ME/Math 1221 (MHU) 1

Lecture: 11-17
Some Types of Matrix
Matrix: A rectangular array of numbers enclosed by a pair of 1 st or 3rd bracket and subject to certain rules of
operations is called a matrix.
2 3 5
Example: A=[ ] is a matrix.
1 −1 4
Square matrix: A matrix A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is called a square matrix if the number of row = number of column i,e. i=j.
1 2
Example: A=[ ] is a 2 × 2 square matrix
3 4
Unit/ Identity matrix: A square matrix A all of whose non-diagonal elements are zero and also all the
diagonal elements are unity is called a unity/ identity matrix and it is denoted by I.
1 0
Example: I=[ ] is a 2 × 2 unit matrix.
0 1
Diagonal matrix: A square matrix A is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its non-diagonal elements are zero.
3 0
Example: A=[ ] is a 2 × 2 diagonal matrix.
0 4
Scalar matrix: A diagonal matrix whose all the diagonal elements are equal is called a scalar matrix.
3 0
Example: A=[ ] is a 2 × 2 scalar matrix
0 3
Zero/Null matrix: A matrix whose all the elements are zero is called a zero/null matrix.
0 0
Example: A=[ ]is a 2 × 2 zero matrix.
0 0
Commutative matrix: Two square matrices A and B are said to be commutative if AB = BA.
1 −2 3 2
Example: A=[ ], B = [ ] are 2 × 2 commutative matrices.
−1 3 1 1
Anti-commutative matrix: Two square matrices A and B are said to be anti-commutative if AB = - BA.
Upper triangular matrix: A square matrix A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is said to be upper triangular matrix if. i > j be zero.
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
Example: A=[ 0 𝑎22 𝑎23 ]is a 3 × 3 upper triangular matrix.
0 0 𝑎33
Lower triangular matrix: A square matrix A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is said to be lower triangular matrix if. i < j be zero.
𝑎11 0 0
Example: A=[𝑎21 𝑎22 0 ]is a 3 × 3 lower triangular matrix.
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
Idempotent matrix: A square matrix A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is said to be idempotent matrix if. A2 = A.
1 0
Example: A=[ ]is a 2 × 2 idempotent matrix.
0 1
Involuntary matrix: A square matrix A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is said to be involuntary matrix if. A2 = I.
1 2
Example: A=[ ]is a 2 × 2 involuntary matrix.
0 −1
Transpose of a matrix: Let A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] be an 𝑚 × 𝑛matrix. If we interchange row by column and column by
row, then we obtain an 𝑛 × 𝑚matrix. This matrix is called the transpose matrix of A and it is denoted by 𝐴′.
ME/Math 1221 (MHU) 2

1 2 3 1 4 7
Example: if A=[4 5 6] then 𝐴′= [2 5 8] .
7 8 9 3 6 9
Symmetric matrix: A square matrix A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is said to be symmetric matrix if 𝐴′ = 𝐴
i,e. 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑗𝑖 for all i and j
1 2 3
Example: A=[2 4 6]is a 3 × 3 symmetric matrix.
3 6 9
Skew symmetric matrix: A square matrix A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is said to be skew symmetric matrix if 𝐴′ = −𝐴
i,e. 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = −𝑎𝑗𝑖 for all i and j.
0 −2 3
Example: A=[ 2 0 4]is a 3 × 3 skew symmetric matrix.
−3 −4 0
̅ = 𝐴.
Hermitian matrix: A square matrix A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is called hermitian matrix if 𝐴′
1 1−𝑖 2
Example: A=[1 + 𝑖 3 𝑖 ]is a 3 × 3 hermitian matrix.
2 −𝑖 0
̅ = −𝐴.
Skew hermitian matrix: A square matrix A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is called skew hermitian matrix if 𝐴′
0 1−𝑖 2
Example: A=[−1 − 𝑖 0 𝑖 ]is a 3 × 3 skew hermitian matrix.
−2 𝑖 0
Conjugates of a matrix: Let A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] be a matrix with complex number, then the matrix form by the
conjugates of the elements is called the Conjugates of the matrix A and it is denoted by 𝐴̅.
1 + 2𝑖 3𝑖 1 − 2𝑖 −3𝑖
Example: If A=[ ] then 𝐴̅= [ ].
3𝑖 2 − 3𝑖 −3𝑖 2 + 3𝑖
Orthogonal matrix: A square matrix A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is called orthogonal matrix if 𝐴′𝐴 = 𝐼.
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Example: A=[ ] is orthogonal matrix.
− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
̅ 𝐴 = 𝐼.
Unitary matrix: A square matrix A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is said to be unitary matrix if 𝐴′
1+𝑖 −1+𝑖
2 2
Example: A=[1+𝑖 1−𝑖
]is a unitary matrix.
2 2

Trace of a matrix : The sum of the diagonal elements of square matrix is called trace of matrix.
Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] be a square matrix of order n, then the trace of 𝐴 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎11 + 𝑎22 + ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 .
Theorem-1: Show that the matrix multiplication is associative.
Or, Assuming that A, B, C, are conferrable for products, then prove that 𝑨(𝑩𝑪) = (𝑨𝑩)𝑪.
Proof: Let, A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] be of order 𝑚 × 𝑛, 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑗𝑘 ] be of order 𝑛 × 𝑝 and 𝐶 = [𝑐𝑘𝑟 ] be of order 𝑝 × 𝑞.
Now, 𝐴𝐵 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ][𝑏𝑗𝑘 ] = [𝑑𝑖𝑘 ] (say) where 𝑑𝑖𝑘 = ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑏𝑗𝑘 ........................... (i)

Then, (𝐴𝐵)𝐶 = [𝑑𝑖𝑘 ][𝑐𝑘𝑟 ] = [𝑒𝑖𝑟 ] (say) where 𝑒𝑖𝑟 = ∑𝑝𝑘=1 𝑑𝑖𝑘 𝑐𝑘𝑟 = ∑𝑝𝑘=1(∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑏𝑗𝑘 )𝑐𝑘𝑟 [from (i)]
i,e; (i,r) th element of (𝐴𝐵)𝐶 = ∑𝑝𝑘=1 ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑏𝑗𝑘 𝑐𝑘𝑟 ..................... (ii)
2
 ME/Math 1221 (MHU) 3
𝑝
Again 𝐵𝐶 = [𝑏𝑗𝑘 ][𝑐𝑘𝑟 ] = [ℎ𝑗𝑟 ] (say) where ℎ𝑗𝑟 = ∑𝑘=1 𝑏𝑗𝑘 𝑐𝑘𝑟 ........................... (iii)
Then 𝐴(𝐵𝐶 ) = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ][ℎ𝑗𝑟 ] = [𝑔𝑖𝑟 ] (say) where 𝑔𝑖𝑟 = ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ℎ𝑗𝑟 = ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑎𝑖𝑗 (∑𝑝𝑘=1 𝑏𝑗𝑘 𝑐𝑘𝑟 )
i,e; (i,r) th element of 𝐴(𝐵𝐶) = ∑𝑝𝑘=1 ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑏𝑗𝑘 𝑐𝑘𝑟 ............(iv) [Since the summation can be interchanged]
Thus from (ii) and (iv) we get, 𝐴(𝐵𝐶) = (𝐴𝐵)𝐶 which is the condition of associative law.
Hence matrix multiplication is associative (proved).
Theorem-2: The transpose of the product of two matrices is the product reverse order of their transpose.
i, e; (𝑨𝑩)′ = 𝑩′𝑨′.
Proof: Let, A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] be of order 𝑚 × 𝑛 and 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑗𝑘 ] be of order 𝑛 × 𝑝
Now, 𝐴𝐵 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ][𝑏𝑗𝑘 ] = [𝑑𝑖𝑘 ] (say) where 𝑑𝑖𝑘 = ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑏𝑗𝑘 .............................. (i)
∴ (𝑖, 𝑘 )th element of 𝐴𝐵 = ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑏𝑗𝑘

Now, (𝑘, 𝑖 )th element of ( AB ) = (𝑖, 𝑘 )th element of 𝐴𝐵 = ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑏𝑗𝑘 .
𝑎𝑖1
𝑎𝑖2
′
Also, i-th column of 𝐴 = i-th row of 𝐴 = ⋮
⋮
𝑎
( 𝑖𝑛 )
and k-th row of 𝐵′ = k-th column of 𝐵 = (𝑏1𝑘 𝑏2𝑘 ⋯⋯ 𝑏𝑛𝑘 )
𝑎𝑖1
𝑎𝑖2
∴ (𝑘, 𝑖 )th element of 𝐵′𝐴′ = (𝑏1𝑘 𝑏2𝑘 ⋯ ⋯ 𝑏𝑛𝑘 ) ⋮ = 𝑏1𝑘 𝑎𝑖1 + 𝑏2𝑘 𝑎𝑖2 + ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛𝑘 𝑎𝑖𝑛
⋮
(𝑎𝑖𝑛 )
= 𝑎𝑖1 𝑏1𝑘 + 𝑎𝑖2 𝑏2𝑘 + ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑛𝑘
= ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑏𝑗𝑘 = (𝐴𝐵)′
∴ 𝐵′𝐴′ = (𝐴𝐵)′
Hence (𝐴𝐵)′ = 𝐵′𝐴′ Proved.

Theorem-3: Show that the diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix are zero.
Proof: Let, A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] be a skew symmetric matrix. Then by definition we know 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = −𝑎𝑗𝑖 for all i and j.
Since in diagonal elements i = j.
So, 𝑎𝑖𝑖 = −𝑎𝑖𝑖
or, 𝑎𝑖𝑖 + 𝑎𝑖𝑖 = 0
or, 2𝑎𝑖𝑖 = 0
or, 𝑎𝑖𝑖 = 0
Hence the diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix are zero. Proved.
ME/Math 1221 (MHU) 4

The adjoint of a matrix

Adjoint of a Matrix: Let, A be any n-square matrix & 𝛼𝑖𝑗 be its cofactor then the cofactor matrix is
𝛼11 𝛼12 ⋯ ⋯ 𝛼1𝑛
𝛼 𝛼22 ⋯ ⋯ 𝛼2𝑛
[ 21 ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝛼𝑛1 𝛼𝑛2 ⋯ ⋯ 𝛼𝑛𝑛
The adjoint of A is the transpose of its cofactor matrix and is denoted by adjA.
Note: Let, 𝐴 = [𝛼𝑖𝑗 ] be an n-square matrix, then cofactor = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 minor, here i = row and j = column no.
Also minor is the sub-determinant of a matrix.

1 2 3
Example-1: Find the adjoint matrix of 𝐴 = [2 3 2].
3 3 4
1 2 3
Solution: We have, 𝐴 = [2 3 2]
3 3 4
3 2
Cofactor of 𝛼11 = (−1)1+1 | | = 12 − 6 = 6
3 4
2 2
Cofactor of 𝛼12 = (−1)1+2 | | = −(8 − 6) = −2
3 4
2 3
Cofactor of 𝛼13 = (−1)1+3 | | = 6 − 9 = −3
3 3
2 3
Cofactor of 𝛼21 = (−1)2+1 | | = −(8 − 9) = 1
3 4
1 3
Cofactor of 𝛼22 = (−1)4 | | = 4 − 9 = −5
3 4
1 2
Cofactor of 𝛼23 = (−1)5 | | = −(3 − 6) = 3
3 3
2 3
Cofactor of 𝛼31 = (−1)4 | | = 4 − 9 = −5
3 2
1 3
Cofactor of 𝛼32 = (−1)5 | | = −(2 − 6) = 4
2 2
1 2
Cofactor of 𝛼33 = (−1)6 | | = 3 − 4 = −1
2 3
𝛼11 𝛼12 𝛼13 6 −2 −3
∴Cofactor matrix of A= [𝛼21 𝛼22 𝛼23 ] = [ 1 −5 3 ]
𝛼31 𝛼32 𝛼33 −5 4 −1
6 1 −5
Hence, adj A= [−2 −5 4 ] Ans.
−3 3 −1

Theorem: For any n-square matrix A, Prove that A.(adj A) = (adj A) A = |𝐴|. 𝐼𝑛 .
Proof: Let A be any n-square matrix

4
 ME/Math 1221 (MHU) 5

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛

  𝑎
 A = aij = [ 21
⋮
𝑎22 ⋯ ⋯
⋮
𝑎2𝑛
⋮
]
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑛×𝑛
𝛼11 𝛼12 ⋯ ⋯ 𝛼1𝑛
𝛼 𝛼22 ⋯ ⋯ 𝛼2𝑛
and 𝛼𝑖𝑗 be its cofactor then cofactor matrix is [ 21 ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝛼𝑛1 𝛼𝑛2 ⋯ ⋯ 𝛼𝑛𝑛

𝛼11 𝛼21 ⋯ ⋯ 𝛼𝑛1

𝛼 𝛼22 ⋯ ⋯ 𝛼𝑛2
∴ adj A = [ 12 ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝛼1𝑛 𝛼2𝑛 ⋯ ⋯ 𝛼𝑛𝑛

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝛼11 𝛼21 ⋯ ⋯ 𝛼𝑛1

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝛼 𝛼22 ⋯ ⋯ 𝛼𝑛2
Now, A.(adjA) = [ ] × [ 12 ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝛼1𝑛 𝛼2𝑛 ⋯ ⋯ 𝛼𝑛𝑛
|𝐴 | 0⋯⋯ 0 1 0⋯⋯ 0
0 |𝐴 | ⋯ ⋯ 0 0 1⋯⋯ 0
=[ ]= A [ ]=|𝐴|. 𝐼𝑛
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
0 0 ⋯ ⋯ |𝐴 | 0 0⋯⋯ 1
∴ A.(adj A) = |𝐴|. 𝐼𝑛 .
Similarly (adj A). A= |𝐴|. 𝐼𝑛
Hence A.(adj A) = (adj A). A=|𝐴|. 𝐼𝑛
Theorem: Show that adj (adj A)= |𝐴|𝑛−2 . 𝐴 if |𝐴| ≠ 0
Proof: We know, for any n-Square matrix A.(adj A) = |𝐴|. 𝐼𝑛 .
Now, adj A adj (adj A)=|𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴|. 𝐼𝑛 ............................. (i) [Replace A by adjA]
Again, A.(adj A) = |𝐴|. 𝐼𝑛 .
or, |𝐴. (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)| = ||𝐴|. 𝐼𝑛 |
= |𝐴|𝑛
or, |𝐴|. |𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴| = |𝐴|𝑛
or, |𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴| = |𝐴|𝑛−1 .................... (ii)
Putting the value of (ii) in (i) we get, adj A adj (adj A) = |𝐴|𝑛−1 . 𝐼𝑛
or, A. adj A adj (adj A) = A. |𝐴|𝑛−1 . 𝐼𝑛
or, |𝐴|. 𝐼𝑛 adj (adj A) = |𝐴|𝑛−1 . 𝐴. 𝐼𝑛
|𝐴|𝑛−1
or, adj (adj A) = |𝐴|
.𝐴

or, adj (adj A) = |𝐴|𝑛−2 . 𝐴 Proved.

ME/Math 1221 (MHU) 6

Inverse of a Matrix
Definition: For any n-square non-singular matrix A, the inverse is 𝐴−1 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴
|𝐴|
.
Singular and non-singular Matrix: Any square matrix A is said to be singular if |𝐴| = 0 and it is said to be
non-singular if |𝐴| ≠ 0.
1 2 −1
Problem-1: Find the inverse of 𝐴 = [−1 1 2 ].
2 −1 1
1 2 −1
Solution: We have, 𝐴 = [−1 1 2]
2 −1 1
1 2 −1
| |
Now, 𝐴 = −1 1| 2 | = 1(1 + 2) + 2(4 + 1) − 1(1 − 2) = 14
2 −1 1
1 2
Cofactor of 𝑎11 = (−1)1+1 | |=1+2= 3
−1 1
−1 2
Cofactor of 𝑎12 = (−1)3 | | = −(−1 − 4) = 5
2 1
−1 1
Cofactor of 𝑎13 = (−1)4 | | = 1 − 2 = −1
2 −1
2 −1
Cofactor of 𝑎21 = (−1)3 | | = −(2 − 1) = −1
−1 1
1 −1
Cofactor of 𝑎22 = (−1)4 | |=3
2 1
1 2
Cofactor of 𝑎23 = (−1)5 | |=5
2 −1
2 −1
Cofactor of 𝑎31 = (−1)4 | |=5
1 2
1 −1
Cofactor of 𝑎32 = (−1)5 | | = −1
−1 2
1 2
Cofactor of 𝑎33 = (−1)6 | | = 1+2 = 3
−1 1
3 5 −1
∴ Cofactor matrix =[−1 3 5]
5 −1 3
3 −1 5
∴ adj A =[ 5 3 −1]
−1 5 3
3 −1 5
3 −1 5 14 14 14
−1 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴 1 5 3 −1
Hence 𝐴 = |𝐴|
= 14 [ 5 3 −1] = 14 14 14
Ans.
−1 5 3 −1 5 3
[ 14 14 14 ]
1 −1 1
H.W. Problem-2: If 𝐴 = [2 −1 0]then find 𝐴2and show that 𝐴2 = 𝐴−1 .
1 0 0

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 ME/Math 1221 (MHU) 7

Rank of a Matrix
Definition: The rank of a matrix A is said to be r if
(i) Every minor of A of order r+1 is zero.
(ii) There is at least one minor of A of order r does not zero.
and it is denoted by 𝜌(𝐴) = 𝑟.
Note: The rank of a null matrix is zero.
Methods for determination of rank: We can find the rank of a matrix by the following methods generally
(i) By the help of minor.
(ii) By reducing the given matrix to canonical/ Normal form.
(iii) By reducing the matrix to Echelon form.
1 2 3
Problem-1: Find the rank of 𝐴 = [2 3 4].
3 5 7
1 2 3
Solution: We have, 𝐴 = [2 3 4]
3 5 7
1 2 3
Minor of order 3 is = |2 3 4| = 0
3 5 7
1 2
Minor of order 2 is = | | = −1 ≠ 0
2 3
Hence the required rank is 𝜌(𝐴) = 2.

1 3 4
Problem-2: Find the rank of 𝐴 = [ ].
2 6 8
1 3 4
Solution: We have, 𝐴 = [ ]
2 6 8
We can form square sub-matrices of order 1, 2.
1 3 3 4 1 4
Minor of order 2 are: | | = 0, | | = 0, | |=0
2 6 6 8 2 8
Minor of order 1 are: |1| = 1 ≠ 0,
Hence the required rank is 𝜌(𝐴) = 1.
Normal form of a matrix: By means of elementary transformations, any matrix A of rank r > 0 can be
𝐼 0
reduced to one of the forms [𝐼𝑟 ], [ 𝑟 ], [𝐼𝑟 0], [𝐼𝑟 ] is called its normal form.
0 0 0
2 3 −1 −1
1 −1 −2 −4
Problem-3: Find the rank of 𝐴 = [ ] by reducing canonical/ Normal form.
3 1 3 −2
6 3 0 −7
2 3 −1 −1
1 −1 −2 −4
Solution: We have, 𝐴 = [ ]
3 1 3 −2
6 3 0 −7
Apply elementary transformation as follows:
2 3 −1 −1 1 −1 −2 −4
1 −1 −2 −4 2 3 −1 −1
𝐴=[ ] R21 [ ]
3 1 3 −2 3 1 3 −2
6 3 0 −7 6 3 0 −7
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
2 5 3 7 0 5 3 7
[ ] R21(-2), R31(-3), R41(-6), [ ]
C21(1), C31(2), C41(4) 3 4 9 10 0 4 9 10
6 9 12 17 0 9 12 17
ME/Math 1221 (MHU) 8

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 5 3 7 0 1 3 7
[ ] C2(1/5) [ ]
R4 = R2+R3- R4 0 4 9 10 0 4⁄5 9 10
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
[ 4⁄ 33⁄ 22⁄ ] R32(-4/5) [ 33⁄ 22⁄ ]
C32(-3), C42(-7) 0 5 5 5 0 0 5 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 𝐼3 0
[ 22 ] [ ] [ ]
C3 (5/33) 0 0 1 ⁄5 C43(-22/5) 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Which is the required canonical/ Normal form.
Hence the required rank is 𝜌(𝐴) = 3. Ans.
1 −1 3 6
Problem-4: Find the rank of 𝑃 = [1 3 −3 −4] by reducing canonical/ Normal form.
5 3 3 1
1 −1 3 6
Solution: We have, 𝑃 = [1 3 −3 −4]
5 3 3 1
Apply elementary transformation as follows:
1 −1 3 6 1 0 0 0
[1 3 −3 −4] [1 4 −6 −10]
5 3 3 1 C21(1), C31(-3), C41(-6) 5 8 −12 −29
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
[0 4 −6 −10] [0 4 −6 −10]
0 8 −12 −29 R32(-2) 0 0 0 −9
R21(-1), R31(-5)
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
[0 1 −6 −10] [0 1 0 0 ]
C2(1/4) 0 0 0 −9 C32(6), C42(10), 0 0 0 −9

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
[0 1 0 0 ] [0 1 0 0] [𝐼3 0]
0 0 −9 0 C3(-1/9) 0 0 1 0
C34
Which is the required canonical/ Normal form.
Hence the required rank is 𝜌(𝑃) = 3. Ans.

−2 −1 −3 −1
1 2 3 −1
H.W. Problem-5 Find the rank of 𝐴 = [ ] by reducing canonical/ Normal form. Ans. 2
1 0 1 1
0 1 1 −1
1 0 2 1
0 1 −2 1
H.W. Problem-6 Find the rank of 𝑃 = [ ] by reducing canonical/ Normal form. Ans. 3
1 −1 4 0
2 2 8 0
3 −2 0 1
0 2 2 1
H.W. Problem-7 Find the rank of 𝐴 = [ ] by reducing canonical/ Normal form. Ans. 4
1 −2 −3 2
0 1 2 1

8
 ME/Math 1221 (MHU) 9

System of Linear Equations

Definition: Let us consider a set of m-linear equations with n-unknowns 𝑥1, 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 :
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚
The above equations are known as system of linear equations. Interms of matrix, the above system of linear
equations can be written as 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵.
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥1 𝑏1
𝑎 𝑎22 ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥 2 𝑏
Where 𝐴 = [ 21 ] , 𝑋 = [ ⋮ ] and 𝐵 = [ 2 ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑛 𝑏𝑚
,
The matrix A is called coefficient matrix and B is called constant matrix.
The above system of linear equation is said to be homogeneous if 𝐵 = 0 and non-homogeneous if 𝐵 ≠ 0.

Augmented matrix: The matrix is of the form [𝐴: 𝐵] is called the augmented matrix of the given system of
linear equation 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵. It is denoted by 𝑨∗
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 : 𝑏1
𝑎 𝑎22 ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 : 𝑏2
So, 𝑨∗ = [ 21 ].
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 ⋮ 𝑏𝑚

Difference between consistent and inconsistent system of linear equations.

Consistent: If the rank of the Coefficient matrix is equal to the rank of augmented matrix, then the system is
called consistent. It has either one solution or, infinitely many solutions.
If 𝜌(𝐴) = 𝑟 = 𝑛 (no. of variables) then the solution is unique.
Inconsistent: If the rank of the Coefficient matrix is not equal to the rank of augmented matrix, then the
system is called inconsistent. It has no solution.
Since 𝜌(𝐴) ≠ 𝜌(𝐴: 𝐵) so the system has no solution.

Problem-1: Solve the following equations by matrix method

𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 + 2𝑤 = 2
2𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 8𝑧 + 6𝑤 = 5
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 5𝑧 + 2𝑤 = 4
Solution: The given equations can be written in the form 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
𝑥
1 2 −3 2 2
𝑦
Where, A = [2 5 −8 6], 𝑋 = [ 𝑧 ] and 𝐵 = [5]
3 4 −5 2 𝑤 4
1 2 −3 2 ∶ 2 1 2 −3 2 ∶ 2
* ∗
The augmented matrix A is 𝑨 = [2 5 −8 6 ∶ 5] [0 1 −2 2 ∶ 1 ]
3 4 −5 2 ∶ 4 R21(-2) R 31(-3)
0 −2 4 −4 ∶ −2
1 2 −3 2 ∶ 2
R32(2) [0 1 −2 2 ∶ 1]
0 0 0 0∶0
Since the rank of the matrix A and A* are same. So, the system is consistent and has solution.
ME/Math 1221 (MHU) 10

Also, since 𝜌(𝐴) = 𝜌(𝐴∗ ) = 2 <no. of variable, So, the system has infinitely many solutions.
Number of free variables = number of variables – rank =4-2 =2
Let, z and w be the free variable.
For the general solution put z =a and w=b
then from the Echelon form of the matrix we can be written as
𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 + 2𝑤 = 2 .................. (i)
𝑦 − 2𝑧 + 2𝑤 = 1 ...........................(ii)
from Eq. (ii) 𝑦 − 2𝑎 + 2𝑏 = 1
or, 𝑦 = 1 + 2𝑎 − 2𝑏
From Eq.(i) 𝑥 + 2(1 + 2𝑎 − 2𝑏) − 3𝑎 + 2𝑏 = 2
or, 𝑥 = −𝑎 + 2𝑏
Hence the general solution is 𝑥 = −𝑎 + 2𝑏
𝑦 = 1 + 2𝑎 − 2𝑏
𝑧=𝑎
𝑤=𝑏
Problem-2: Solve the following equations by matrix method
2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 10
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 1
5𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 4
Solution: The given equations can be written in the form 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
2 1 −2 𝑥 10
Where, 𝐴 = [3 2 2 ], 𝑋 = [𝑦] and 𝐵 = [ 1 ]
5 4 3 𝑧 4
R2=R2(2)+R1(-3)
2 1 −2 ∶ 10 2 1 −2 ∶ 10
The augmented matrix A* is 𝑨∗ = [3 2 2∶ 1] [0 1 10 ∶ −28]
5 4 3 ∶ 4 0 3 16 ∶ −42
R3=R3(2)+R1(-5)
R32(-3)
2 1 −2 ∶ 10
[0 1 10 ∶ −28]
0 0 −14 ∶ 42
Since the rank of the matrix A and A* are same. So, the system is consistent and has solution.
Since 𝜌(𝐴) = 𝜌(𝐴∗ ) = 3 =no. of variable, So, the system has unique solution.
then from the Echelon form of the matrix we can be written as
2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 10 .................. (i)
𝑦 + 10𝑧 = −28 ...........................(ii)
−14𝑧 = 42 ................................(iii)
from Eq. (iii) 𝑧 = −3
From Eq.(ii) 𝑦 + 10(−3) = −28
or, 𝑦 = 2
From Eq.(i) 2𝑥 + 2 + 6 = 10
or, 𝑥 = 1
Hence the solution is 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 2, 𝑧 = −3 Ans.

Problem-3: Solve the following equations by matrix method

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 + 𝑥4 = 5
2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 − 𝑥3 − 2𝑥4 = 2
10
 ME/Math 1221 (MHU) 11

4𝑥1 + 5𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 7

Solution: The given equations can be written in the form 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
𝑥1
1 1 2 1 𝑥 5
Where, A = [2 3 −1 −2], 𝑋 = [𝑥2 ] and 𝐵 = [2]
3
4 5 3 0 𝑥4 7

1 1 2 1 ∶ 5 1 1 2 1 ∶ 5
The augmented matrix A* is 𝑨∗ = [2 3 −1 −2 ∶ 2] [0 1 −5 −4 ∶ −8 ]
4 5 3 0 ∶ 7 R21(-2) R31(-4) 0 1 −5 −4 ∶ −13
R32(-1) 1 1 2 1 ∶ 5
[0 1 −5 −4 ∶ −8]
0 0 0 0 ∶ −5
Since the rank of the matrix A and A* are not same. So, the system is inconsistent and has no solution.

Problem-4: Determine the condition on a, b and c, so that the system has a solution
𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 𝑎
3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 𝑏
𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 8𝑧 = 𝑐
Solution: The given equations can be written in the form 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵

1 2 −3 𝑥 𝑎
Where, 𝐴 = [3 −1 2 ], 𝑋 = [𝑦] and 𝐵 = [𝑏]
1 −5 8 𝑧 𝑐

1 2 −3 : 𝑎 R21(-3) 1 2 −3 : 𝑎
The augmented matrix A* is A∗ = [3 −1 2 : 𝑏] [0 −7 11 : 𝑏 − 3𝑎]
1 −5 8 : 𝑐 R31(-1) 0 −7 11 : 𝑐 − 𝑎
R32(-1) 1 2 −3 : 𝑎
[0 −7 11 : 𝑏 − 3𝑎 ]
0 0 0 : 2𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐

If 2𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0 then the rank of the matrix A and A* are same. So, the system is consistent and has
solution.
Hence the required condition is 2𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0.
Problem-5: For what values of 𝜆, the system
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝜆𝑧 = 2
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 𝜆
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 1
has (i) a unique solution
(ii) no solution
(iii) more than one solution.
Solution: The given equations can be written in the form 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
1 1 𝜆 𝑥 2
Where, 𝐴 = [3 4 2 ], 𝑋 = [𝑦] and 𝐵 = [𝜆 ]
2 3 −1 𝑧 1
1 1 𝜆 : 2 1 1 𝜆 : 2
* ∗
The augmented matrix A is A = [3 4 2 : 𝜆 ] [0 1 2 − 3𝜆 : 𝜆 − 6]
2 3 −1 : 1 R21(-3) R 0 1 −1 − 2𝜆 : −3
31(-2)
R32(-1)
ME/Math 1221 (MHU) 12

1 1 𝜆 : 2
[0 1 2 − 3𝜆 : 𝜆 − 6]
0 0 𝜆−3 : 3−𝜆

Case-(i) If 𝜆 ≠ 3then the system has a unique solution.

Case-(ii) the system always has a solution.
Case-(iii) If 𝜆 = 3 then the system has more than one solution.

H.W. Problem-6: Solve the following equations by matrix method

𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 3
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 8𝑧 = 4
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 17𝑧 = 1
H.W. Problem-7: For what values of 𝑘, the system
𝑘𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1
𝑥 + 𝑘𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑘𝑧 = 1
has (i) a unique solution
(ii) no solution
(iii) more than one solution.

.Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors.

Definition: If A is a square matrix of order n then a non-zero vector V in Rn is called an eigen vector of A if
AV is a scalar multiple of V that is 𝐴𝑉 = 𝜆𝑉 for some scalar 𝜆. Here the scalar 𝜆 is called an
eigen value of A and V is called the eigen vector of A corresponding to 𝜆.
Also, the eigen vector are called characteristic vectors and eigen values are called characteristic
values or roots.
Characteristic polynomial and Characteristic equation: Suppose A is a square matrix of order n then by
definition of eigen value 𝜆 and its corresponding eigen vector V we can write
𝐴𝑉 = 𝜆𝑉 Equivalently 𝐴𝑉 = 𝜆𝐼𝑉 where I is an identity matrix.
or, 𝐴𝑉 − 𝜆𝐼𝑉 = 0
or, (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 )𝑉 = 0................. (i)
In equation (i) the matrix (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 ) is called Characteristic matrix of A and the determinant of
the Characteristic matrix(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 ) is called Characteristic polynomial of A. Hence the equation
|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0 is called Characteristic equation.

1 0 −2
Problem-1: Find the eigen values and the corresponding eigen vectors of the matrix: 𝐴 = [ 0 0 0 ].
−2 0 4
Solution: We Know, the Characteristic equation |𝜆𝐼 − 𝐴| = 0

12
 ME/Math 1221 (MHU) 13

𝜆−1 0 2
or, | 0 𝜆 0 |=0
2 0 𝜆−4
or, (𝜆 − 1)𝜆(𝜆 − 4) + 2(−2𝜆) = 0
or, 𝜆2 (𝜆 − 5) = 0
or, 𝜆 = 0,0,5 which are eigen values of A.
𝑥
Now the eigen vectors of A can be determined from the equation 𝜆𝐼 − 𝐴 𝑋 = 0 where 𝑋 = 𝑦]
[ ] [
𝑧
𝜆−1 0 2 𝑥 0
then [ 0 𝜆 0 ] [ 𝑦 ] = 0]
[
2 0 𝜆−4 𝑧 0
or,(𝜆 − 1)𝑥 + 0. 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
0. 𝑥 + 𝜆. 𝑦 + 0. 𝑧 = 0
2𝑥 + 0. 𝑦 + (𝜆 − 4)𝑧 = 0
Now for the eigen value, 𝜆 = 0
𝑥 + 0. 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 0 ................ (i)
In (i) the free variables are y and z,
Let, y=1, z=0 and y=0, z=1
then we get, x=0, y=1, z=0 and x=2, y=0,z=1.
0 2
Thus [1] and [0] are two linearly independent eigen vectors corresponding to the eigen value 𝜆 = 0, 0.
0 1
Again, for the eigen value, 𝜆 = 5
2𝑥 + 0. 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0
} ................ (ii)
5𝑦 + 0. 𝑧 = 0
In (ii) the free variable is z,
Let, z=-2
then we get, x=1, y=0, z=-2
1
Thus [ 0 ] is an eigen vectors corresponding to the eigen value 𝜆 = 5.
−2
2 2 1
Problem-2: Find the eigen values and the corresponding eigen vectors of the matrix: 𝐴 = [1 3 1].
1 2 2
Solution: We Know, the Characteristic equation |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0
2−𝜆 2 1
or, | 1 3−𝜆 1 |=0
1 2 2−𝜆
or, (2 − 𝜆)(6 − 5𝜆 + 𝜆2 − 2) − 2(2 − 𝜆 − 1) + 1(2 − 3 + 𝜆) = 0
or, (2 − 𝜆)(𝜆2 − 5𝜆 − 4) − 2(1 − 𝜆) + (𝜆 − 1) = 0
or, (2 − 𝜆)(𝜆 − 4)(𝜆 − 1) + 3(𝜆 − 1) = 0
or, (𝜆 − 1)(−𝜆2 + 6𝜆 − 8 + 3) = 0
or, (𝜆 − 1)(𝜆 − 1)(𝜆 − 5) = 0
or, 𝜆 = 1, 1,5 which are eigen values of A.
ME/Math 1221 (MHU) 14

𝑥
Let, 𝑋 = [𝑦] be the eigen vector of A corresponding to 𝜆.
𝑧
Now the eigen vectors of A can be determined from the equation [𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 ]𝑋 = 0
2−𝜆 2 1 𝑥 0
then [ 1 3−𝜆 1 ] [𝑦 ] = 0]................... (i)
[
1 2 2−𝜆 𝑧 0
For 𝜆 = 1we get from Eq. (i).
1 2 1 𝑥 0
=[1 2 1] [𝑦] = [0]
1 2 1 𝑧 0
1 2 1 𝑥 0
[0 0 0 ] [𝑦 ] = [ 0]
R21(-1)
0 0 0 𝑧 0
R31(-1)

or,𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0 ......................... (ii)

Since in (ii) one equation and three variables
So, free variables are 3-1=2. Let, y and z are free variables and taking y=a, z=b,
then we get, from (ii) x= -(2a+b).
−(2𝑎 + 𝑏)
Thus, the eigen vectors corresponding to the eigen value 𝜆 = 1, is [ 𝑎 ]
𝑏
Again, for the eigen value, 𝜆 = 5
−3 2 1 𝑥 0
[ 1 −2 1 ] [𝑦] = [0]
1 2 −3 𝑧 0
1 −2 1 𝑥 0
[−3 2 1 ] [𝑦] = [0]
R12 1 2 −3 𝑧 0

1 −2 1 𝑥 0
[0 −4 4 ] [𝑦] = [0]
R21(3)
0 4 −4 𝑧 0
R31(-1)
1 −2 1 𝑥 0
[0 −4 4] [𝑦] = [0]
R32(1) 0 0 0 𝑧 0
𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0
or, } ......................... (iii)
−4𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 0
Since in (iii) two equation and three variables
So, free variables are 3-2=1. Let, z is free variables and taking 𝑧 = 𝑎.
then we get, from (iii) 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑦 = 𝑎, 𝑧 = 𝑎.
𝑎
Thus, the eigen vectors corresponding to the eigen value 𝜆 = 5, is [𝑎]
𝑎

14
 ME/Math 1221 (MHU) 15

H.W. Problem-3: Find the eigen values and the corresponding eigen vectors of the matrix:
4 6 6
𝐴=[1 3 2 ].
−1 −4 −3
H.W. Problem-4: Find the eigen values and the corresponding eigen vectors of the matrix:
5 2 0
𝐴 = [−1 3 0 ]. [𝜆 = 5,3, −1]
0 2 −1
H.W. Problem-5: Find the eigen values and the corresponding eigen vectors of the matrix:
1 −3 3
𝐴 = [3 −5 3]. [𝜆 = 4, −2, −2]
6 −6 4
Theorem: State and Prove Calley-Hamilton theorem
Statement: Every square matrix satisfy its characteristic equation.
Thus if |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 𝜆𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝜆𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝜆𝑛−2 + ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑎0 = 0 is the characteristic equation of the matrix
A.
Then 𝐴𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝐴𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝐴𝑛−2 + ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑎0 𝐼𝑛 = 0.
Proof: Let, A be any arbitrary n square matrix. Then |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | be it characteristic polynomial.
Suppose, |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 𝜆𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝜆𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝜆𝑛−2 + ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑎0
Then adj(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) is a polynomial in 𝜆 of degree not exceeding (n-1).
Since the element of adj(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) are co-factor of the matrix (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼).
Thus, adj(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) = 𝐵𝑛−1 𝜆𝑛−1 + 𝐵𝑛−2 𝜆𝑛−2 + ⋯ ⋯ + 𝐵0 .Where 𝐵𝑖 are n square matrices independent of 𝜆.
But we know that,
(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) adj(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) = |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 |𝐼𝑛
or, (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)(𝐵𝑛−1 𝜆𝑛−1 + 𝐵𝑛−2 𝜆𝑛−2 + ⋯ ⋯ + 𝐵0 ) = (𝜆𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝜆𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝜆𝑛−2 + ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑎0 )𝐼𝑛
Now, Equating the co-efficients of corresponding power of 𝜆 we get,
−𝐵𝑛−1 = 𝐼𝑛
𝐴𝐵𝑛−1 − 𝐵𝑛−2 = 𝑎𝑛−1 𝐼𝑛
⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯
⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯
𝐴𝐵1 − 𝐵0 = 𝑎1 𝐼𝑛
𝐴𝐵0 = 𝑎0 𝐼𝑛
Now multiplying the above matrix equation by 𝐴𝑛 , 𝐴𝑛−1 , 𝐴𝑛−2 , ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ,1 respectively.
−𝐴𝑛 𝐵𝑛−1 = 𝐴𝑛
𝐴𝑛 𝐵𝑛−1 − 𝐴𝑛−1 𝐵𝑛−2 = 𝐴𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−1
𝐴𝑛−1 𝐵𝑛−2 − 𝐴𝑛−2 𝐵𝑛−3 = 𝐴𝑛−2 𝑎𝑛−2
⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯
⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯
𝐴2 𝐵1 − 𝐴𝐵0 = 𝐴𝑎1
𝐴𝐵0 = 𝑎0 𝐼𝑛
Adding the above equation, 𝐴𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝐴𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝐴𝑛−2 + ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑎0 𝐼𝑛 = 0
So, A is a root of its characteristics polynomial. Hence the theorem is proved.
ME/Math 1221 (MHU) 16

1 2 3
Problem-5: Find the characteristic equation of the matrix 𝐴 = [2 −1 1]and verify Calley-Hamilton
3 1 1
theorem.
Solution: We Know, the Characteristic equation |𝜆𝐼 − 𝐴| = 0
𝜆 − 1 −2 −3
or, | −2 𝜆 + 1 −1 | = 0
−3 −1 𝜆 − 1
or, (𝜆 − 1)(𝜆2 − 1 − 1) + 2(2𝜆 + 2 − 3) − 3(2 + 3𝜆 + 3) = 0
or, 𝜆3 − 𝜆2 − 15𝜆 − 15 = 0 Ans.
Now in order to verify Calley-Hamilton theorem we have to show that 𝐴3 − 𝐴2 − 15𝐴 − 15𝐼 = 0.
1 2 3
So, Given 𝐴 = [2 −1 1],
3 1 1
1 2 3 1 2 3 14 3 8
2
∴ 𝐴 = [2 −1 1] [2 −1 1] = [ 3 6 6 ]
3 1 1 3 1 1 8 6 11
14 3 8 1 2 3 44 33 53
and 𝐴3 = 𝐴2 . 𝐴 = [ 3 6 6 ] [2 −1 1] = [33 6 21]
8 6 11 3 1 1 53 21 41
44 33 53 14 3 8 1 2 3 1 0 0
Now, 𝐴3 − 𝐴2 − 15𝐴 − 15𝐼 = [33 6 21] − [ 3 6 6 ] − 15 [2 −1 1] − 15 [0 1 0]
53 21 41 8 6 11 3 1 1 0 0 1
44 − 14 − 15 − 15 33 − 3 − 30 − 0 53 − 8 − 45 − 0 0 0 0
= [ 33 − 3 − 30 − 0 6 − 6 + 15 − 15 21 − 6 − 15 − 0 ] = [0 0 0] = 0
53 − 8 − 45 − 0 21 − 6 − 15 − 0 41 − 11 − 15 − 15 0 0 0
i,e. 𝐴3 − 𝐴2 − 15𝐴 − 15𝐼 = 0
Hence the Calley-Hamilton theorem is verified.
1+𝑥 1 2
Problem-6: Define matric polynomials. Compute 𝑓(𝐴) if 𝑓(𝑥) = 1−𝑥 and 𝐴 = ( ).
2 1
1+𝑥
Solution: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 1−𝑥
1+𝐴 𝐼+𝐴
∴ 𝑓(𝐴) = 1−𝐴 = 𝐼−𝐴
1 0 1 2
( )+( )
0 1 2 1
= 1 0 1 2
( )−( )
0 1 2 1
2 2
(
2 2
) 2 2 0 −2 −1
= 0 −2 =( )( )
(
−2 0
) 2 2 −2 0
0 −2
Let, 𝐵 = ( ) then, |𝐵| = −4, Cofactor of 𝑏11 = 0, 𝑏12 = 2, 𝑏21 = 2, 𝑏22 = 0.
−2 0
1
0 2 0 2 0 −2
Cofactor matrix of 𝐵 = ( ) ∴ 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐵 = ( ) ∴ 𝐵−1 = ( 1 )
2 0 2 0 −2 0
1
2 2 0 − −1 −1
2
Therefore 𝑓(𝐴) = ( )( 1 )=( ) Ans.
2 2 − 0 −1 −1
2

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