UNIT - 2 WATER

INTRODUCTION:

Water is a natural gift on the earth. It is essential for humans, animals and plants. Human
being use water for drinking, cooking, bathing and washing. It has a wide role in industries
also.

Chemically water has two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen having the
molecular formula H2O. In several chemical reactions, water is formed along with the main
product.

Ex: 1. Acid reacts with base to give salt and water

HCl + NaOH ---------------- NaCl + H2O

2. Alcohol and organic acid react to give ester and water.

 Water molecule is a bent tri atomic molecule with the bond angle 104.50. the oxygen
atom present in the water molecule has SP3 hybridization state having two lone pair
of e-s.

 Water is found in 3 physical states. They are liquid (water), solid (ice), gas (vapor).
The freezing point of water is 00c and the boiling point is 1000c.
 Some special behavior found in water due to hydrogen bond present in it.

HARDNESS OF WATER:

HARD WATER: The water which does not produce lather with soap solution readily but
forms a white scum (or) precipitate is called hard water.

SOFT WATER: The water which produces lather easily on shaking with soap solution is
called soft water.

HARDNESS: Hardness means which prevents lathering of soap.

Hardness in water is due to the presence of certain salts of Ca, Mg and other heavy
metals dissolved calcium and magnesium salts. A sample of hard water when treated with
soap (sodium (or) potassium salts of fatty acids like oleic, palmitic, stearic acids etc) does

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not produces white scum (or) precipitate is formed due to the formation of insoluble salts of
Ca, Mg.

REACTION OF SOAP WITH Ca & Mg SALTS:

2 C17H35COONa + CaCl2 ------------------- (C17H35COO) 2 Ca↓ + 2 NaCl

(Sodium stearate or soap) calcium stearate(insoluble)

2 C17H35COONa + MgCl2 ------------------- (C17H35COO) 2 Mg ↓+ Na2SO4

(Sodium stearate or soap) Mg. stearate(insoluble)

TYPES OF HARDNESS:

Hardness mainly classified into 2 types.

1. Temporary hardness
2. Permanent hardness
1. TEMPORARY HARDNESS:
This type of hardness occurs due to the presence of dissolved bicarbonates of Ca,
Mg and other heavy metals. This hardness is mostly removed by boiling of water.
Due to this boiling, bicarbonates are decomposed producing insoluble carbonates
(or) hydroxides which are deposited as a dust at the bottom of the vessel.

Ca (HCO3)2 ------------------- CaCO3↓ + H2O + CO2↑

Insoluble

Mg (HCO3)2 ------------------- Mg (OH) 2↓ + 2CO2↑

Insoluble

2. PERMANENT HARDNESS:
This type of hardness occurs due to the presence of chlorides, sulphides of Ca, Mg,
Fe and other heavy metals. This hardness cannot be removed by boiling like in
temporary hardness.

UNITS OF HARDNESS:

Generally the hardness is expressed in terms of equivalent amount of CaCO3.

a. parts per million (PPM):

It is the parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 106 parts of water.

1 PPM = 1 part of CaCO3 equivalent hardness in 106 parts of water.

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 b. Milligrams per liter (mg/lit):

Number of milligrams of CaCO3 equivalent hardness present per liter of water.

1 mg/l =1mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness in 1 lit of water

1 lit of water weight, 1kg =1000g =1000 Χ1000 = 106 mg
1 mg/lit = 1mg of CaCO3 Equivalent hardness per 106 mg of water
= 1part of CaCO3 Equivalent hardness per 106parts of water
=1 PPM
c. Degree Clarkes (0cl) :

Number of Grains of CaCO3 Equivalent Hardness per Gallon of Water

1 grain = 68.4 mg

1 gallon = 3.78541lit ≈ 4 lit

It is part of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 70,000 parts of water.

10 Clarke = 1 grain of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per gallon of water.

= 1 part of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 70000 parts of water.

d. Degree French (0Fr):

It is the parts of CaCO3equivalent hardness per 105 parts of water.

10 Fr = 1 part of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 105 parts of water.

e. Milli equivalents per liter (meq/lit):

It is the number of milli equivalents of hardness present per liter.

So, 1 meq /lit = 1 meq of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per liter of water.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIOUS UNITS OF HARDNESS:

1 PPM = 1 mg/lit = 0.10 Fr = 0.02 meq/lit

ESTIMATION OF HARDNESS:

The estimation of hardness of water is very essential for its use in boilers for steam
generation as well as Industrial uses.

1. EDTA METHOD:

Di sodium salt of Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic acid (EDTA) is used as the permanent
complexing agent with the Ca2+ & Mg2+ ions of hard water in the EDTA method.

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STRUCTURE OF EDTA:

Before starting the titration to the hard water, ammonia buffer (to maintain PH = 9 - 10)
and Eriochrome Black – T indicator are added, which forms an unstable complex of wine red
coloured.

Ca2+ + EBT ---------------- [Ca - EBT]

Blue unstable, wine red coloured complex

Mg2+ + EBT ---------------- [Mg - EBT]

Blue unstable, wine red coloured complex

After the titration, the sodium salt of EDTA forms stable complex with water containing
Ca2+ & Mg2+ ions replacing the unstable complex.

The completion of the complex formation is indicated by Eriochrome black – T indicator

at a PH range 9 – 10 giving a blue colour solution.

[Ca - EBT] ------------------- [Ca - EDTA] + EBT

Unstable stable, colourless blue

[Mg - EBT] ---------------- [Mg - EDTA] + EBT

Unstable stable, colourless blue

STANDARDIZATION OF EDTA:

20ml of standard hard water (standard ZnSO4 solution) is pipette out into a clean conical
flask, add 4 – 5 ml buffer solution & 2 – 3 drops of EBT indicator. The wine red colour
solution in the conical flask is titrated with EDTA till pale blue colour appears which indicates
the end point of the titration.

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 ZnSO4 EDTA

M1V1 = M2V2

M1 = molarity of hard water (zinc sulphate)

V1 = volume of hard water (zinc sulphate)

M2 = molarity of EDTA

V2 = volume of EDTA

ESTIMATION OF TOTAL HARDNESS:

50 ml of sample hard water is in clean conical flask and add 4 – 5 ml of buffer & 2 – 3
drops of EBT indicator. The wine red colour solution in the conical flask is titrated with EDTA
till pale blue colour appears which indicates the end point of the titration.
C×D×1000
Total hardness = Volume of water sample

C = volume of EDTA (burette reading).

D = 1 ml 0.01 M EDTA = 1 mg of CaCO3

1 ml -- ---M EDTA =?

ESTIMATION OF PERMANENT HARDNESS:

Take 100 ml of water sample into a beaker and boil the water till the volume reduces to 50
ml. filter the solution and add the 4 -5 ml of buffer solution and 2 – 3 drops of EBT indicator.
The wine red colour solution in the conical flask is titrated with EDTA till pale blue colour
appears which indicates the end point of the titration.
× ×
TOTAL HARDNESS =

C = volume of EDTA (burette reading).

D = 1 ml 0.01 M EDTA = 1 mg of CaCO3

1 ml -- ---M EDTA =?

Temporary hardness = total hardness – permanent hardness

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 2. SOAP TITRATION METHOD:

Hardness of water is determined by this method without using any indicator. Known
volume of water sample is taken and titrated against soap solution (standard). Initially,
lather is not formed due to the hardness but at point lather is formed which persists for
2 minutes. By this method total hardness of water is measured.

On boiling the known volume of water sample for halfenhour, temporary hardness
removed as precipitate of (Ca2+/Mg2+) carbonates. This sample is further titrated to find
the permanent hardness.

TEMPORARY HARDNESS = TOTAL HARDNESS – PERMANENT HARDNESS

The standard soap solution of soap can be obtained from the market or otherwise it can
be prepared and then standardized in the laboratory with standard CaCl2 solution.

2 C17H35COONa + Ca2+ ------------------- (C17H35COO) 2Ca↓+2 Na+

Soap calcium stearate

2 C17H35COONa + Mg2+ ------------------- (C17H35COO) 2Mg↓+2 Na+

Magnesium stearate

 Hehner’s alkali metric method is also used to estimate hardness of water.

WATER FOR STEAM MAKING:

In very big boilers the soft water is used for producing steam. The boilers are heated
with fuels such as coal and the steam produced rotates the blades of the turbines in a
fast manner. The turbine is a magnet wounded by coil wire. Any magnet wounded by
coil wire will produce electricity. This electricity uses water in the boilers followed by
heating to produce steam.

BOILER TROUBLES:

Boiler troubles are mainly of 3 types:

1. Corrosion & caustic embrittlement.

2. Scale formation & sludge formation.
3. Carry over priming & foaming.
Generally priming, foaming occurs together in the boilers. Scale & sludge
formation depends on the nature of the dissolved salts.

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The following are the boiler troubles in detail.

SCALE AND SLUDGE FORMATION IN THE BOILERS:

When water is evaporated in boilers to produce steam continuously the concentration of

the salts present in the water increases progressively. As the concentration reaches a
saturation point the salts are thrown out of water as precipitates either as sludges or as
scales adhering to the walls of the boiler. If the precipitates is loose and slimy, it is called
sludge. On the other hand if the precipitate produced adheres very strongly to the walls of
the boilers it is known as Boiler scale.

The main reasons for the boiler scale or sludge formation are due to

i) the solubility product of the salt must be exceedby the product of concentration of
constituent ions.
ii) The solubility of the salt decreases with rise of temperature.
iii) The increase in the temperature can lead to reactions that result in the formation of
insoluble products.

Scale and Sludge formation in boilers

Fig -2.1

Sludges are loose and slimy precipitates which can be easily scraped off. Salts like MgCO3,
MgCl2, MgSO4, CaCl2 etc., are responsible for sludge formation in boilers. By frequent blow
down operation formation of sludge in boilers can be prevented.

Scales are hard deposits formed by the evaporation of hard water in boilers. Due to the
scale formation in boilers more amount of heat has to be supplies for heating since the
scales produced on the walls of boilers acts as insulators of heat.

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 Due to the over heating of the boiler certain areas of the boiler weaken causing distortion
and even lead to breaking in high pressure boilers.

Some of the salts mainly responsible for scale formation are CaSiO3, CaSO4 and Mg(OH)2.

Ca(HCO3)2 present in hard water decomposes at higher temperature producing

CaCO3.

Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2O + CO2

CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2 can form loose sludges as well as scales.

These are mainly formed as scales in low pressure boilers.

Calcium sulphate get deposited in the boilers as scales since the solubility of the salt
decreases with increase in temperature. CaSO4 get deposited on the heated position of the
boiler.

Mg(OH)2 is produces in the boiler by the hydrolysis of MgCl2 salt.

MgCl2 + H2O Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl

CaSiO3 and SiO2 can form very hard scales in turbine blades due to their tendency to mix
with the steam produces. The silica content can be removed by the solution of very small
amount of mgO to the permanent hard water (after the removal CaCO3 precipitate) which
produces magnesia silica sludge that can be removed easily. By using small amount of
ferrous sulphate or sodium aluminate coagulants, silica can be covered with the colloidal
Al(OH)3 or Fe(OH)2 and the colloidal sludge can be easily removed from the boilers.

REMOVAL OF SCALES:

1. Scales can be removed by applying thermal shocks (sudden heating and cooling).
2. Using scrapers, wire brush etc., scales can be removed.
3. Using certain chemicals scales can be removed.
Ex: using 5 – 10% HCl, CaCO3 scales can be removed.
Using EDTA, CaSO4 scales can be removed.
4. By “blow down operation” (removing the bottom portion of salt concentrated water of
the boiler) the scales formation can be avoided

PREVENTION OF SCALE FORMATION BY INTERNAL TREATMENT:

The following are the internal conditioning methods used in boilers:

i) Carbonate conditioning ii) Colloidal conditioning

ii) Calgon conditioning iv) phosphate conditioning
v) Ttreatment with sodium aluminate vi) Radio active conditioning

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 vii) Electrical conditioning method

i) CARBONATE CONDITIONING:
In low pressure boilers scale formation can be avoided by treating the boiler water
with sodium carbonate. The scale forming salts like CaSO4 are partially removed.
K1
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + Na2SO4

K2

CaCO3 is precipitated in the boiler as loose sludge which can be scraped off. For the
precipitation of CaCO3 the carbonate ions added should exceed the sulphate ions
present in the water.
ii) COLLOIDAL CONDITIONING:
Scale formation in boilers is mainly due to crystalline precipitate. When certain
chemicals like tannin or agar gel are added to water, these substances get coated on
the outer surface of crystalline precipitates and forms colloidal, non sticky and
sludge like precipitates which can be easily removed by mechanical methods of blow
down operation.
iii) CALGON CONDITIONING :
In this process calgon or sodium hexa meta phosphate [Na(PO3)]6 is added to
the boiler feed water which forms soluble complex with the CaSO4 scales.
Na2 [Na4 (PO3)6] 2Na+ + [Na4 (PO3)6]2-

2 CaSO4 + [Na4 (PO3)6]2- [Ca2 (PO3)6]2- + 2Na2SO4

Soluble complex
iv) PHOSPHATE CONDITIONING:

The scale formation can be avoided in high pressure by adding tri sodium
phosphate or other types of phosphates according to the PH of boiler water.
The following is the reaction that takes place.
3 CaSO4 + 2 Na3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + 3 Na2SO4
Loose sludge

The added phosphate ion concentration should exceed the concentration of

sulphate ion present in water for the precipitation of Ca3(PO4)2 which is a loose sludge.
The different types of phosphates used are:
a. Na3PO4 – tri sodium phosphate (alkaline)- used for acidic waters
b. Na2HPO4 – disodium hydrogen phosphate (weakly alkaline)- used for weakly alkaline
and weakly acidic waters
c. NaH2PO4 – mono sodium dihydrogen phosphate (acidic)- used for alkaline waters.

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 v) TREATMENT WITH SODIUM ALUMINATE (NaAlO2):

Sodium aluminate on hydrolysis with water producing sodium hydroxide and a

gelatinous precipitate of aluminium hydroxide.
NaAlO2 + 2 H2O NaOH + Al(OH)3 
The sodium hydroxide produced, precipitated the sludge forming salts.
The floculant Al(OH)3 produced inside the boiler entraps finely suspended and colloidal
hydroxides and impurities including oil and silica. The loosly held precipitate can be easily
removed from the boiler by blow down operation.
vi) Radioactive conditioning:
Radioactive material in the form of tablets are placed inside certain parts of the
boiler, the energy radiation emitted by the radio active salts prevent the deposition of salts
in the boilers.

vii) Electrical conditioning:

Few sealed electrical bulbs containing mercury which are connected to the battery
allowed to float inside the boilers. The mecury bulbs produce electrical impulse in the form
of UV radiation which prevents scale formation inside the bodies.

SOFTENING OF HARD WATER:

EXTERNAL TREATMENT:
Water is used in boilers to produce steam for power generation. The quality of water
used in the boiler is to be taken into account since hardwater can cause troubles like sludge
and scale formation, corrosion and caustic embrittlement. Hence water before feeding into
the boilers has to be treated for hardness which is otherwise known as external conditioning
of hard water. The following are the methods for external conditioning.
1. Lime – Soda process
2. Zeolite /permutit process
3. Ion exchange process
The above methods of softening are not only used for boiler feed water but also for
domestic and industrial use.

1. LIME – SODA PROCESS:

Lime (Ca(OH)2) and Soda (Na2CO3) are quantitatively mixed with hardwater with constant
stirring either in the cold or hot condition in the lime – soda process. The precipitates
formed settle down as sludge at the bottom of the tank which can remove by filtration.
a. The following are the chemical reactions involving lime with the hardness producing
salts (or) functions of lime.

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i. It neutralizes free acids to salt and water and precipitates Co2 as carbonate.

2HCl + Ca(OH)2 CaCl2  + 2H2O

H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 CaSO4  + 2H2O

CO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3  + H2O

ii. It precipitates the bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium as carbonates.

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3  +2H2O

Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3  + Mg(OH)2 +2H2O

iii. It precipitates the bicarbonate ions (NaHCO3/KHCO3) into carbonates.

2NaHCO3 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3  + 2H2O + Na2CO3

iv. It can react only with magnesium permanent hard salts (MgCl2 and MgSO4)
producing precipitates.

MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 Mg(OH)2  + CaCl2

MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 Mg(OH)2  + CaSO4

v. It also precipitate the iron and aluminium salts

FeSO4 + Ca(OH)2 Fe (OH)2  + CaSo4

Al2(SO4)3 +3Ca(OH)2 Al(OH)3  + 3 CaSo4

Neglecting traces of iron and aluminiumsalts present in water and considering the
other salts and their reaction with lime we can see that only Mg(HCO3)3 consumes 2
ca(OH)2 i.e. double the amount of lime. Hence the final equation for the quantitative
requirement of lime for the above mentioned hard salt is given below

74
Lime required= [Temp Ca 2++2Temp Mg 2++perm(Mg2++Fe2++Al3+)
100
1 1
+CO2 + HCl +H2SO4 + HCO3-] all interms of CaCO3 eq
2 2

Molecular weight of lime = 74

Molecular weight of CaCO3 = 100

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 b. REACTIONS INVOLVING SODA OR FUNCTION OF SODA:
Neutralization of free acids
i. 2HCl + Na2CO3 2NaCl + H2O + CO2 
H2SO4 + Na2CO3 Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2 
ii. Precipiotation in permanent hard salts of calcium and magnesium
CaCl2+ Na2CO3 CaCO3  + 2NaCl
CaSO4 +Na2CO3 CaCO3  + Na2SO4
MgCl2+ Na2CO3 MgCO3  + 2NaCl
MgSO4 + Na2CO3 MgCO3  + Na2SO4
iii. The sodium bicarbonate present in the hardwater react with soada
producing more sodium carbonate. Hence in the formula for the
quantitative requirement of soda the value of bicarbonate ions have
to be substracted.

106 1
Soda requirement = [ perm(Ca 2++Mg2++Fe2+)+3permAl3+ + HCl
100 2
1
+H2SO4 - HCO3-] all interms of CaCO3 eq
2
Molecular weight of soda = 106
Molecular weight of CaCO3 = 100
The following are thw methods adopted for the efficiency of the process.
1. Through stirring of chemicals and water using stirrers.
2. Proper time for completion of reaction.
3. Accelerators are added for quick precipitation.
4. Coagulants (alum) are added to produce coarse precipitates.
5. After the reactions are over the water is passed to the settling chambers before the
filtration process.

I. COLD – LIME SODA PROCESS:

In this process the lime and are soda are mixed with hard water at normal room
temperature with constant stirring. Generally the precipitates produced by this process are
finely divided and in order to settle the precipitates, coagulants like alum, sodium
aluminates etc. are added. Cold lime – soda process produces water of hardness 50 – 60
ppm.
The following are the two types of Cold lime – soda process.
1. Batch Cold lime – soda process.
2. Continuous Cold lime – soda process.

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1. BATCH COLD LIME – SODA PROCESS:

Fig – 2.2

In this process hard water and calculated quantity of lime and soda are mixed
with the help of stirrers which rotate in lateral manner.
Then suitable quantity of coagulants like sodium aluminate is added for
settling the produced precipitate.
The softened water is taken out through an exit pipe and it is purified by
passing through sand filter.

2. Continuous Cold lime – soda process:

Fig – 2.3

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 In this process the lime and are mixed with hard water in a vertical circular
chamber using co-axial stirrer.
In the middle chamber severe stirring of chemicals with water takes place and
softening takes place. The softened water comes out into the outer co- axial
chamber and rises up and passes through the filtering media. As the water flow
and stirring with chemicals continue, softened water is allowed to pass out through
the exit nearly at the top of the chamber. The process can be carried out
continuously.

II. HOT LIME – SODA PROCESS:

In this procee the lime and soda chemicals are mixed with hard water
maintain high temperature (80 – 150oc) using steam.

Fig.2.4
The main advantages of this process are
 The reaction takes place at a faster rate and softening of hard water is completed
within 15 minutes.
 The precipitate produced is granular and settle down quickly.
 The dissolved gasses (CO2) in hard water are driven out.
 The hardness of softened water is very less (15 – 30 ppm).

ADVANTAGES:
 The process id economical.
 Iron and manganese salts are also removed by this process.
 The pathogenic bacteria are also killed by the hot alkaline medium of this process.
 No or very less amount of coagulants are used.

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DISADVANTAGES:
 Large amount of sludge is produced which posses disposal problems.
 The softened water has sodium salts which is not suitable for boilers producing
steam.
 This process can reduced hardness to between 15 – 30 ppm only.

ZEOLITE(PERMUTIT) PROCESS:

Fig – 2.5
In this process the hard water is allowed to percolate through sodium zeolite. The
sodium ions which are loosely held in this compound are replaced by the Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions.
The chemical formula of sodium zeolite is

Na2O.Al2O3.x SiO2.yH2O
Zeolite is hydrated sodium alumino silicate. The following are the reactions involved
in the softening process.

CaCl2 + Na2Ze CaZe + 2 NaCl

CaSO4 + Na2Ze CaZe + Na2SO4

MgCl2 + Na2Ze MgZe + Na2SO4

MgSO4 + Na2Ze MgZe + 2NaCl

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 Ca (HCO3)2 +Na2Ze CaZe + 2NaHCO3

Mg (HCO3)2 + Na2Ze MgZe +2NaHCO3

On continuous passing of hard water through sodium zeolite, it is converted

into calcium and magnesium zeolite which has to be regenerated to sodium zeolite again.
This can be done by working the zeolite

CaZe +2 NaCl CaCl2 + Na2Ze

MgZe + 2NaCl MgCl2 + Na2Ze (regenerated zeolite)

COMPARISON OF LIME SODA PROCESS WITH PERMUTIT (ZEOLITE) PROCESS:

S.No Lime soda process Zeolite process

1. The softened water has hardness The softened water has hardness
between 15 – 50 ppm between 10 - 15 ppm
2. Cost of plant and chemicals used are Cost of the plant and zeolite resin are
cheaper. costlier.
3. Plant occupies more space. It is compact plant.
4. It can be used for softening acidic It cannot be operated for more acidic
waters. waters.
5. There is problem in settling the No such problems are there.
precipitates using co- agulants.
6. In this process colloidal or suspended In this process colloidal or suspended
impurities present in water can be impurities present in water cannot be
treated. treated.

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 III. ION EXCHANGE OR DE – MINERALIZATION PROCESS:
In this process the hard water is made to pass through two kinds of filters
separately.

i. The first chamber is packed with cation exchange resins which exchanges
hydrogen ions with Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions of hard water

2 RH+ + Ca2+ R2Ca + 2H+

2RH++Mg2+ R2Mg+2H+

Like the above reactions resin can replace its hydrogen ion with any of the metal
cations. The cation exchange resins are mainly sulphonated styrene co polymer.

ii. Anion exchange resins are packed in the second chamber and hard water passed
through it exchanges hydroxyl ons (OH-) of the resin with the anions of the hard
water. The following are the reactions involved in softening by anion resin.

ROH- + Cl- RCl +OH-

2ROH- + SO42- R2SO4 + 2OH-

2ROH-+ CO32- R2CO3 +2OH-

Like the above reactions all the anion present in the hard water can be exchanged by
hydroxyl ions present in the anion resin.

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 The anion exchange resins are quaternary N – methyl ammonium hydroxyl group
containing styrene co – polymer.

The exchanged H+ and OH- ions from the resin combines with the water producing
more water molecules. At the same time all the cations and anions present in the hard
water are trapped by the cation and anion resin respectively. Hence the water produced
from ion exchange process is completely free from cations or anions of salts. The water
softened by this process is known as deionised or demineralised water.

Regeneration of resin:
On continuous passing of hard water through the cation and anion exchange resins ,
the resin loose their exchanging capacities as the resins RH+ and ROH- change to R2Ca,
R2Mg, R2SO4, R2CO3 etc.
The exhausted cation exchange resin is regenerated by passing a solution of dilute
HCl or dilute H2SO4.
R2Ca + 2H+ 2 RH+ + Ca2+
R2Mg+2H+ 2RH++Mg2+

Similarly the exhausted aniion exchange resin is regenerated by passing a solution of

dilute NaOH.
RCl +OH- ROH- + Cl-

R2SO4 + 2OH- 2ROH- + SO42-

R2CO3 +2OH- 2ROH-+ CO32-

ADVANTAGES:
 It produces very pure water of hardness nearly 2 -0 ppm.
 Highly acidic or alkaline Water can be treated by this process.
 The softened water is completely free from any salts unfit for use as boiler feed
water.
DISADVANTAGES:
 The equipment is little expensive.
 Highly turbid water cannot be treated by this process.
The removal of dissolved salts (NaCl) from water is known as desalination
process. It can be carried out by
1. Reverse Osmosis.
2. Electro Dialysis.

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 1. REVERSE OSMOSIS PROCESS:

In osmosis process, if a semi – permeable membrane separates two solutions,

Solvents from the lower concentration pass to the higher concentration
to equalize the concentration of both. But in reverse osmosis, pressure higher
the osmotic pressure is applied from the higher concentration side to that the
Path of the solvent reversed. i.e. from higher concentration to lower concentration
Side to that the path of solvent reversed. i.e. from higher concentration to lower
Concentration.
This method is applicable mainly for the desalination of sea water. Sea water and pure
water are separated by a semi – permeable membrane made up of cellulose acetate fitted
on both sides of a perforated tube.
(Poly amides also used as membranes.)
ADVANTAGES:
1. The process is very easy; it is to make pure water.
2. It removes the ionic & non ionic substances in the water.
3. It also can remove suspended colloidal particles.
4. By this process, sea water made fit for drinking.
5. Water obtained after being treated by this process is used in boilers.

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2.ELECTRO DIALYSIS:

Migrating anions

Migrating cations

Dialysis is a process in which diffusion of smaller particles takes place through semi –
permeable membrane.
Sea water is called brackish water (salty). It has 3.5%salt. Dialysis removes salt from sea
water, through membrane.
In electro dialysis two electrodes (anode and cathode) are dipped in brine, separated by a
semi – permeable membrane.

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