CHAPTER 2

FORCE SYSTEMS
CHAPTER OUTLINE
2/1 Introduction
2/2 Force
SECTION A Two-Dimensional Force Systems
2/3 Rectangular Components
2/4 Moment
2/5 Couple
2/6 Resultants
SECTION B Three-Dimensional Force Systems
2/7 Rectangular Components
2/8 Moment and Couple
2/9 Resultants
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Article 2/1 Introduction
• Chapter Purpose
We study the effects of forces which act on engineering structures and
mechanisms. The experience gained here will help you in the study of
mechanics and in other subjects such as stress analysis, design of structures
and machines, and fluid flow. This chapter lays the foundation for a basic
understanding not only of statics but also entire subjects of mechanics, and you
should master of this material thoroughly.

• Importance of Chapter 2 Concepts

We will deal with two- and three-dimensional forces and their moments at a
point.
Article 2/2 Force
• A force has been defined in Chapter 1 as an action of one body
on another.
• A force is a vector quantity, because its effect depends on
the direction as well as on the magnitude of the action. Thus,
forces may be combined according to the parallelogram law
of vector addition.
• We can separate the action of a force on a body into two effects,
external and internal.
Article 2/2 Force
• For the bracket in the figure the external effects of P to the
bracket
are:
✓the reactive forces (not shown) exerted on the bracket by the
foundation and bolts because of the action of P.
• Forces external to a body can be either applied forces or reactive
forces.
• The internal effects of P to the bracket are:
✓the resulting internal forces and deformations distributed
throughout the material of the bracket.
• The relation between internal forces and internal deformations
depends on the material properties of the body and is studied in
strength of materials, elasticity, and plasticity.
Article 2/2 – Principle of Transmissibility
• A force may be applied at any point on its given line of action without altering the
resultant effects of the force external to the rigid body on which it acts.

When dealing with the mechanics of a rigid body, we ignore defor-

mations in the body and concern ourselves with only the net
external effects of external forces. In such cases, experience shows
us that it is not necessary to restrict the action of an applied force to
a given point.

• Whenever we are interested in only the resultant external effects of a force, the
force may be treated as a sliding vector, and we need specify only the magnitude,
direction, and line of action of the force, and not its point of application.
Article 2/2 – Force Classification
• Contact Force: A contact force is produced by direct physical contact

• Body Force: A body force is generated by virtue of the position of a body within the force field
such as gravitational field.

• Concentrated Force: Every contact force is actually applied over a finite area and is a distributed
force. But considering the application area of force is so small than the other dimensions of body.
So that, we may consider the force to be concentrated at a point with negligible loss of accuracy.

• Distributed Force: Force can be distributed over an area, as in the case of mechanical contact,
over a volume when a body force such as weight is acting, or over a line, as in the case of the
weight of a suspended cable.

• Action and Reaction Pairs : According to Newton's third law, the action of a force is always ac-
companied by an equal and opposite reaction.
 Article 2/2 – Concurrent Forces (1 of 2)
• Two or more forces are said to be concurrent at

a point if their lines of action intersect at that point.

• The forces F1 and F2 shown in figure, have a common

point of application and are concurrent at the point A.

• Thus, they can be added using parallelogram law in their common plane to obrain their sum or
resultant R.

• Suppose the two concurrent forces lie in the same plane but are applied
at two different points as in Figure below.
Article 2/2 – Concurrent Forces (2 of 2)
• By the principle of transmissibility, we may move them along their lines
of action and complete their vector sum R at the point of concurrancy.
• F1 and F2 forces can be replaced with resultant R without altering the
external effects on the body.

• If we add two forces as shown in figure below, we correctly preserve the

magnitude and direction of the resultant R, but we lose the correct line of action,
Because the obtained R in this way does not pass thorough the point A.
• Therefore, this type of combination should be avoided.
• We can express the sum of the two forces mathematically by the
vector equation
R=F1+ F2
Article 2/2 – Vector Components
• In addition to combining forces to obtain their resultant, we often need to
replace a force by its vector components in directions which are
convenient for a given application.
• The vector sum of the components must be equal the original vector.

• The relationship between a force and its vector components along Vector Components: F1 and F2
given axes must not be confused with the relationship between a force Vector Projections: Fa and Fb
and its perpendicular* projections onto the same axes.
• The figure shows the perpendicular projections Fa and Fb of R on to a and
b axes. We can understand that the components of a vector are not necessarily equal to the
projections onto same axes.
2/3 Rectangular Components

• Vector Components: F = Fx + Fy

• Scalar Components: F = Fxi + Fyj

• Other Useful Relationships

2/3 Conventions for Describing Vector Components

• Vector Magnitude, F
• Lightface, Italic Font
• Always Positive

• Scalar Component, Fx
• Lightface, Italic Font
• Positive or Negative

• Force Vector Depiction

• Solid, Red Arrow

• Component Vector Depiction

• Dashed, Red Arrow
2/3 Determining the Components of a Force (1 of 2)

• It is often the case that…

• Dimensions or axes are not given in horizontal and vertical directions.
• Angles are not measured counterclockwise from the x-axis.
• Coordinates do not originate from the line of action of a force.

• We still need to be able to find the components of a force vector!

2/3 Determining the Components of a Force (2 of 2)

• Some examples
2/3 Finding Resultants using Components

• Rectangular components are convenient

for finding the resultant of two forces
which are concurrent.
Article 2/3 – Sample Problem 2/1 (1 of 3)
The forces F1, F2, and F3, all of which act on point A of the bracket, are specified
in three different ways. Determine the x and y scalar components of each of the
three forces.
Article 2/3 – Sample Problem 2/1 (2 of 3)

• Scalar Components of F1

• Scalar Components of F2
Article 2/3 – Sample Problem 2/1 (3 of 3)

• Scalar Components of F3

• Alternative Calculation
Article 2/3 – Sample Problem 2/2 (1 of 4)

Combine the two forces P and T, which act on the fixed structure at B, into a single equivalent
force R.
Article 2/3 – Sample Problem 2/2 (2 of 4)

• Graphical Solution (Scaled Drawing)

Article 2/3 – Sample Problem 2/2 (3 of 4)

• Geometric Solution
Article 2/3 – Sample Problem 2/2 (4 of 4)

• Algebraic Solution

• Vector Representation
Article 2/3 – Sample Problem 2/3 (1 of 3)
The 500-N force F is applied to the vertical pole as shown. (1) Write F in terms of the unit
vectors i and j and identify both its vector and scalar components. (2) Determine the scalar
components of the force vector F along the x′- and y′-axes. (3) Determine the scalar
components of F along the x- and y′-axes.
Article 2/3 – Sample Problem 2/3 (2 of 3)
• Part 1 Solution

• Part 2 Solution
Article 2/3 – Sample Problem 2/3 (3 of 3)
• Part 3 Solution
Article 2/3 – Sample Problem 2/4 (1 of 2)

Forces F1 and F2 act on the bracket as shown. Determine the projection Fb of their resultant R
onto the b-axis.
Article 2/3 – Sample Problem 2/4 (1 of 2)
• Solution
Article 2/4 Moment

• A moment is the tendency of a force to rotate a body about an axis.

• Things to Note
• Direction and Orientation of the Force
• Axis of Rotation
• Direction of Rotation
• Effective Length, d
Pipe Wrench
Article 2/4 – Moment about a Point (1 of 3)
• Scalar Development

• Moment Arm, d is the perpendicular distance from the axis to

the line of action of the force
• Moment Vector, M is perpendicular to plane of body

• Axis of Rotation, O-O

• Moment Magnitude, M = Fd

• Direction of Rotation

• Units
Article 2/4 – Moment about a Point (2 of 3)
• The Right-Hand Rule
1. Position your right hand such that your fingers point in the
same direction as the force.
2. Orient your hand such that the point you are computing the
moment about is on the same side as your palm. From the
figure at right, your hand is positioned such that the moment
arm d intersects the middle of your palm.
3. Close your fingers to make a fist and extend your thumb
straight up. From the figure at right, imagine closing your fist
around line O-O, and your thumb would point in the direction
of the moment vector. Curling your fingers about this line
would represent the rotation of the moment about the axis.
Article 2/4 – Moment about a Point (3 of 3)

• Sign Conventions
• Counterclockwise, CCW positive
• Clockwise, CW negative
• User-Defined

• Two-Dimensional Representation
Article 2/4 – The Cross Product
• Vector Expression for Moments

• Position Vector, r

• Moment Vector, M = r × F

• In some two-dimensional and many of the three-dimensional prob-

lems to follow, it is convenient to use a vector approach for moment
calculations.
Article 2/4 – Varignon’s Theorem
• The theorem states that the moment of a force about any point is equal to the sum of the
moments of the components of the force about the same point.

R=P+Q
In Vectoral Form
MO = r × R = r × (P + Q) = r × P + r × Q

MO = Rd = -pP + qQ (Assumes CW +) In Scalar Form

Article 2/4 – Sample Problem 2/5 (1 of 5)

Calculate the magnitude of the moment about the base point O of the 600-N force in five
different ways.
Article 2/4 – Sample Problem 2/5 (2 of 5)
• Method 1: Use the Moment Arm (CW is +)
Article 2/4 – Sample Problem 2/5 (3 of 5)
• Method 2: Use Components at A (CW is +)
Article 2/4 – Sample Problem 2/5 (4 of 5)
• Methods 3 and 4: Alternative Moment Arms
Article 2/4 – Sample Problem 2/5 (5 of 5)
• Method 5: Vector Approach
Article 2/4 – Sample Problem 2/6 (1 of 4)
The trap door OA is raised by the cable AB, which passes over the small frictionless guide
pulleys at B. The tension everywhere in the cable is T, and this tension applied at A causes a
moment MO about the hinge at O. Plot the quantity MO ∕ T as a function of the door elevation
angle 𝜃 over the range 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 90° and note minimum and maximum values. What is the
physical significance of this ratio?
Article 2/4 – Sample Problem 2/6 (2 of 4)
• Tension Vector
Article 2/4 – Sample Problem 2/6 (3 of 4)
• Moment Vector
Article 2/4 – Sample Problem 2/6 (4 of 4)
• Desired Expression and Plot
Article 2/5 Couple
• Definition
The moment produced by two equal, opposite, and noncollinear forces is called a couple.

• Illustration and Derivation (Scalars)

MO = F(a + d) - Fa = Fd

• Note especially that the magnitude of the couple is independent of the

distance a which locates the forces with respect to the moment center O.
• It follows that the moment of a couple has the same value for all moment
centers.
Article 2/5 – Vector Algebra Method

• Illustration and Derivation (Vectors)

MO = rA × F + rB × (-F) = (rA - rB) × F = r × F

• The Couple is a Free Vector

Article 2/5 – Alternative Representations of Couples

• Two-Dimensional Representations
• Because the couple vector M is always perpendicular to
the plane of the forces which constitute the couple, in
two-dimensional analysis we can represent the sense of a
couple vector as clockwise or counterclockwise by one
of the conventions shown in Figure.
• Later, when we deal with couple vectors in three-
dimensional problems, we will use the notation to
represent them.
Article 2/5 – Equivalent Couples
Article 2/5 – Force-Couple Systems (1 of 2)

• Principle of the Force-Couple System

Any force which acts at a particular location on a body can be replaced by an equivalent force
which acts at a different location and a couple.

• Illustration of the Process

Article 2/5 – Force-Couple Systems (2 of 2)

• Steps to Create a Force-Couple System

1. Write the force as a vector.
2. Compute the moment or couple which the force creates about the point.
3. Redraw the force acting at the new location.
4. Sketch the couple acting at the new location.

• Important Reminder
• The force-couple system has the same effect on the body which the original
force had. It is simply a different way to visualize the effect of the force acting
at a new location.
Article 2/5 – Sample Problem 2/7 (1 of 2)
The rigid structural member is subjected to a couple consisting of the two 100-N forces.
Replace this couple by an equivalent couple consisting of the two forces P and −P, each of
which has a magnitude of 400 N. Determine the proper angle 𝜃.
Article 2/5 – Sample Problem 2/7 (2 of 2)
• Solution
Article 2/5 – Sample Problem 2/8 (1 of 2)
Replace the horizontal 80-lb force acting on the lever by an equivalent system consisting of a
force at O and a couple.
Article 2/5 – Sample Problem 2/8 (2 of 2)

• Solution
Article 2/6 Resultants

• The resultant of a system of forces is the simplest force combination

which can replace the original forces without altering the external
effect on the rigid body to which the forces are applied.

• Equilibrium Condition: Equilibrium of a body is the condition in which the

resultant of all forces acting on the body is zero.

• Nonequilibrium Condition:When the resultant of all forces on a body is not

zero, the acceleration of the body is obtained by equating the force resultant to
the product of the mass and acceleration of body.
Article 2/6 – Planar Force System
Article 2/6 – Algebraic Method (1 of 3)
• Finding the Resultant and Line of Action
1. Choose a convenient reference point and move all forces to that point. This process is depicted
for a three-force system in Figs. (a) and (b) below where M1, M2, and M3 are the couples
resulting from the transfer of forces F1, F2, and F3 from their respective original lines of action
to lines of action through point O.
Article 2/6 – Algebraic Method (2 of 3)
• Finding the Resultant and Line of Action (cont.)
2. Add all forces at O to form the resultant force R, and add all couples to form the resultant
couple MO. We now have the single force–couple system, as shown below in Fig. (c).
3. Find the line of action of R by requiring R to have a moment of MO about point O. Note that
the force system in Fig. (d) is equivalent to the initial force system from Fig. (a) and that Σ(Fd)
in Fig. (a) is equal to Rd in Fig. (d).
Article 2/6 – Algebraic Method (3 of 3)
Article 2/6 – Sample Problem 2/9 (1 of 4)

Determine the resultant of the four forces and one couple which act on the plate shown.
Article 2/6 – Sample Problem 2/9 (2 of 4)
• Equivalent Force-Couple System
Article 2/6 – Sample Problem 2/9 (3 of 4)

• Line of Action for the Resultant

• Alternative Solution (Point C on x-axis)

Article 2/6 – Sample Problem 2/9 (4 of 4)
• Vector Approach for the Line of Action