SOLID MECHANICS

1) Write a concise description on “Thermal Stresses in Mechanical Structures”. Your

description must include:
 An introduction to the concept of 'Thermal Stresses'.
 The effects of thermal stresses on mechanical structures (including the worst-case
scenarios).
 A mathematical representation of thermal stresses, with an example and a set of
mathematical equations to calculate thermal stresses in a particular structural body.

INTRODUCTION

Thermal stress is the stress produced by any change in the temperature of the material. Thermal
stress is induced in a body when the temperature of the body is raised or lowered and the body is
not allowed to expand or contract freely. Thermal stress includes both heat and cold stress. Thermal
stress can occur due to various factors. following are some common causes,

 Temperature gradients: It occur when a material is not uniformly heated or cooled, leading to
varying rates of expansion or contraction in different sections of the material.
 Rapid temperature changes: Abrupt temperature shifts prevent consistent expansion or
contraction of materials, leading to potential stress.
 Constraints in structure: Thermal stress arises when a material is restricted in its ability to
freely expand or contract.
 Thermal stress can greatly affect materials, impacting their structural integrity and long-term
performance. By examining the impacts, you can more accurately foresee and deter potential
material breakdown.[1]

The primary effects of thermal stress include:

 Cracking: Cracking can occur due to differential expansion and contraction of the material,
particularly when it lacks ductility. Concrete pavements are frequently utilized in highways,
airstrips, and additional infrastructure. Concrete, as a brittle substance, is prone to cracking
from thermal stress, particularly when subjected to drastic temperature fluctuations from day to
night or changes in seasons.
 Warping: Warping happens when various sections of a building expand or shrink at different
rates because of heat stress, causing the structure to distort or twist in shape. During high
temperatures, rail tracks may bend considerably, resulting in dangerous bends or bumps that
could derail a speeding train, resulting in accidents and possible fatalities.
 Fatigue: Fatigue can occur as a result of repeated thermal cycles that gradually weaken the
material. For instance, Turbine blades in jet engines experience drastic temperature
fluctuations, leading to potential cracking from thermal fatigue.[1]
Temperature changes cause the body to expand or contract. The amount of thermal strain (δ T), is
given by

δ T =αL(T f −T i)

α - Coefficient of thermal expansion (m/m.°C)

L – Length (m)

Ti – Initial temperature (°C)

Tf – final temperature (°C)

If temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely, no load or stress will be induced in the
structure. In some cases where temperature deformation is not permitted, an internal stress is
created. The internal stress created is termed as thermal stress.

For a homogeneous rod mounted between unyielding supports as shown, the thermal stress is
computed as,

Deformation due to temperature changes,

δ T =αL(T f −T i)

deformation due to equivalent axial stress

PL
δ p=
AE

σL
δ p=
E

δ T =δ p

σL
αL (T f −T i )=
E

σ =Eα (T f −T i)

σ – Thermal stress (Mpa)

E – Modulus of elasticity (Mpa)

If the wall yields a distance of x as shown, the following calculations will be made

δ T = x+ δ p

σL
αL ( T f −T i )=x +
E

(αL ( T f −T i )−x ) E
σ=
L

A steel rod of length L and uniform cross sectional area A is secured between two walls, as shown
in the figure. Use L=1.5m, E=200 GPa, α =11.7 x 10-6 /°C and AT = 80 C. Calculate the stress for a
temperature increase of temperature when

The walls are fixed

(αL ( T f −T i )−x ) E
σ=
L

As the rod is fixed to walls x = 0. Then,

σ =α ( T f −T i ) E

−6 3
σ =11.7× 10 ×80 ×200 × 10

σ =187.22 Mpa
The walls move apart a distance 0.5 mm.

For the compressive stress when x = 0.5mm

(αL ( T f −T i )−x ) E
σ=
L

−6 −3 3
(11.7× 10 ×1.5 × 80−0.5 ×10 )×200 × 10
σ=
1.5

σ =120.53 Mpa

2) Why do we measure strains rather than stresses when analyzing mechanical structures?

When examining mechanical structures, our attention is on assessing strain rather than stress as
strain provides tangible insights into how a material changes shape under pressure. The amount of
strain an object experiences can be measured easily using tools like strain gauges. Nevertheless,
stress is the internal pressure exerted per unit area in a substance and cannot be measured directly.
The decision should be made considering existing forces, material properties, and shape. Changes in
material properties caused by temperature or fatigue can result in less accurate stress calculations,
as stress is also affected by factors like Young's modulus. [2,3]

In real-life situations, stress is often unpredictable, especially in areas with sharp edges, notches, or
areas of high stress. Placing strain gauges in these key areas provides a clear understanding of
nearby distortions, improving the ability to measure strain and determine how materials respond to
external forces. Strain gauges improve the precision of analyzing structure behavior under complex
stress conditions such as multi-axial loading, simplifying stress calculations for engineers by
eliminating the requirement for intricate force-deformation relationships.[3]
 What tools can be used to measure strains? Please provide a brief description of each tool
and how it is used.

Strain gauges: Strain gauges are commonly used sensing devices that measure deformation or strain
in a variety of materials. The fundamental concept of a strain gauge is its capacity to transform
mechanical strain into an electric signal. The gauge is made up of a slender metal wire that is
connected to the surface of the material being monitored. When the material is stretched, the gauge
changes shape, resulting in a shift in the electrical resistance of the metal element. This increase in
resistance is directly related to the amount of strain applied, enabling precise measurements.[4]

Extensometer: An extensometer is a high-precision instrument. Sensor arm extensometers are

attached directly to the specimen via knife edges mounted on the sensor arms. Strain is measured
through evaluation of the change in angle or travel distance of the sensor arms.[5]

A laser extensometer operates by utilizing a rotating deflector to constantly scan a sample using a
laser beam. Specific stripes on the sample cause the laser light to scatter, leading to changes in the
intensity of the scattered light as the laser moves across these stripes. The system measures the time
of changes to calculate the exact positions of the stripes based on the known deflector speed. Prior
to the experiment, the locations of the stripes establish a standard length. During the application of
pressure on the sample, the movement of the stripes is monitored to calculate the strain by
comparing their positions with the initial length. [6]
Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) Sensors: FBGs are made by writing a periodic change in refractive
index in the core of a specific optical fiber using a strong ultraviolet source like a UV laser. In order
to determine strain with a Fiber Bragg Grating sensor, light is transmitted through an optical fiber
that has a grating pattern. The grating mirrors light at a precise wavelength known as the Bragg
wavelength. Straining the fiber results in a change in grating spacing, which in turn leads to a Bragg
wavelength shift. The strain in the fiber can be determined by measuring the wavelength shift.[7]
REFERENCES

[1]Admin, “Thermal Stress - Definition, Formula, S.I Unit, Application, Working,” BYJUS, May
12, 2019. https://byjus.com/physics/thermal-stress/#faqs (accessed Oct. 17, 2024).

‌[2]“Theoretical and Applied Mechanics Letters | Journal | ScienceDirect.com by Elsevier,”

Sciencedirect.com, 2021. https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/theoretical-and-applied-
mechanics-letters (accessed Oct. 17, 2024).

[3]H. Sönnerlind, “Why all these Stresses and Strains? | COMSOL Blog,” COMSOL, Mar. 22,
2021. https://www.comsol.com/blogs/why-all-these-stresses-and-strains(accessed Oct. 17, 2024).

[4]“Strain Gauge - Principle, Applications, Types [GATE Notes],” BYJUS.

https://byjus.com/gate/strain-gauge/.(accessed Oct. 17, 2024).

‌[5]“Extensometers | Strain measurement devices,” Extensometers | Strain measurement devices.

https://www.zwickroell.com/accessories/extensometers/.(accessed Oct. 17, 2024).

‌[6]S. Broich, “Working Principle of Laserextensometer - Fiedler Optoelektronik GmbH,”

Www.foe.de, 2024. http://www.foe.de/en/products/lex/principle.html (accessed Oct. 17, 2024).

[7]“ FBG: Types, How It Works, Applications - Encardio Rite,” Encardio-rite.

https://www.encardio.com/blog/ FBG -types-how-it-works-applications. (accessed Oct. 17, 2024).