UNIT - I

Water and its treatment

Introduction to hardness of water – Estimation of hardness of water by
complexometric method and related numerical problems. Potable water and its
specifications - Steps involved in the treatment of potable water - Disinfection of
potable water by chlorination and break - point chlorination. Defluoridation -
Nalgonda Technique. Boiler troubles: Sludges, Scales and Caustic embrittlement.
Internal treatment of Boiler feed water - Calgon conditioning - Phosphate
conditioning - Colloidal conditioning, External treatment methods - Softening of
water by ion- exchange processes. Desalination of water – Reverse osmosis.

Introduction: Like air, water is one of the few basic materials. Which is of prime importance for
the preservation of life on this earth. All are aware of the uses of water for drinking, cooking,
bathing and farming etc. But few knows the importance of water as an engineering material. As an
engineering material water is used for producing steam in boilers to generate hydro electric power,
refrigeration, air conditioning, for construction of concrete structures, for manufacturing process, as
a solvent for different chemical processes. Hence an engineer should posses knowledge regarding
the composition, troubles that arises due to composition of water and prevention of these troubles.
Impurities of water: Chemically pure water is composed of two parts of hydrogen and one part
of oxygen by volume and dissolves many substances. So natural water is not pure. It dissolves
various impurities.
1. Suspended impurities: These are organic like animal and vegetable matter, inorganic like
clay, sand.
2. Dissolved impurities: Carbonates, chlorides, sulphates of Ca&Mg, salts of Na, K cause
alkalinity to water. Dissolved gases like CO 2, N2, O2, H2S are responsible for the odour and acidity
in water.
3. Colloidal impurities: Very fine particles like silica, clay etc.
4. Biological impurities: Algae, bacteria, fungi etc.

Effects of impurities present in natural water:

1. Bad effects for domestic purposes:
A. The dissolved salts if Ca & Mg in water does not give lather with soap. Hence large amount
of soap is consumed.
B. The dissolved salts increase the boiling point of water and scale formation on the inner sides
of heating vessels and utensils leading to the wastage of fuel.
C. The Suspended impurities in water are harmful for drinking purposes as it contains
pathogenic bacteria.
2. Disadvantages for industrial purposes:
A. Paper industry: The dissolved impurities react with chemicals used to give paper a smooth
glossy surface effecting the colour of paper.
B. Dyeing industry: The dissolved salts react with dye to form undesirable precipitation which
give improper shade and often cause spots on the fabric.
C. Textile industry: When soap is used for washing the yarn, undesirable precipitation produced
will adhere to the fabric while dyeing does not give exact colour.
D. Sugar industry: If impurities present in water, sugar may not crystallize well and decompose
during storage.
E. Bakeries: Presence of organic matter is harmful and it may affect the action of yeast.
F. Boilers: Dissolved salts produce scale, sludges, caustic embrittlement etc. During the steam
generation in boilers.
S. Rama Lakshmi, Associate professor, KMIT. 1X
Hard water:
The water which does not produce lather or produce very little lather with soap is called hard water.
Different types of water have different degrees of hardness. The different types of water are
commercially classifies on the basis of degree of hardness as follows:

Hardness Name of the water

0-70mg/l soft water
70-150mg/l moderate hard water
150-300mg/l Hard water
300mg/l and above very hard water

Expression of hardness:
CaCO3 is selected for expression of the degree of hardness, because Mol.wt of CaCO 3 is 100, which
is easy for calculation and CaCO3 is an insoluble salt and the dissolved salts of Ca are precipitated as
CaCO3.

Degree of hardness = amount of the hardness causing salt x 100

---------------------------------------------------
Mol. wt of the hardness causing salt
Units of Hardness:
1. PPm: no. of parts by wt of CaCO3 eq hardness causing salt in one million parts of water.
2. mg/l: no. of mg of hardness causing salt in terms of CaCO3 eq hardness in 1lit of water.
3. Degree Clark (0Cl): no. of parts of CaCO3 eq hardness causing salt in 70000 lit of water.
4. Degree French((0Fr): no. of parts of CaCO3 eq hardness causing salt in 105 lit of water.

1ppm = mg/l = 0.070Cl = 0.10Fr

Types of hardness:
1. Temporary or Carbonate hardness:
It is caused by the presence of dissolved bicarbonates of Ca & Mg and other heavy metals and
carbonates of Iron.
Temporary hardness is mostly destroyed by mere boiling of water. When bicarbonates are
decomposed, yielding insoluble carbonates or hydroxides, which are deposited as a crust at the
bottom of vessel.
Mg(HCO3)2 → Mg(OH)2+ 2CO2

2. Permanent or non-carbonate hardness:

S. Rama Lakshmi, Associate professor, KMIT. 2X

It is due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates of Ca, Mg, Fe and other heavy metals. Traces of
nitrates of Ca & Mg, sulphates of Al also causes permanent hardness.
Unlike temporary hardness, permanent hardness is not destroyed by boiling.
Permanent hardness is removed by internal and external treatment. In internal treatment is also
called conditioning of water. This process takes place inside of the boilers.
In external treatment-ion exchange process, lime soda process, zeolite process are included. It takes
place outside of the boiler.

Estimation of Hardness of water by EDTA method:

Chemicals required: Std. Hard water, EDTA solution, EBT indicator, Buffer solution.
Apparatus required: Burette, pipette, beaker, conical flask, heating equipment's etc.
Principle: First, the indicator EBT, which is a blue coloured dye, forms an unstable complex with
Ca2+, Mg2+ in hard water at PH of 9 to 10. The complex is wine red in colour. On titration with
EDTA, EBT in Ca/Mg-EBT complex replaced by EDTA form Ca/Mg-EDTA complex. It is colour
less complex and indicator is set free.

Procedure:
1. Preparation of Std. Hard water: 1g of CaCO3 is reacted with HCl so that effervescence is seen and
this is dissolved in water and made up to 1000ml in a std.flask with distilled water and the solution
is mixed well.

Molarity of Std. hard water (M1)= Wt of CaCO3

----------------- = 0.01M
MWt of CaCO3

Step-I: Standardization of EDTA solution: The burette is cleaned with distilled water and then with
EDTA solution and is filled up with EDTA solution up to ‘0’.
20ml of std.hard water(V1) is pipetted into conical flask. 2-3ml of buffer solution and a pinch of
indicator is added then mixed well, so that solution is wine red in colour. This is titrated against
EDTA solution until colour changes from wine red to blue. Burette reading (V2) is noted down and
the process is repeated to get concurrent readings.
V1M1=V2M2
Molarity of EDTA solution(M2)=V1M1/V2

Step-II: Estimation of total hardness:

20ml of sample water (V3) is pipetted into the conical flask. 2-3ml of buffer solution and a pinch of
EBT indicator added to get wine red colour solution. This is titrated against EDTA solution until
colour changes from wine red to blue (V2).
V2M2=V3M3
Molarity of sample hard water(M3)= V2M2/V3
Total hardness= M3 x100x 1000= ______ ppm
Or
1000 xV 2
Total hardness of water =w x ppm (w = weight of CaCO3 in mgs or gms)
V1

Step-III: Estimation of permanent hardness:

S. Rama Lakshmi, Associate professor, KMIT. 3X

20ml of sample hard water (V4) is pipetted into a conical flask and boiled for 5 minutes. This is
cooled and 2-3ml of buffer solution, a pinch of EBT indicator is added, the solution colour turns into
wine red. This is titrated against EDTA to get blue. Burette reading (V2) is noted. Repeated the
process to get concurrent values.
V2M2=V4M4
Molarity of boiled sample water (M4)= V2M2/V4
permanent hardness= M4 x100x 1000= ______ ppm
Temporary hardness = Total hardness - permanent hardness
Or
1000 X V 3
Permanent hardness =w x ppm
V1
1000 x (V 2− V 3)
Temporary hardness =w x ppm
V1

Advantages of EDTA method:

1. Greater accuracy
2. Convenience
3. more rapid procedure

Numerical Problems:
1. 1gm of CaCO3 was dissolved in HCl and the solution was made up to 1lit with distilled
water. 50ml of the above solution required 30ml of EDTA solution on titration. 50ml of hard water
sample required 40ml of same EDTA solution for titration. 50ml of hard water sample after boiling
required 30ml of the same EDTA solution for titration. Calculate the temporary hardness of the
water sample.
Solution: Molarity of CaCO3soln (M1) = 1/100= 0.01M

STEP-I: V1= Vol. of CaCO3 soln = 50ml,

M1= Molarity of CaCO3 soln = 0.01M
V2 = Vol. of EDTA Soln consumed= 30ml
Molarity of EDTA soln (M2) = V1M1/V2 = 50x0.01/30 = 0.016M

STEP-II: V2= Vol. of EDTA soln consumed= 40ml,

M2 = Molarity of EDTA soln = 0.016M
V3 = Vol. of sample hardwater= 50ml
Molarity of hardwater sample (M3) = V2M2/V3= 40x0.016/50= 0.0128M
Total hardness= M3x100x1000= 0.0128x100x1000= 1280ppm

STEP-III: V2= Vol. of EDTA soln consumed = 30ml,

M2 = Molarity of EDTA soln = 0.016M
V4 = Vol of boiled sample water = 50ml
Molarity of boiled sample water (M4) = V2M2/V4 = 30x0.016/50 = 0.0096M
Permanent hardness= M4x 100x1000= 0.0096x100x1000= 960ppm

Temporary hardness= total hardness- permanent hardness= 1280-960= 320ppm

2. Calculate the temporary, permanent and total hardness of water in ppm, oCl and oFr from the
following determination- 20ml of 0.05M soln of standard hardwater required 40ml of EDTA soln
for titration. 20ml of a sample hardwater consumed 30ml of the same EDTA soln and 20ml of hard
water sample after boiling required 20ml of EDTA soln for titration.

STEP-I: V1= Vol. of std. hardwater= 20ml

S. Rama Lakshmi, Associate professor, KMIT. 4X
 M1= Molarity of std.hardwater = 0.05M
V2= Vol. of EDTA consumed = 40ml
Molarity of EDTA soln (M2)= V1M1/V2= 20x0.05/40 = 0.025M

STEP-II: V2= Vol. of EDTA soln. consumed = 30ml

M2= Molarity of EDTA soln = 0.025M
V3= Vol. of sample hardwater takes = 20ml
Molarity of sample hardwater (M3) = V2M2/V3 = 30x0.025/20 = 0.0375M
Total hardness = M3 x 100x1000= 0.0375x100x1000= 3750ppm
=3750x0.1 = 3750Fr
= 3750x0.07= 262.50Cl
STEP-III: V2= Vol. of EDTA consumed= 20ml
M2= Molarity of EDTA soln = 0.0025M
V4 = Vol. boiled sample water = 20ml
Molarity boiled sample water (M4) = V2M2/V4 = 20x 0.025/20 = 0.025M

Permanent hardness = M4 x 100 x 1000= 0.025x 100x1000= 2500ppm

= 2500x0.1= 2500Fr
= 2500x 0.07= 1750Cl
Temporary hardness= Total hardness- permanent hardness
= 3750- 2500 = 1250ppm
= 1250x0.1 = 1250Fr
= 1250x 0.07 = 87.50Cl

3. A std.hardwater contains 15g of CaCO3 per lit. 20ml of this required 25ml of EDTA soln.
100ml of sample water required 18ml of EDTA soln. The same sample after boiling required 12ml
of EDTA soln. Calculate the temporary hardness of water in terms of ppm.

STEP-I: V1= Vol. of std hardwater taken= 20ml

M1 = molarity of std.hardwater= 15/100 = 0.15M
V2= Vol. of EDTA consumed= 25ml
Molarity of EDTA soln (M2)= V1M1/V2 = 20x0.15/25 = 0.12M

STEP-II: V2= Vol. of EDTA consumed= 18ml

M2= Molarity of EDTA soln = 0.12M
V3= Vol. of sample water taken= 100ml
Molarity of sample hardwater (M3) = V2M2/V3 = 18x0.12/100 = 0.0216M
Total hardness = M3x100x1000= 0.0216x100x1000= 2160ppm

STEP-III: V4 = Vol. of sample hard water taken = 100ml

V2= Vol. of EDTA consumed = 12ml
M2= Molairty of EDTA soln= 0.12M
Molarity of boiled sample water (M4) = V2M2/V4 = 12x0.12/100= 0.0144M

Permanent hardness= M4 x 100 x1000= 0.0144x100x1000= 1440ppm

Temporary hardness = Total hardness - Permanent hardness = 2160-1440= 720ppm

4. 50ml of std hardwater containing 1mg of pure CaCO3 per ml consumed 20ml of EDTA soln.
50ml of water sample consumed 25ml of same EDTA soln using EBT indicator. Calculate the total
hardness of water sample in ppm.

STEP-I: V1= Vol. of std hardwater taken= 50ml

M1= Molarity of std hardwater = 0.01M
S. Rama Lakshmi, Associate professor, KMIT. 5X
 V2= Vol. of EDTA soln consumed= 20ml
Molarity of EDTA soln (M2) = V1M1/V2 = 50x.01/20 = 0.025M
STEP-II: V2= Vol. of EDTA soln consumed = 25ml
M2 = Molarity of EDTA soln = 0.025M
V3 = Vol. of sample hardwater tken = 50ml
Molarity of sample hardwater (M3) = V2M2/V3 = 25x0.025/50 = 0.0125M
Total hardness = M3x100x1000= 0.0125x100x1000= 1250ppm

5. Calculate the hardness of a water sample whose 10ml required 20ml of EDTA soln. 20ml of
CaCl2 soln, whose strength is equivalent to 1.5 gm of CaCO3 per lit, required 30ml of EDTA soln.
STEP-I: V1= Vol. of Std. hardwater taken= 20ml
M1= Molarity of std hardwater = 1.5/100= 0.015M
V2 = Vol. of EDTA soln consumed= 30ml
Molarity of EDTA soln (M2) = V1M1/V2 = 20x0.015/30= 0.01M

STEP-II: V2 = Vol. of EDTA soln consumed= 20ml

M2= Molarity of EDTA soln = 0.01M
V3 = Vol of sample hardwater taken = 10ml
Molarity of sample hardwater (M3) = V2M2/V3 = 20x0.01/10 = 0.02M
Total hardness = 0.02x100x1000= 2000ppm

6. 0.28 g of CaCO3 was dissolved in dil.HCl and the solution made upto one litre with
distilled water. 100ml of the above solution required 28 ml of EDTA solution for titration.
100 ml of water sample required35 ml of sample EDTA solution for titration. After boiling
100ml of this water, cooling filtering and then titration required 10 ml of EDTA solution.
Calculate the temporary and permanent hardness of water.
V2
Solution: Total Hardness = W ×1000 × ppm
V1
V3
Permanent Hardness = W ×1000 × ppm
V1
Temporary Hardness = Total Hardness – Permanent Hardness
Where W is weight of CaCO3 in gms or mg in 1000 ml (lL) distilled water = 0.28 g
V1 = Volume of EDTA consumed by 100 ml of standard hard water. = 28 ml
V2 = Volume of EDTA consumed by100 ml sample hard water. = 35 ml
V3 = Volume of EDTA consumed by 100 ml Boiled sample water. = 10 ml
Total Hardness = 0.28 x 1000 x 35 / 28 = 350 ppm
Permanent Hardness = 0.28 x 1000 x 10 / 28 = 100 ppm
Temporary Hardness = Total Hardness – Permanent Hardness= 350 – 100 = 250 ppm

7. Calculate the CaCO3 eq hardness causing salts present in 1000 lit of a sample water
containing 16.2 mg/l of Ca(HCO3)2, 11.1mg/l of CaCl2, 60mg/l of MgSO4 and 19mg/l of MgCl2.

S. Rama Lakshmi, Associate professor, KMIT. 6X

8. A sample of hardwater contains 120mg/l of hardness. Express the hardness of water in ppm,
o
Fr and oCl.
Hardness of water sample = 120mg/l
The conversion of hardness is =1ppm=1mg/l=0.07oCl =0.1oFr
Hardness of water in degree clark= 120x0.07= 8.4oCl
Hardness of water in degree french = 120x0.1= 12oFr
Hardness of water in ppm = 120ppm

9. A sample of hardwater contains the following dissolved salts per litre. CaCl2 = 111mgs,
CaSO4= 1.36mgs, Ca(HCO3)2= 16.2mgs, Mg(HCO3)2= 14.6mgs, silica =40mgs, turbidity
=10mgs. Calculate the temporary, permanent and total hardness of water in ppm, degree clark and
degree french.

Total hardness = 100 + 1+ 10 + 10 = 121mg/l

Temporary hardness = Ca(HCO3)2 + Mg(HCO3)2 = 10 +10 = 20mg/l
Permanent hardness = CaCl2 + CaSO4 = 100 + 1= 101mg/l
Total hardness = 121mg/l
= 121x0.07 = 8.47oCl
= 121x0.1 = 12.1oFr
Permanent hardness = 101mg/l
= 101x0.07 = 7.07oCl
= 101x0.1 = 10.1oFr
Temporary hardness = 20mg/l
= 20x0.07 = 1.4oCl
= 20x0.1 = 2oFr

10. Calculate the temporary and permanent hardness in degree French of a water sample
collected in Ananthapur district. The analysis of water sample is as follows: CaSO4 = 13.6ppm,
MgSO4= 12ppm,MgCl2= 9.5ppm Ca(HCO3)2= 16.2ppm, Mg(HCO3)2= 14.6ppm.

S. Rama Lakshmi, Associate professor, KMIT. 7X

Temporary hardness = 10+10 = 20ppm 20X0.1= 20F
Permanent hardness = 10+10+10 = 30ppm=30X0.1= 30F

11. Calculate the temporary and permanent hardness of 100lit of water containing the following
impurities per litre: MgCl2 = 19mgs, MgSO4 = 60mgs, NaCl = 36.5mgs, CaCl2 = 11.1mgs,
Ca(HCO3)2 = 32.4mgs, Mg(HCO3)2=7.3mgs

Temporary hardness = 20+5 = 25mg/l = 25x100 = 2500mg/100lit

Permanent hardness = 20+50+10 = 80mg/l= 80x100= 8000mg/100lit.

12. A sample of water contains the following dissolved sals: Mg(HCO3)2=22mg/l,

MgCl2=30mg/l, CaCl2=85mg/l, CaSO4=28mg/l. Calculate the temporary and permanent hardnes of
water.

Temporary hardness= 15.06mg/l

Permanent hardness = 31.57+76.57+20.58 = 128.72 mg/l

13. Calclate the hardness of water containing the following per litre: CaSO4= 16.2mg,
Mg(HCO3)2 = 1.4mg, MgCl2 = 9.5mg.

Total hardness = 11.91+0.95+10 = 22.86mg/l

S. Rama Lakshmi, Associate professor, KMIT. 8X

14. A sample of water on analysis has been found to contain the following dissolved salts in
ppm. Ca(HCO3)2 = 4.86, Mg(HCO3)2 =5.84, CaSO4 = 6.8, MgSO4 = 8.4. Calculate the temporary
and permanent hardness of the water.

Temporary hardness = 3+4 = 7ppm,

permanent hardness = 5+7 = 12ppm

Boiler troubles:
Boiler feed water (water for steam making): water is very important engineering material
which is mainly used for the production of steam in boilers .it is essential requirement for
industries and power houses. The water thus is called boiler feed water. The boiler feed water
should be free from dissolved calcium and magnesium salts. If the boiler feed water contains
impurities beyond the prescribed limits they lead to the following problems.
1. Scale and sludge formation
2. Caustic embitterment

1. Sludge and scale formation:

Boilers are used for steam formation. When hard water is continuously evaporated in boilers,
the continuous evaporation of water increases the concentration of dissolved salts until the
water becomes saturated. Then the salts of Ca++ and Mg++ along with other soluble
impurities are precipitated on the inner walls of boilers. When the precipitate formed is soft,
slimy and loose, known as sludge and is hard and firmly adhering on the inner walls of
boilers, known as scale.

Scales are removed by thermal shocking, Chemicals like EDTA, mechanical measures using
metal scrapers etc.
Sludge is removed from the boiler by blow down operation.
2. Caustic embrittlement:
This is the phenomenon during which the boiler material becomes brittle due to the
accumulation of caustic substances. It is form of corrosion caused by high concentration of
sodium hydroxide in boiler water. It is most likely to occur in boilers operating at high
pressures, where NaOH is produced in the boiler by the hydrolysis of some residual Na 2CO3
obtained from water softening process like lime soda.
Na2CO3 + H2O → 2NaOH + CO2
The formation of NaOH makes the boiler water caustic. This caustic water penetrates into the
minute hair cracks present in the inner side of boiler by capillary action. When the water

S. Rama Lakshmi, Associate professor, KMIT. 9X

evaporates and the concentration of dissolved NaOH increases progressively which attracts
the surrounding area, thereby dissolving the iron of boiler as sodium ferrite.
2NaOH+ Fe →Na2FeO2 + H2
It can be prevented by using Sodium phosphate instead of sodium carbonate for removal of
hardness.
Adding gummy substances like agar agar, tannin etc to the boiler water to block hair cracks.

Internal treatment of Boiler feed water:

The softening of water carried out inside the boiler is called internal treatment or
conditioning of water. In this process the scale causing salts converting into sludge causing
salts.
Important internal treatment methods are -
a. Colloidal conditioning:
In low-pressure boilers, scale formation can be avoided by adding organic substances like
kerosene, tannin, agar-agar etc. which get coated over scale forming precipitates, there by
yielding non-sticky and loose deposits, which can easily be removed by blow-down
operation.
b. Phosphate conditioning:
In high pressure boilers, scale formation can be avoided by adding sodium phosphate, which
reacts with hardness of water forming non-adherent and easily removable, soft sludge of Ca
& Mg phosphates. Which can be removed by blow-down operation.
2Na3PO4 + 3CaCl2 → Ca3(PO4)2 + 6NaCl
2Na3PO4 + 3MgSO4 → Mg3(PO4)2 + 3Na2SO4
NaH2PO4, Na2HPO4 are also used for prevention of scales.
c. Calgon conditioning:
involves in adding calgon [sodium hexa meta phosphate Na 2[Na4(PO3)6] to boiler water. It
prevents formation scale and also sludge by forming soluble complex compound.
Na2[Na4(PO3)6 ⇌2Na+ + [Na4P6O18]2-
[Na4P6O18]2- + 2CaSO4 → [Ca2P6O18]2- + 2Na2SO4
[Na4P6O18]2- + 2MgCl2 → [Mg2P6O18]2- + 4NaCl

External treatment methods:

The treatment given to water for the removal of hardness causing salts before it is taken into
the boiler is called external treatment or softening of water.
Softening of boiler feed water is done by using lime-soda process, zeolite process and ion-
exchange process.
Softening of water by Ion-exchange process:
This process can remove all soluble minerals of water without subjecting it to the costly
distillation process.
Ion-exchange process uses two types of resins- Cation exchange resin and Anion exchange
resin.
Cation exchange resin: These are styrene-divinyl-benzene co-polymers which on sulphonation
or carboxylation become capable to exchange their hydrogen ions with the cations in water.
The general representation of cation exchange resin is RH+
Anion exchange resin: These are Phenol-formaldehyde co-polymers. Capable to exchange their
OH- ions with anions in water. The general representation of anion exchange resin is R1OH-

Working: The softener essentially consists of two steel tanks inter connect with a pipe. In one
of these the cation exchange resin is put on the top of a glass wool plug or gravel. The hard
water is first passes through cation exchange column, where all the cations like Ca 2+, Mg2+ are
removed.
2RH+ +Ca2+ → R2Ca2+ + 2H+
2RH+ +Mg2+ → R2Mg2+ + 2H+
S. Rama Lakshmi, Associate professor, KMIT. 10X
Then the hard water is passed through anion exchange column, where anions like SO42-, Cl- etc.
are removed and equivalent amount of OH- ions are released in water.
R1OH- + Cl- → R1Cl- + OH-
R1OH- + SO42- → R1SO42- + OH-
H+ ions and OH- ions so released get combined to produce H2O.
H+ + OH- → H2O
The water obtained is free from cations and anions is known as de-ionized or demineralised
water.

Regeneration: The column gets exhausted when used for a long period and can be regenerated
by passing a soln of an appropriate ion. The cation ex-changer is regenerated by passing
suitable acid (dil HCl or dil H 2SO4) and the anion ex-changer is regenerated by passing an
alkali (dil.NaOH)
R2Ca2+ + 2H+ → 2RH+ +Ca2+
R2Mg2+ + 2H+ → 2RH+ +Mg2+
R21SO42- + 2OH- → 2R1OH- + SO42-
R1Cl- + 2OH- → 2R1OH- + Cl-
The column is washed with de-ionized water and the washings is passed into sink or drain.
Merits of Ion-exchange process:
1. The process can be used to soften highly acidic or alkaline water.
2. It produces water of very low hardness (2 ppm).
3. The softened water is completely free from any salts and fit for use as boiler feed
water (in HP boilers).
Demerits of Ion-exchange process:
1. The equipment is costly and more expensive chemicals are needed.
2. Highly turbid water can’t be treated by this process (must be below 10 ppm).

Desalination of water – Reverse osmosis:

Removal of salts from sea water or salt water is known as desalination of brackish water.
Sea water contains on an average about 3.5% of dissolved salts, making it totally unfit for
drinking purpose. Commonly used methods for the desalination of brackish water is:
1. Distillation or evaporation 2. Electro dialysis 3. Reverse Osmosis
REVERSE OSMOSIS (Super-filtration):In Osmosis, a semi
permeable membrane separates two different concentration solutions,
solvent (water) flows from the lower concentration to the higher
concentration to equalize the concentration of the both. The driving
force for osmosis is osmotic pressure. But in reverse osmosis, a hydro
static pressure in excess of osmotic pressure is applied on the

S. Rama Lakshmi, Associate professor, KMIT. 11X

concentrated side so that the path of the solvent reversed, i.e., from higher concentrated side
to lower concentrated side across the membrane.
Semi-permeable membrane based on thin films of cellulose acetate, cellulose butyrate, poly
methyl acrylate and polyamide polymers are used. A pressure of the order of 15-40 kg/cm 2 is
applied for separating the water from its contaminants.
Advantages:
a. Colloidal SiO2 can be removed by reverse osmosis which even cannot be removed
demineralization.
b. It is simple and reliable process.
c. Capital and operating expenses are low.
d. The life time of the semi-permeable membrane is about two years and it can be easily
replaced within a few minutes, thereby nearly uninterrupted water supply can be
provided.

Potable water
Water free from contaminants or water that is safe for human consumption is called potable
water.
Specifications of water for drinking purpose:
it should be clear, colourless and odourless.
it must be free from pathogenic bacteria and dissolved gases like H2S.
the optimum hardness of water must be 125ppm and PH must be 7 to 8.5
the turbidity in drinking water should not exceed 25ppm
the recommended max concentration of total dissolved solids in potable water must not exceed
500ppm
the water must be free from heavy metals like lead, Arsenic, Chromium and Manganese.

Steps involved in treatment of water for drinking purpose:

The treatment of water for drinking purpose mainly includes the removal of suspended
impurities, colloidal impurities and harmful pathogenic bacteria. The following is the flow
diagram of the water treatment for domestic purposes and various stages involved in
purification are given as-
Surface water → Screening → Aeration →Sedimentation → Filtration →
Sterilization/Disinfection → Storage and distribution.

1. Screening: Water is passed through screens having large number of holes in it, to remove
floating impurities like wood pieces, leaves, plastic bags etc.
2. Aeration: Water is then subjected to aeration which-
i) helps to exchange of gases b/w water and air
ii) increases the O2 content of water
iii) removes impurities like Fe and Mn by precipitating as their hydroxides
3. Sedimentation with Coagulation: The suspended and colloidal impurities are allowed to
settle under gravity. The basic principle of this treatment is to allow water to flow at a very
slow velocity, so that the heavier particles settle under gravitation. For setting of fine particles,
coagulants like alum, sodium aluminate and salts of iron are added, which produces gelatinous
precipitates called floc. Floc attracts and helps accumulation of the colloidal particles resulting
in setting of the colloidal particles.

S. Rama Lakshmi, Associate professor, KMIT. 12X

4. Filtration: Filtration helps in removal of the colloidal and suspended impurities not removed
by sedimentation and coagulation. There are two types of sand filters-slow and rapid sand
filters.
In slow sand filtration, the filter bed consists of three layers of sand of different particle size.
The colloidal impurities are retained by the fine sand layer resulting the very slow filtration of
water. Periodically the top layer of the fine sand layer is scraped off and fresh sand layer will
be introduced.

Rapid sand filter make use of compressed air for fast filtration.

5. Sterilization or Disinfection: Destruction of harmful pathogenic bacteria from drinking

water is carried out by sterilization or disinfection. The following are the methods for
sterilization and disinfection.
a. Boiling: By boiling water for 15-20minutes, harmful bacteria are killed. This is not possible
for the municipal supply of water. This method of sterilization is adopted for domestic
purposes.

S. Rama Lakshmi, Associate professor, KMIT. 13X

b. Passing Ozone: Ozone when passes into water acts as disinfectant. Ozone is an unstable
isotope of oxygen, produces nascent oxygen which is a powerful disinfectant.
O3 → O2 + [O]
This treatment is costly and Ozone is unstable and cannot be stored for a long time.
c. Chlorination: The process of utilizing chlorine as a powerful disinfectant is called
chlorination. There are three types of chlorinating reagents-
i) by passing chloramines: Chlorine is mixed with ammonia in the ratio 2:1 by volume to form
a stable chloramine, which generates hypochlorous acid, a powerful disinfectant, that kills
bacteria as shown below-
Cl2+ NH3 → ClNH2 +HCl
ClNH2 + H2O → HOCl + NH3
HOCl inactivates the enzymes of bacteria and kill bacteria. Chloramine is useful for
disinfecting swimming pools.
ii) by bleaching powder: Bleaching powder contains 80% of chlorine. When bleaching powder
is used as disinfectant, this method is also called as hypochlorination because the disinfection is
due to hypchlorous acid.
CaOCl2+ H2O → Ca(OH)2 + Cl2
Cl2 + H2O → HOCl + HCl
iii) by chlorine: Chlorine also reacts with water and generates HOCl, which kills bacteria.
Cl2 + H2O → HOCl + HCl

Chlorine is powerful disinfectant than chloramine and bleaching powder. Calculated amount of
chlorine must be added to water because chlorine after reacts with bacteria and organic
impurities or ammonia, remains in water as residual chlorine, which gave bad taste, odour and
toxic to human beings.
“ The amount of chlorine required to kill bacteria and to remove organic matter” is called break
point chlorination.
The water sample is treated with chlorine and estimated for the residual chlorine in water and
plotted a graph as shown below which gives the break point chlorination.

From the graph it is clear that

‘a’ grams of chlorine added oxidizes reducing impurities of water.
‘b’ grams of chlorine added forms chloramines and other chloro-compounds.
‘c’ grams of chlorine added causes destruction of chloro compounds and bacteria.
‘d’ grams of chlorine is residual chlorine.

Advantages:
1. it removes bad taste, oxides, organic compounds, ammonia and other reducing impurities.
2. it destroys completely all disease producing bacteria.
3. it prevents growth of any weeds in water.

S. Rama Lakshmi, Associate professor, KMIT. 14X

De-fluoridation - Nalgonda Technique:
Removal of excess fluorine from drinking water is called as De-fluoridation.
Removal of Fluoride ion by Nalgonda Technique:
The Nalgonda technique (named after the village in India where the method was pioneered) is a
combination of several unit operations and the process involves-

1. Rapid mixing: Alum (hydrated aluminium salts) is a coagulant commonly used to

flocculate fluoride ions in the water. The process is best carried out under alkaline conditions,
Na2CO3 or NaHCO3 is added. Na2CO3 or NaHCO3 and Alum mixed with water by using flash
mixer.

2. Chemical interaction, flocculation and sedimentation: Alum react with fluoride ions
present in water produce big flocs and get settle at the bottom of the tank due to gravity.

3Al2(SO4)3.18H2O + NaF + 9Na2CO3 → [5Al(OH)3.Al(OH)2F] + 9Na2SO4 + NaHCO3+ 8CO2

+ 9H2O

3Al2(SO4)3.18H2O + NaF + 17NaHCO3 → [5Al(OH)3.Al(OH)2F] + 9Na2SO4 + 17CO2 + 18H2O

3. Filtration: Solids which are not removed by sedimentation, will be removed by filtration
(sand filter). Filtration tank consists of 3 layers of sand (fine sand, coarse sand and pebbles).
Water is allowed to pass through fine sand layer to coarse sand and pebbles layer. Solids in
water are stopped by fine sand layer. Periodically fine sand layer is replaced with fresh sand
layer. Clean water is allowed for disinfection.

4. Disinfection: In this process disease causing microorganisms are killed by adding

bleaching powder to water.
CaOCl2 + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + Cl2
Cl2 + H2O → HOCl + HCl
5. Sludge Concentration: Sludge generated from sedimentation is collected and water is
removed to recover aluminium salts. After this, sludge disposed in disposal sites.
6. Storage and distribution: After disinfection treated water is stored in storage tanks. The
water is supplied through pipelines.

Advantages:

1.This technique helps in the removal of fluoride or deflouridation along with the removal of
colour, odour, turbidity, bacteria, and organic contaminants from raw supplies.
2.Lime facilitates forming dense flocks for rapid settling of insoluble fluoride salts.
3.Regeneration of media is not required.
4.No handling of acids and alkalis.
5.The chemicals required are readily available and are used in conventional municipal water
treatment.
S. Rama Lakshmi, Associate professor, KMIT. 15X
6.Adaptable to domestic use.
7.Economical
8.Can be used to treat large quantities for community usage.
9.Simplicity of design, construction, operation and maintenance.

Disadvantages:
1. Generation of higher quantity of sludge.
2. Large amount of alum needed to remove fluorides.
3. Careful PH control of water required.

Essay Questions:
1. Define hardness. Explain different types of hardness. Write the units of hardness and its
relation.(KMIT, Feb’24)
2. What is the principle involved in EDTA titration? Briefly describe the estimation of
hardness of water by EDTA method.(KMIT, Sep’21; KMIT, Feb’24)
3. Numerical problems for calculation of hardness using molecular weights and EDTA
titration values.(JNTUH, Jan’24)
4. Write short notes on Calgon conditioning, Phosphate conditioning, Colloidal
conditioning. (KMIT, Oct’21)
5. What is demineralisation? Describe in detail about the process of demineralisation by
ion exchange method.(KMIT, Sep’21, KMIT, Feb’24, JNTUH, Jan’24)
6. Differentiate between internal and external treatment of of water (JNTUH,April’23)
7. What are boiler troubles and explain in detail about these troubles.
8. Illustrate the steps involved in municipal water treatment.(KMIT, Sep’21, JNTUH,
Jan’24)
9. Explain the disinfection of water by chlorination.(KMIT, Oct’21)
10. Define potable water and give its specifications.(JNTUH,April’23)
11. Explain removal of Fluorides from drinking water by Nalgonda Technique.(KMIT,
Feb’24)
12. Explain reverse osmosis method and its importance.(JNTUH,April’23),(KMIT,
Sep’21), (JNTUH, Jan’24)

S. Rama Lakshmi, Associate professor, KMIT. 16X