution
c. Selling - Buying
d. Making things – Supplying things
e. Sale of goods - Creation of profit

5.4. TALKING ABOUT BUSINESS

James: Mr. Brown, I‟ve been intending for sometimes to come and have
a talk with you about the finance of my business.
Bank manager: You mean the company Cinemacs, Ltd?
James: Exactly. I still think of it as my business although it is a limited
company. After all, I own practically all the shares.
Bank manager: Yes, of course, but from the banking point of view
there‟s a very great difference between a private trader and a limited
company.
James: Well, now, you may remember that I decided to take my son into
the business.
Bank manager: I remember. If he did well, you intended, I believe, to
transfer a block of shares to him, and eventually to make him a director
with yourself.
James: that‟s right. I should, naturally, retain a majority of shares so that
I still had controlling interest.
Bank manager: and how did it work out?
James: Very disappointingly at first. He took a long time to settle down
after leaving the army, and he never seemed interested in the factory.
His only interest was in meeting people and talking to them.
Bank manager: I see. And what‟s happened?
James: Well, eventually I took him away from the manufacturing side of
the business and sent him out as salesman.
Bank manager: well, that gave him plenty of opportunities for talking at
any rate and the factory is working to capacity.
James: Ah, yes. I may say that I‟ve noticed the increased activity on the
company‟s banking account. I‟ll send for your account at once.
 45

UNIT VI: BUSINESS TRANSACTION

In accounting, the business transaction (also known as financial
transaction) is an event that must be measurable in terms of money and
that essentially impact the financial position of the business. For
example, if you run a merchandising business and you sell some goods
to a customer for 15O.O00 FC cash, it is an event that you can measure
in terms of money and that impact the financial position of your business.
So, it is a valid business transaction. Similarly, if you pay 50.000 FC cash
to your salesman as his pay; this event is also a transaction because it
has a monetary value of 50.000 FC and has a financial impact on your
business.
Only those events that can be measured in monetary terms are included
in accounting records of the business. Each transaction is recorded by
making a journal entry by the bookkeeper or accountant.

Since each transaction impact financial position of the business,

the bookkeeper or accountant must make sure that it has been
authorized by a responsible person and it is properly supported by one or
more source documents before recording it in the journal. A source
document is a document that provides basic information needed to
record a transaction in the journal. Usual examples of source documents
include sales invoices, purchase invoices, cash receipts, payment
vouchers, statement of accounts, bills of exchange, promissory notes
and so on.

Basic characteristics of a valid business transaction that every

bookkeeper or accountant must take care of before entering the
transaction in the journal are: it is a monetary event; it affects financial
position of the business; it belongs to the business not to the owner or
any other person managing the business; it is initiated by authorized
person; and it is supported by a source document.

In accounting, transactions may be classified as cash or credit

transactions, or they may be classified as internal or external
transactions.
 46

UNIT VII: OFFERS

7.1: READING PASSAGE
Offers are made to advertise about services, products and terms. They
can be solicited or unsolicited. They are mostly unsolicited and most
suppliers, manufacturers, organizations or companies use either circular
letters or prospectus to give offers. Three types of offers are generally
made in modern communities. They namely are: offers of employment,
offers of service and offers of goods.

7.2: READING ACTVITIES

Task: Read carefully the text and answer these questions
1. How many types of offers can be made by suppliers and what are
they?
2. Explain very clearly each of the different types of offers.
3. What is the main difference between a circular letter and a
prospectus?
4. Write a very clear and well-done sample of:
A: circular letter
B: prospectus.
5. Within at least three lines explain clearly each of the followings:
a. Offers of employment
b. Offers of service
c. Offers of goods.
 47

UNIT VIII: ORDERS

8.1: READING PASSAGE
Orders letters are written to ask a manufacturer or a wholesaler to
sell commodities. Placing an order is no doubt a proof that the
prospective buyer is satisfied with the article he has seen or read about
in a catalogue and with the business terms given by the supplier.
When ordering, the buyer should always make sure to name
exactly what he wants and to give all the information needed, in correct
details, for instance the quantity of goods, the size, the color, the mode
of payment.

In ordinary conditions, an order requires dispatching (delivery)

goods rather than a written reply. Circumstances where a reply to an
order is needed, or may be helpful, are: -When a customer places an
initial order; -When he request confirmation of an order; -When an order
lacks clarity, and -When an order cannot be filled.

8.2: READING ACTIVITY

Task: Read carefully the above passage and answer these questions
1. Why do people write orders
2. What must be the reply of an order in ordinary conditions?
3. In which case is a written reply obviously necessary to an order?
4. What should the buyer always make sure when ordering?
 48

UNIT IX: LABELING AND DESCRIBING

ITEMS
9.1: READING PASSAGE
Labeling and naming things are very important in business
transactions as well as in building language. Clearly labeling things
makes it easier to offer, to order, to deliver, to acknowledge
reception, to account, to request them more efficiently. It also
allows you talk about things and activities.

In some situations, people couldn‟t tell you the name of

something they saw. But they can describe it and you can figure out
what it is. Many of our students learn receptively what they are
taught. But it does them the most good when they start to use those
words to give meaning to something they don‟t know how to
say. This function also expands what students can say. It makes
requests and comments more specific. And it allows students to use
words that are available to them to tell you about something that
might not be available. Using adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, etc.
makes it easier to describe things and talk about experiences.
 49

UNIT X: INVOICING
10.1: READING PASSAGE
Invoicing and taxing are some of the very important requirements in
business settings.

The facts of delivering or sending invoices to customers constitute

what is actually referred to as invoicing. An invoice is a written record of
goods or services provided and the amount charged for them, sent to a
customer or employer as a request for payment. An invoice (also called
bill) should contain the following information: -The name and address of
the supplier; -The name and address of the customer; -The description:
name and/or reference n° of the article(s ) ordered; -The quantity of each
item (how much? how many?); -The total cost, etc.

UNIT XI: PAYMENT TERMS

11.1: READING PASSAGE
In business, payment terms are the conditions agreed on between
the buyer and the seller concerning the method of payment for the
goods.
These conditions are usually required or proposed by the seller and
are accepted by the buyer when placing the order. Referring to Adam
J.H. 14 main methods of payment are available. They namely are: 1.
cash with order (CWO), 2. cash on delivery (COD), 3. prompt cash, 4.
payment after delivery, 5. Payment on invoice, 6. monthly account, 7.
open account (or credit account), 8. mail transfer, d(MT), 9. telegraphic
transfer (TT), 10. Bill of exchange (B/E), 11. letter of credit (L/C), 12.
acceptance credit, 13. cash againM//.L st documents (CAD), and 14.
a banker‟s authority to negotiate.
 50

UNIT X: PAYMENT LETTERS

10.1. READING PASSAGE
Payment letters – also called letters of remittance – are used to
send checks and money orders or to acknowledge receipt of payment.
The main requirement when writing a remittance letter is accuracy in the
writing of amounts, in the statement of dates, terms, invoice numbers
and so forth. Receipt of payments is acknowledged in a letter of
acknowledgement.

10. 2. READING ACTIVITY

Task: Read carefully the above passage and answer these questions
1. What should a business man do when he is not satisfied with the
dispatched commodity?
2. State very clearly the different payment terms as described in this text.
3. What is the main requirement in writing a remittance?
4. What is the main function of a remittance?

10.3. WRITNG ACTIVITY

2. Within at least two lines explain clearly each of the following modes of
payment
 51

 Cash wish order

 mail transfer
 Cash on delivery
 telegraphic transfer
 prompt cash
 Bill of exchange
 *payment after delivery
 letter of credit
 Month account
 acceptance credit
 Open account
 cash against documents
 A banker‟s authority to negotiate

UNIT XI: COMPLAINTS

11.1: READING PASSAGE
Several reasons might lead people complaining in business.
Causes of complaints may be grouped under four main headings: Delay,
quality, price and errors.

Among the above causes, delay in delivery, failure to deliver, error

in billing and increase of price without informing customers a head of
time are recognized as service faults, while defective or poor quality of
goods, damage and incorrectness are referred to as merchandise faults.
In any case, the recipient of a complaint is advised to check whether the
complaint is justified. If so, then seek ways for granting adjustment.

In case the buyer is not pleased, for one reason or another, with
the goods dispatched –– he writes a complaint letter. Complaints are
then statements of dissatisfaction introduced by the buyers to the sellers.

The tone of complaints goes in crescendo; from a mild complaint to

a strong one. In mild complaints, one uses soft and polite expressions
and phrases. But in case no adjustment is obtained, the customer writes
 52

a second complaint, a strong one. In this later he points out exactly what
is strong.

To avoid strong complaints, an adjustment is to be made promptly. When

writing complaints or responding to them, one should be diplomatic.
Promptness and courtesy are the main requirements of such
correspondences

11.2: READING ACTIVITY

Task: read the text and answer question

1. What are the main causes of complaints in business?
2. What is advised to the recipient of a complaint?
3. How must a business letter writer manage his tone in complaints.
4. What is the chef difference between mild complaint and strong
complaints?
5. What should be done to avoid strong complaints?
6. What are the main requirements in writing complaints and their replies
and why?

UNIT XII: INQUIRIES

12.1: READING PASSAGE

Letters of inquiries are written to ask for information. They fall into
three types: general inquiries, sales–related inquiries and status
inquiries. General inquiries are written to ask for information for
personnel purposes rather than for doing open business transactions.
The writer of general inquiry should state why he needs the information
and why he has selected the reader as his sources. Sales-related
inquiries are written in regards to a product or service purchased or
being considered for purchase. The writer of sales–related inquiry may
ask for the price of the articles he needs, the terms of business, the
catalogues, the sample of the article and so on. The response to a sales-
related inquiry is labeled “quotation” in case it provides a statement on
the price of the article inquired about.
 53

In business transactions, purchases are done on credit terms.

When placing an order, however, one usually is requested to provide
three references; i.e., to give the names of two firms which one already
had transactions with, and the name of the bank where one has an
account. The supplier or the creditor will investigate about his customer‟s
capital, capacity and character (which constitute the 3c‟s for judging
business risk) before booking an order. This type of investigation (or
letter) is given the name of status inquiry. The response to a status
inquiry is called trade reference when the respondent is a company
which one had transacted with before or Bank reference when the
respondent is a Bank.

12.2: READING ACTIVITY

1. What is an inquiry?
2. How many kinds of inquiry are available and what are they?
3. Build a very clear difference between the followings:
a) Sales –related inquiry – status inquiry
b) Inquiry – quotation
c) Bank reference – trade reference