ETHICS AND PROFESSIONALISM

UNIT 1: Ethics and Professionalism

Introduction

This unit provides students the link between ethics and professionalism. It
defines key terms such as ethics, morality, profession, and professionalism.
The question of ethics and professionalism has become of much interest in
most working institutions of recent due to several factors including
corruption, customer/client satisfaction, etc. Ethics, further, has been a
centre of concern in resolving moral dilemmas in various working
institutions. It is against this background that this unit provides the basis of
understanding ethics and professionalism.

Objective of the unit

By the end of this unit, students should able to:

a) Define key terms such as ethics, professionalism, etc.

b) Explain professionalism in relation to work place.

c) Evaluate the link between ethics and professionalism.

Key terms

- Ethics

- Morality

- Profession

- Professionalism

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1.1. Ethics

Ethics means a code of conduct that directs an individual in dealing with

others. Business Ethics is a form of the skill that examines ethical
moralities and honesty or ethical problems that can arise in a business
environment. It deals with matters regarding morals, principles, duties
and corporate governance applicable to a company and its employees,
customers, shareholders, media, suppliers, government and dealers.

Ethics are also related to the core of management practices such as

human resource management, accounting information, production, sales
and marketing, intellectual property knowledge and skill, international
business and economic systems. In the corporate world, the
organization’s culture sets standards for shaping the difference between
good or bad, right or wrong and fair or unfair.

Encyclopedia of Social Sciences defines ethics as “the organization or

criticism of conduct in terms of notions like, good, right or welfare… Ethics is
the secular and critical manner of taking account of the rationalizing process
in human conduct. Its temper is non-mystical, and its orientation is social
rather than theological.”

Further, Ethics is typically defined as the rules or standards governing the

conduct of a person or the members of a profession. It is the basic concept
and fundamental principle of right human conduct. It includes study of
universal values such as the essential equality of all men and women, human

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or natural rights, obedience to the law of land, concern for health and safety
and, increasingly, also for the natural environment.

Rules of professional ethics frame the ethical problems that are encountered
by professionals throughout practice, for example. Moreover, professional
tradition provides an idealized portrait of a professional that serves as a
model for action in real world situations. However, framing an ethical
problem is one thing, resolving such a problem is something else.
Professional Ethics is partly comprised of what a professional should or
should not do in the work -place. It also encompasses a much greater part of
the professional’s life. If a professional is to have ethics then that person
needs to adopt that conduct in all of his or her dealings. Another aspect of
this is the enhancement of the profession and the industry within which the
professional works.

Ethical Standards are principles that when followed, promote values such as
trust, good behaviour, fairness, and/or kindness. Ethical standards are not
always easily enforceable, as they are frequently vaguely defined and
somewhat open to interpretation (i.e., treat the client with respect and
kindness). Others can be more specific (i.e., do not share confidential
information).

Ethical values are a set of established principles governing virtuous

behaviour. To help assure that a profession maintains a good reputation,
many professions concerned about public relations, will develop and
promote a set of suitable ethical values for those within the profession to
adhere to when doing business/practicing their profession.

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Ethical issues are problems or situations that require a person or

organization to choose between alternatives that must be evaluated as right
(ethical) or wrong (unethical).

1.2. Morality

Morality is defined as conformance to a recognized code, doctrine, or

system of rules of what is right or wrong and to behave accordingly. No
system of morality is accepted as universal. What is moral and what is not
moral differs sharply from place to place, group to group, and time to time.

There is a basic, albeit subtle, difference between ethics and morals. Morals
define personal character, while ethics stress a social system in which those
morals are applied. In other words, ethics point to standards or codes of
behaviour expected by a group to which the individual belongs (i.e.,
professional ethics). While a person's moral code is usually unchanging, the
ethics he or she practices can be other-dependent.

1.3. Profession

A Profession is defined as a calling requiring specialized knowledge and

often long and intensive academic preparation.

The professions service the major economic, political, and cultural

institutions of industrial society. If we believe that the social systems of
developed nations work well for human good and all that is needed is more
of the same, we should be pleased by the way professions operate.
Professionalization is called forth by development and it propels
development forward.

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The operational definition of profession can be highly pragmatic. The field

includes the study of occupations which are predominantly service sector
and knowledge based and achieved sometimes following years of
higher/further education and specified years of vocational training and
experience. Sometimes professional groups are also elites with strong
political links and connections, and some professional practitioners are
licensed as a mechanism of market closure and the occupational control of
the work. They are primarily middle-class occupations sometimes
characterised as the service class.

However, we should anticipate the opposite conclusions from a study of

professions if we have different beliefs about society. This discussion will be
predicated on the judgment that the social systems of developed nations, in
which professions figure so prominently, are structured to benefit
socioeconomic elites disproportionately. The least advantaged in the
developed nations are reconciled to this arrangement because they benefit
at the expense of the undeveloped nations. The elites of the undeveloped
nations also benefit. The great majority of humanity, the least advantaged
of the undeveloped nations, are powerless to resist. Moreover, developed
and undeveloped nations alike are prepared to sacrifice future generations
for present benefits.

1.4. Professional

A Professional is defined as a person that is professional; especially one that

engages in a pursuit or activity professionally.

Professionals occupy a strategic position in modern society. They provide

services not available from other quarters, and the services are vital to
those who receive them. Furthermore, professionals not only purport to

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choose the best means for the given ends of their clients and the public;
they help define the ends themselves: the lawyer and accountant shape our
ideas of security; the physician, of health; the priest, of salvation. The
members of newer professions, such as engineering and business
management, make decisions that profoundly affect large numbers of
people without their consent and or knowledge. By circumscribing what is
feasible and efficient through "expert" advice, they shape society's
objectives.

Professionals as professionals, face ethical dilemmas. The way they resolve

these dilemmas determines the moral quality of their lives and the welfare
of those affected by their actions.

1.5. Professional Ethics

Professional people and those working in acknowledged professions exercise

specialist knowledge and skill. How the use of this knowledge should be
governed when providing a service to the public can be considered a moral
issue and is termed professional ethics.

Professionals are capable of making judgments, applying their skills and

reaching informed decisions in situations that the general public cannot,
because they have not received the relevant training. One of the earliest
examples of professional ethics is probably the Hippocratic oath to which
medical doctors still adhere to this day.

Professional ethics is a set of standards adopted by a professional

community. Professional ethics are regulated by standards, which are often
referred to as codes of ethics.

The code of ethics is very important because it gives us boundaries that we

have to stay within in our professional careers. The one problem with the

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code of ethics is that we can't always have the answers black and white.
Sometimes there are grey areas where the answers aren't so simple.
Professional ethics are also known as Ethical Business Practices.

Ethics sometimes override personal morals. For example, consider a criminal

defense lawyer. Though the lawyer's personal moral code likely finds murder
immoral and reprehensible, ethics demand the accused client be defended
as vigorously as possible, even when the lawyer knows the party is guilty
and that a freed defendant would potentially lead to more crime. Legal
ethics must override personal morals for the greater good of upholding a
justice system in which the accused are given a fair trial and the prosecution
must prove guilt beyond a reasonable doubt.

Ethics is said to be the code of conduct which members of an agreed shared

interest agree to abide by in the conduct of their activities towards other
people. “Behaving ethically is at the heart of what it means to be a
professional; it distinguishes professionals from others in the market place”.

The term "professional ethics" can be understood to refer to at least three

different but related normative sources: first, the profession's rules of ethics;
second, ethical tradition including professional myths, lore and narrative;
and, third, the standards of conduct that (for example, an observing
anthropologist) would describe as the profession's conventions of actual
practice. The last source may also be captured by the term "habit" which at
one time was used to describe a group's regular pattern of conduct. The
term "professional" simply denotes that these normative sources function
within a specific subgroup in society.

Professional ethics is an act of “giving one’s best to ensure that client’s

interests are properly cared for, but in doing so the wider public interest is

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also recognized and respected”. It is the character by which a set of

professionals are identified with, this also ensures some degree of
commitment to excellence. Being professional includes the following
characteristics, but not limited to:

Honesty
Honesty refers to a facet of moral character and connotes positive and
virtuous attributes such as integrity, truthfulness and straightforwardness
along with the absence of lying, cheating or theft. Honesty is revered in
many cultures and religions.

Integrity

Integrity is a concept of consistency of actions, values, methods, measures,

principles, expectations, and outcomes. In ethics, integrity is regarded as
the honesty and truthfulness or accuracy of one's actions. Integrity can be
regarded as the opposite of hypocrisy, in that integrity regards internal
consistency as a virtue, and suggests that parties holding apparently
conflicting values should account for the discrepancy or alter their beliefs.

The RICS explains integrity to mean never put your own gain above the
welfare of your client or others to whom you have a professional
responsibility. Respect their confidentiality at all times and always consider
the wider interests of society in your judgements.

Efficiency

This is a measurable level of performance that uses very minimal inputs to

grate great outputs.

Competence

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This is an act or character that displays a proven ability to perform a task or

duty. This is often backed up by the acquisition of the relevant skill and
knowledge for the task at hand.

Transparency

Transparency, as used in science, engineering, business, the humanities and

in a social context more generally, implies openness, communication, and
accountability. Transparency is operating in such a way that it is easy for
others to see what actions are performed. For example, a cashier making
change at a point of sale by segregating a customer's large bills, counting up
from the sale amount, and placing the change on the counter in such a way
as to invite the customer to verify the amount of change demonstrates
transparency

Accountability

In ethics and governance, accountability is answerability, blameworthiness,

liability, and the expectation of account-giving. As an aspect of governance,
it has been central to discussions related to problems in the public sector,
nonprofit and private (corporate) worlds. In leadership roles, accountability is
the acknowledgment and assumption of responsibility for actions, products,
decisions, and policies including the administration, governance, and
implementation within the scope of the role or employment position and
encompassing the obligation to report, explain and be answerable for
resulting consequences.

Confidentiality

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Confidentiality is a set of rules or a promise that limits access or places

restrictions on certain types of information. Confidentiality is ensuring that
information is accessible only to those authorized to have access.

Respectfulness

Respect gives a positive feeling of esteem or deference for a person or other

entity (such as a nation or a religion), and also specific actions and conduct
representative of that esteem. Respect can be a specific feeling of regard for
the actual qualities of the one respected (e.g., "I have great respect for her
judgment"). It can also be conduct in accord with a specific ethic of respect.
Rude conduct is usually considered to indicate a lack of respect, disrespect,
where as actions that honor somebody or something indicate respect.

1.6. Work and Professionalism

Work, besides being the most important contribution of the individual to

society, shapes and expresses what that individual is. It is an important
basis for our judgments of him or her as a human being. Hughes (1958),
observes, a man's work is one of the more important parts of his social
identity, of his self, indeed, of his fate, in the one life he has to live, for there
is something almost as irrevocable about choice of occupation as there is
about choice of mate. Given the myth that men freely select their
occupation (Hughes does not deign to mention women) "a man's work is one
of the things by which he is judged and certainly one of the more significant
things by which he judges himself.” This is especially true of professionals.
They choose their role; they are not cast into it by birth or fate. Moreover,
they devote more of their waking hours to work than members of other
occupations, and they typically devote all of their working life to one
occupation rather than moving from one to another. Hence, what they

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become and what they are seen to be are determined to an extraordinary

degree by the character of their work.

Hughes observes that young people begin professional training at the time
they are breaking ties with their childhood environment and questioning the
orientation to life given them by their parents. This is a critical time for
formation of a mature moral code. The normative framework of the
profession plays a profound part in shaping the individual's conceptions of
right, obligation, and moral goodness. Teachers and peers are significant
influences. They provide not only vocational but personal and ethical models
in the process of self-definition.

Hughes (1958) notes that the differences between professions and

occupations are differences of degree rather than kind. For Hughes not only
do professions and occupations presume to tell the rest of their society what
is good and right for it, but also they determine the ways of thinking about
problems which fall in their domain. Professionalism in occupations and
professions implies the importance of trust in economic relations in modern
societies with an advanced division of labour. In other words, lay people
have to place their trust in professional workers (electricians and plumbers
as well as lawyers and doctors) and some professionals must acquire
confidential knowledge. Professionalism, therefore, requires those working
as professionals to be worthy of that trust, to put clients first, to maintain
confidentiality and not use their knowledge for fraudulent purposes. In
return for professionalism in client relations, some professionals are
rewarded with authority, privileged rewards and high status.

The link between professions and occupations, also constitutes the starting
point for many micro level ethnographic studies of professional socialization
in work places (e.g. hospitals and schools) and the development (in new)

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and maintenance (in existing) workers of shared professional identities. This

shared professional identity is associated with a sense of common
experiences, understandings and expertise, shared ways of perceiving
problems and their possible solutions. This common identity is produced and
reproduced through occupational and professional socialization, by means of
shared educational backgrounds, professional training and vocational
experiences, and by membership of professional associations (local,
regional, national and international) and institutes where practitioners
develop and maintain a shared work culture. One result of all these factors
is similarities in work practices and procedures, common ways of perceiving
problems and their possible solutions, and shared ways of perceiving and
interacting with customers and clients. In these ways the normative value
system of professionalism in work, and how to behave, respond and advise,
is reproduced at the micro level in individual practitioners and in the work
places in which they work.

The concept of professionalization is regarded as the process to achieve

the status of profession. It has been interpreted as the process to pursue,
develop and maintain the closure of the occupational group, in order to
maintain practitioners own occupational self-interests in terms of their
salary, status and power, as well as the monopoly protection of the
occupational jurisdiction. The concept of professionalization continues to be
important in the analysis of newly emerging occupations (e.g. IT
consultancy, human resources management, psychology and social care
work), perhaps seeking status and recognition for the importance of the
work, often by standardization of the education, training and qualification for
practice.

1.7 The historical discourse on the concept of Professionalism

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The concept of professionalism is usually interpreted as an occupational or

normative value, as something worth preserving and promoting in work and
by and for workers. The later developments interpreted professionalism as a
discourse and, to an extent, this has combined the occupational value and
the ideological interpretations. Certainly there are real advantages in the
analysis of professionalism as the key analytical concept in explanations and
interpretations about professional knowledge-based work, occupations and
practitioners. The discourse of professionalism is used as a marketing slogan
(e.g. ‘have the job done by professionals’) and in advertising to attract new
recruits (e.g. ‘join the professionals’ - the army) as well as customers. The
discourse of professionalism has entered the managerial literature and been
embodied in training manuals. Even occupational regulation and control
(both internal and external forms) are now explained and justified as means
to improve professionalism in work. The concept of professionalism has an
appeal to and for practitioners, employees and managers in the
development and maintenance of work identities, career decisions and
senses of self.

When considering the history of the concept of professionalism, three

phases can be identified: an early phase which defined professionalism as
an occupational or normative value; a second negative phase of critique
when professionalism was regarded as ideological and promoted in the
interests of professional practitioners themselves; a third phase which
combines both the ideological critique and the normative value
interpretations of professionalism.

Professionalism as a Normative Value

In early British sociological analysis, the key concept was ‘professionalism,’

and the emphasis was on the importance of professionalism for the stability
and civility of social systems. Tawney (1921) perceived professionalism as a

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force capable of subjecting rampant individualism to the needs of the

community. Carr-Saunders and Wilson (1933) saw professionalism as a force
for stability and freedom against the threat of encroaching industrial and
governmental bureaucracies. Marshall (1950) emphasized altruism or the
‘service’ orientation of professionalism and how professionalism might form
a bulwark against threats to stable democratic processes. In these
interpretations professionalism was regarded as an important and highly
desirable occupational value and professional relations were characterized
as collegial, co-operative and mutually supportive. Similarly, relations of
trust characterized practitioner/client and practitioner/management
interactions since competencies were assumed to be guaranteed by
education, training and sometimes by licensing.

Freidson (2001) does not use the term ‘occupational value’ and instead
focused on the importance of knowledge and expertise, but he maintained
that occupational control of the work (by practitioners themselves) is of real
importance for the maintenance of professionalism. Practitioner
occupational control is important because the complexities of the work are
such that only the practitioners can understand the organizational needs of
the work, its processes, procedures, testing and outcomes. It is by means of
extensive (and expensive) systems of work place training and socialization
that new recruits develop the expertise to put theoretical knowledge into
practice and to use and control the work systems and procedures. This
interpretation represents what might be termed the optimistic view of what
professionalism and the process of professionalization of work entails. It is
based on the principle that the work is of importance either to the public or
to the interests of the state or an elite.

According to Freidson, 2001, the ideal typical position of professionalism is

founded on the official belief that the knowledge and skill of a particular

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specialization requires a foundation in abstract concepts and formal

learning. Education, training and experience are fundamental requirements
but once achieved (and sometimes licensed) then the exercise of discretion
(i.e. discretionary decision-making rather than autonomy) based on
competences is central and deserving of special status. The practitioners
have special knowledge and skill and, because of complexity, it is often
necessary to trust professionals’ intentions.

Professionalism as ideology

Critical attacks on professions in general as powerful, privileged, self-

interested monopolies, that were prominent in the neo-Weberian research
literature of the 1970s and 1980s, resulted in a general skepticism about the
whole idea of professionalism as a normative value. Johnson, 1972, for
example, dismissed professionalism as a successful ideology which had
entered the political vocabulary of a wide range of occupational groups in
their claims and competition for status and income.

Another version of the professionalism as ideology interpretation has been

the notion of professions as powerful occupational groups, who not only
closed markets and dominated and controlled other occupations in the field,
but also could ‘capture’ states and negotiate
‘regulative bargains’ (Cooper et al. 1988) with states in the interests of their
own practitioners. The claim is now being made (for example, Freidson
1994, 2001) that professionalism is a unique form of occupational control of
work which has distinct advantages over market, organizational and
bureaucratic forms of control. In assessing the political, economic and
ideological forces that are exerting enormous pressure on the professions
today, Freidson (1994) has defended professionalism as a desirable way of
providing complex, discretionary services to the public. He argues that
market-based or organizational and bureaucratic methods impoverish and

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standardize the quality of service to consumers and demotivates

practitioners, and he goes on to suggest how the virtues of professionalism
can be reinforced. Thus, professions might need to close markets in order to
be able to endorse and guarantee the education, training, experience and
tacit knowledge of licensed practitioners, but once achieved the profession
might then be able to concentrate more fully on developing the service-
orientated and performance-related aspects of their work (Evetts 1998;
Halliday 1987).

The process of occupational closure will also result in the monopoly supply
of the expertise and the service, and probably also to privileged access to
salary and status as well as to definitional and control rewards for
practitioners. In respect of these privileges, it is necessary to remember the
dual character of professions which include both the provision of a service
(and the development of an autonomous form of governance) as well as the
use of knowledge and power for economic gain and monopoly control (which
pose a threat to civility). The pursuit of private interests is not always in
opposition to the pursuit of the public interest, however, and indeed both
can be developed simultaneously (Saks 1995).

In general, then, some recent Anglo-American analyses of professions have

involved the reinterpretation of the concept of professionalism as a
normative value system in the socialization of new workers, in the
preservation and predictability of normative social order in work and
occupations, and in the maintenance and stability of a fragile normative
order in state and increasingly international markets. This current
interpretation has built on earlier (perhaps less critical) analyses but the
result is now a more balanced and cautious reappraisal. There is due
recognition, for example, of the power and self-interests of some

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professional groups in wanting to preserve and indeed promote

professionalism as normative value system.

Professionalism as a discourse

In the case of most contemporary public service occupations and

professionals now practicing in organizations, however, professionalism is
being constructed and imposed ‘from above’ and for the most part this
means by the employers and managers of the public service organizations in
which these ‘professionals’ work. Here the discourse (of dedicated service
and autonomous decision making) is part of the appeal (or the ideology) of
professionalism. This idea of service and autonomy are what make
professionalism attractive to aspiring occupational groups.

When the discourse is constructed ‘from above’, then often it is imposed

and a false or selective discourse, because autonomy and occupational
control of the work are seldom included. Rather, the discourse is used to
promote and facilitate occupational change (rationalization) and as a
disciplinary mechanism of autonomous subjects exercising appropriate
conduct.

This discourse of professionalism is grasped and welcomed by the

occupational group since it is perceived to be a way of improving the
occupations status and rewards collectively and individually (e.g. aspiring
caring occupations). It is a powerful ideology and the idea of becoming and
being a ‘professional worker’ has appealed to many new and existing
occupational groups. However, the realities of professionalism ‘from above’
are very different. The effects are not the occupational control of the work
by the worker/practitioners. Instead the emphasis is control by the
organizational managers and supervisors (e.g. health and social care work).

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Organizational objectives, which are sometimes political, define

practitioner/client relations, set achievement targets and performance
indicators. In these ways organizational objectives regulate and replace
occupational control of the practitioner/client work interactions, thereby
limiting the exercise of discretionary decision-making, and preventing the
service ethic that has been so important in professional work.

The appeal to professionalism by managers in work organizations is to a

myth or an ideology. The myth includes aspects such as exclusive ownership
of an area of expertise, increased status and salary, autonomy and
discretion in work practices and the occupational control of the work. The
reality of the professionalism is actually very different. The appeal to
professionalism by managers most often includes
(i) the substitution of organizational for professional values;

(ii) bureaucratic, hierarchical and managerial controls rather

than collegial

relations;

(iii) managerial and organizational objectives rather than client

trust and autonomy based on competencies and expertise;
(iv) budgetary restrictions and financial rationalizations;

(v) the standardization of work practices rather than

discretion;

(vi) and performance targets, accountability and sometimes

increased political control.

1.7. Relationship between Ethics and Professionalism

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Much current public and private concern centres on our own values or our
lack of them. Many of our institutions and, indeed, the Malawian, for
example, way of life are attacked for placing value on the wrong things.
Every aspect of human behaviour is influenced by personal values, but
values are not easily defined or achieved. Their definitions and
interpretations vary from period to period, location to location, person to
person, group to group, and situation to situation. Some human values have
remained intact through centuries (for example, courage) and some have
declined and been revived (for example, respect for life).

Ethics involves the definition and achievement of what is good or bad, right
or wrong, in relation to moral duty and obligation. It also includes the need
to act in accordance with the principles of right and wrong governing the
conduct of a particular group, such as doctors and lawyers. In the study of
ethics, it is critical to understand that the motive is as important as the act.
If a person refrains from stealing only because s/he fears prison, s/he cannot
really be viewed as ethical. Ethics is concerned with encouraging you to do
what you know you should do.

Moral progress depends on our willingness to improve the consistency of our

ethical judgment and behaviour and to apply the same principles more
thoroughly to our conduct involving other people.

Practicing honesty and integrity in our personal lives is important. But as we

interact with clients, participate in community relations and education
programs, and work with other criminal justice professionals, doing what is
right rather than what may be more rewarding financially or simply more
expedient is even more important. The reason being a peace officer's
behaviour has a great impact on larger numbers of people inside and
outside the system.

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Courage is the state or quality of mind or spirit that enables one to face
danger with self-possession, confidence, and resolution; bravery; valor.
Examples of Physical courage:
- Facing barricaded, armed suspect

Examples of Moral courage:

- Refusing gratuities

- Refusing to participate in cover-up

- Refusing to participate in ethnic or gender based humor or practical

joking, etc.

Both ethics and professional discussions tend to focus on misconduct.

Moving beyond mere adherence to minimum expected conduct, the Georgia
Commission declared that “professionalism is meant to address the
aspirations of the profession and how we as lawyers should behave.”
Professionalism is a wide umbrella of values encompassing competence,
civility, legal ethics, integrity, commitment to the rule of law, to justice and
to the public good. Professionalism calls us to be mindful of the lawyer's
roles as officer of the court, advocate, counsellor, negotiator, and problem
solver.

1.8 Summary

In the light of readily available evidence, one could easily believe that the
man of honesty and integrity no longer has a chance in our society. The
presence of these people in our society, provide the major reason that
confidence in the system survives. Ethical men are made, not born, and peer
pressures can work for or against ethical behaviour. Ethical problems such
as corruption and official dishonesty must be acknowledged and discussed if

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solutions are to be found. Every profession must have the ability and the
willingness to police oneself.

Further Readings

Carr-Saunders, A. M., & Wilson, P. A. (1933). The professions. Oxford:

Clarendon.

Carr, D. (2000). Professionalism and Ethics in Teaching . London: Routledge.

Cooper, D., Lowe, A., Puxty, A., Robson, K., & Willmott, H. (1988, January).
Regulating the UK accountancy profession: Episodes in the relation
between the profession and the state . Paper presented at the ESRC
conference on corporatism at the Policy Studies Institute, London,
England.
Dingwall, R., & Lewis, P. (Eds.). (1983). The sociology of the professions:
Lawyers, doctors and others. London: Macmillan.
Durkheim, E. (1957). Professional ethics and civic morals. London and New
York: Routledge.

Evetts, J. (1998, July 26–August 1). Analysing the projects of professional

associations: National and international dimensions . Unpublished
paper presented at ISA Congress, Montreal.
Evetts, J. (2003). The sociological analysis of professionalism: Occupational
change in the modern world. International Sociology, 18 (2), 395–
415.
Freidson, E. (1982). Occupational autonomy an labor market shelters. In P. L.
Steward & M. G. Cantor (Eds.), Varieties of work (pp. 39–54). Beverley
Hills: Sage.

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Freidson, E. (1994). Professionalism reborn: Theory, prophecy and policy .

Cambridge: Polity Press.
Freidson, E. (2001). Professionalism: The third logic. London: Polity Press.

Halliday, T. C. (1987). Beyond monopoly: Lawyers, state crises and

professional empowerment. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Hughes, E. C. (1958). Men and Their Work. Glencoe IL: The Free Press.

Johnson, T. (1972). Professions and power. London: Macmillan.

Kulthen, J. (1988). Ethics and Professionalism. Philadelphia: University of

Pennsylvania Press.

Lewis, R., and A. Maude. (1952. Professional People. London.

Macintyre, A. (1984). . After Virtue. 2nd ed. South Bend IN: University of
Notre Dame Press.

Marshall, T. H. (1950). Citizenship and social class and other essays .

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
(RICS), R. I. (2018). The Global Professional and Ethical Standards. United
Kingdom.

Saks, M. (1995). Professions and the public interest: Medical power,

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