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MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING/ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

“…a great contribution to the subject of magnetic materials.” Introduction to

MAGNETISM
—Edward Della Torre, Director, Institute for Magnetic Research,

AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETISM
George Washington University, Washington, D.C., USA

“…an excellent introductory text.”

—Roy Chantrell, University of York, UK

“…a welcome update. …a useful textbook for students approaching magnetism for the first
time, as well as a quick reference for anybody seeking information about notions and facts and

MAGNETIC
pertaining to magnetism and magnetic materials.”
—Giorgio Bertotti, INRIM, Torino, Italy

“…distinctly pedagogical; one would expect no less from one of the world’s foremost
educators and academic leaders in magnetics.”

MATERIALS
—Ron B. Goldfarb, National Institute of Standards and Technology,
Boulder, Colorado, USA

“…the author plainly conveys the main physical ideas lying behind the macroscopic
phenomenology of magnetism in the materials and their ultimate realization in actual
technological applications.”
—Dr. Fausto Fiorillo, INRIM, Torino, Italy
DAVID JILES
See What’s New in the Third Edition
• New coverage of applications of magnetism and magnetic materials, especially in
magnetic recording
• Additional exercises with complete worked-out solutions at the end of the book
• Updated references at the end of each chapter

A long overdue update, the third edition of Introduction to Magnetism and Magnetic
Materials is a complete revision of its predecessor. It contains vast updates to reflect the
enormous progress made in applications in the past 15 years, particularly in magnetic
recording. The book includes significant updates to soft magnetic materials, hard
magnetic materials, magnetic data storage, and magnetic evaluation of materials. It also
adds new information on magneto-transport, small particles, nanomagnetism, magnetic
semiconductors, spintronics, and high-frequency magnetism.
The book adopts an unusual but effectively focused question-answer framework. THI R D
Each major head is introduced by a question followed by an attempt to answer. This ED I T I ON
approach maintains attention to the subject matter at hand and clarifies the objective of
each section without needless digression. Each chapter also features updated and new
exercise problems, accompanied by answers at the back of the book. This edition gives
JILES

you an excellent introduction to the key and current theories, practices, and applications of THIRD EDITION
magnetics and magnetic materials.
K23248
ISBN: 978-1-4822-3887-7
6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW 90000
Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487
711 Third Avenue
an informa business New York, NY 10017
2 Park Square, Milton Park
9 781482 238877
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This book is dedicated to Helen, Sarah,
Elizabeth, Andrew and Richard
This page intentionally left blank
Contents
Preface.................................................................................................................. xxiii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................xxv
Glossary of Symbols .............................................................................................xxix
SI Units, Symbols, and Dimensions................................................................... xxxiii
Values of Selected Physical Constants.................................................................xxxv
Introduction ........................................................................................................xxxvii

Section i electromagnetism: Magnetic

Phenomena on the Macroscopic Scale

Chapter 1 Magnetic Fields ....................................................................................3

1.1 Magnetic Field ...........................................................................3
1.1.1 Generation of a Magnetic Field .................................... 3
1.1.2 Biot-Savart Law ............................................................4
1.1.3 Magnetic Field Due to a Circular Coil .........................4
1.1.4 Definition of Magnetic Field Strength, H..................... 5
1.1.5 Magnetic Field Generated by a Long
Current-Carrying Conductor ........................................5
1.1.6 Field Patterns around Current-Carrying Conductors...... 7
1.1.7 Ampère’s Circuital Law ............................................... 8
1.1.8 Orders of Magnitudes of Magnetic Fields in
Various Situations.........................................................9
1.2 Magnetic Induction .................................................................. 10
1.2.1 Magnetic Flux ............................................................ 10
1.2.2 Definition of Magnetic Induction ............................... 11
1.2.3 Force per Unit Length on a Current-Carrying
Conductor in a Magnetic Field: Ampère’s
Force Law ................................................................ 12
1.2.4 Lines of Magnetic Induction ...................................... 12
1.2.5 Electromagnetic Induction ......................................... 13
1.2.6 Magnetic Dipole ......................................................... 14
1.2.7 Unit Systems in Magnetism ....................................... 15
1.2.8 Maxwell’s Equations of the Electromagnetic Field .... 16
1.2.9 Alternating or Time-Dependent Magnetic Fields ...... 17
1.3 Magnetic Field Calculations .................................................... 18
1.3.1 Field at the Center of a Long Thin Solenoid .............. 18
1.3.2 Magnetic Field along the Axis of a Circular Coil ...... 19

ix
x Contents

1.3.3 Field Due to Two Coaxial Coils ................................. 21

1.3.4 Field Due to a Thin Solenoid of Finite Length ..........24
1.3.5 General Formula for the Field of a Solenoid ..............24
1.3.6 Field Calculations Using Numerical Methods ...........26
1.3.7 Developments in Magnetic Field Computation ..........28
References ..........................................................................................28
Further Reading .................................................................................. 29
Exercises ............................................................................................. 29

Chapter 2 Magnetization and Magnetic Moment ............................................... 31

2.1 Magnetic Moment.................................................................... 31
2.1.1 Force on a Magnet ...................................................... 31
2.1.1.1 Unit of Magnetic Moment .......................... 32
2.1.2 Pole Strength of a Dipole p ........................................ 33
2.1.3 Magnetic Dipole Moment m....................................... 33
2.1.4 Force on a Dipole Suspended in a
Magnetic Field ................................................... 34
2.1.5 Force on a Current Loop Suspended in a
Magnetic Field ............................................................34
2.2 Magnetic Poles and Ampèrian Bound Currents...................... 35
2.2.1 Existence of Poles and Bound Currents ..................... 35
2.2.2 Usefulness of the Pole and Bound Current Models ... 36
2.2.3 Relative Advantages of Poles or Bound Currents ...... 36
2.2.4 Magnetic Field Due to Poles ...................................... 36
2.2.5 Magnetic Field Due to Equivalent, Bound,
or Ampèrian Currents ................................................ 37
2.2.6 Equivalence of Fields Due to Pole and
Current Distribution ................................................... 37
2.2.7 Calculation of Field Due to a Current Loop and a
Dipole ......................................................................... 38
2.3 Magnetization ..........................................................................40
2.3.1 Relationship between H, M, and B .............................40
2.3.2 Saturation Magnetization ........................................... 41
2.3.3 Permeability and Susceptibility ................................. 42
2.4 Magnetic Circuits and the Demagnetizing Field .....................44
2.4.1 Flux Lines around a Bar Magnet ...............................44
2.4.2 Field Lines around a Bar Magnet ...............................44
2.4.3 Demagnetizing Fields.................................................44
2.4.4 Demagnetizing Factors...............................................46
2.4.5 Field Correction Due to Demagnetizing Field ...........46
2.4.6 Effect of Demagnetizing Field on Measurements ......46
2.4.7 Corrections to the Susceptibility
and the Permeability................................................... 48
2.4.8 Further Developments in Demagnetizing
Field Calculations ....................................................... 49
Contents xi

2.4.9 Magnetic Circuits and Reluctance ........................... 49

2.4.10 Magnetic Field Calculations in
Magnetic Materials .............................................. 52
2.5 Penetration of Alternating Magnetic Fields into Materials ..... 52
2.5.1 Eddy Currents in Conducting Magnetic Materials ...54
References .......................................................................................... 55
Further Reading .................................................................................. 56
Exercises ............................................................................................. 56

Chapter 3 Magnetic Measurements .................................................................... 59

3.1 Induction Methods ................................................................... 59
3.1.1 Stationary Coil Methods ..........................................60
3.1.2 Moving Coil (Extraction) Method ...........................60
3.1.3 Rotating Coil Method............................................... 61
3.1.4 Vibrating Coil Magnetometer .................................. 61
3.1.5 Vibrating Sample Magnetometer ............................. 63
3.1.6 Fluxgate Magnetometers .......................................... 63
3.2 Force Methods ......................................................................... 65
3.2.1 Torque Magnetometers.............................................66
3.2.2 Force Balance Methods............................................66
3.2.3 Alternating Gradient Force Magnetometer .............. 69
3.2.4 Magnetic Force Microscopy .................................... 70
3.3 Methods Depending on Changes in Material Properties ........ 70
3.3.1 Hall Effect Magnetometers ...................................... 70
3.3.2 Magnetoresistors ...................................................... 72
3.3.3 Magnetostrictive Devices ......................................... 73
3.3.4 Magneto-Optic Methods .......................................... 73
3.3.5 Thin-Film Magnetometers ....................................... 75
3.3.6 Magnetic Resonance Methods ................................. 75
3.4 Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices.................... 77
References .......................................................................................... 79
Further Reading ..................................................................................80
Exercises .............................................................................................80

Chapter 4 Magnetic Materials ............................................................................ 83

4.1 Classification of Magnetic Materials ....................................... 83
4.1.1 Diamagnets, Paramagnets, and Ferromagnets ......... 83
4.1.2 Susceptibilities of Diamagnetic and
Paramagnetic Materials ........................................... 83
4.1.3 Values of μr and χ for Various Materials .................84
4.1.4 Other Types of Magnetic Materials .........................84
4.2 Magnetic Properties of Ferromagnets ..................................... 85
4.2.1 Permeability ............................................................. 86
4.2.2 Retentivity ................................................................ 86
xii Contents

4.2.3 Hysteresis ................................................................... 86

4.2.4 Saturation Magnetization ........................................... 87
4.2.5 Remanence ................................................................. 88
4.2.6 Coercivity ................................................................... 88
4.2.7 Differential Permeability............................................ 89
4.2.8 Curie Temperature......................................................90
4.3 Different Types of Ferromagnetic Materials
for Applications .................................................................... 91
4.3.1 Hard and Soft Magnetic Materials ............................. 91
4.3.2 Electromagnets ........................................................... 91
4.3.3 Transformers ..............................................................92
4.3.4 Electromagnetic Switches or Relays .......................... 93
4.3.5 Magnetic Recording Materials ................................... 93
4.3.6 Permanent Magnets .................................................... 95
4.3.7 Inductance Cores ........................................................97
4.3.8 Ceramic Magnets .......................................................97
4.4 Paramagnetism and Diamagnetism ......................................... 98
4.4.1 Paramagnets ............................................................... 98
4.4.2 Temperature Dependence of Paramagnetic
Susceptibility ..............................................................99
4.4.3 Field and Temperature Dependence
of Magnetization in a Paramagnet .............................99
4.4.4 Applications of Paramagnets.................................... 102
4.4.5 Diamagnets............................................................... 102
4.4.6 Superconductors ....................................................... 103
References ........................................................................................ 103
Further Reading ................................................................................ 104
Exercises ........................................................................................... 104

Section ii Magnetism in Materials: Magnetic

Phenomena on the Microscopic Scale

Chapter 5 Magnetic Properties ......................................................................... 109

5.1 Hysteresis and Related Properties ......................................... 109
5.1.1 Information from the Hysteresis Curve .................... 109
5.1.2 Parametric Characterization of Hysteresis ............... 110
5.1.3 Causes of Hysteresis ................................................. 111
5.1.4 Anhysteretic, or Hysteresis-Free, Magnetization ..... 112
5.1.5 Fröhlich-Kennelly Relation ...................................... 113
5.1.6 Measurement of Anhysteretic Magnetization .......... 114
5.1.7 Low-Field Behavior: Rayleigh Law.......................... 115
Contents xiii

5.1.8 High-Field Behavior: Law of Approach

to Saturation ............................................................. 116
5.2 Barkhausen Effect and Related Phenomena .......................... 117
5.2.1 Barkhausen Effect .................................................... 117
5.2.2 Theory of Barkhausen Effect ................................... 118
5.2.3 Magnetoacoustic Emission ....................................... 118
5.3 Magnetostriction .................................................................... 119
5.3.1 Spontaneous Magnetostriction in Isotropic
Materials................................................................... 119
5.3.2 Saturation Magnetostriction ..................................... 121
5.3.3 Technical Saturation and Forced Magnetostriction ...121
5.3.4 Magnetostriction at an Angle to the
Magnetic Field .................................................... 122
5.3.5 Anisotropic Materials............................................... 122
5.3.6 Field-Induced Bulk Magnetostriction ...................... 123
5.3.7 Transverse Magnetostriction .................................... 125
5.3.8 Magnetostrictive Materials and Applications .......... 125
5.4 Magnetoresistance ................................................................. 125
References ........................................................................................ 126
Further Reading ................................................................................ 127
Exercises ........................................................................................... 127

Chapter 6 Magnetic Domains ........................................................................... 131

6.1 Development of Domain Theory ........................................... 131
6.1.1 Atomic Magnetic Moments ...................................... 131
6.1.2 Magnetic Order in Ferromagnets ............................. 132
6.1.3 Permeability of Ferromagnets .................................. 132
6.1.4 Domain Theory ........................................................ 133
6.1.5 Mean Field Theory ................................................... 133
6.1.6 Energy States of Different Arrangements
of Moments............................................................... 137
6.1.7 Early Observational Evidence of Domains .............. 138
6.1.8 Techniques for Domain Observation........................ 139
6.2 Energy Considerations and Domain Patterns........................ 142
6.2.1 Existence of Domains as a Result of
Energy Minimization ............................................... 142
6.2.2 Magnetostatic Energy of Single-Domain
Specimens ................................................................ 143
6.2.3 Domain Patterns and Configurations ........................143
6.2.4 Magnetization Process in Terms of Domain Theory ... 144
6.2.5 Technical Saturation Magnetization ........................ 145
6.2.6 Domain Rotation and Anisotropy ............................ 146
6.2.7 Axial Anisotropy ...................................................... 148
xiv Contents

6.2.8 Anisotropy as an Equivalent Magnetic Field ........... 148

6.2.9 Cubic Anisotropy ..................................................... 149
6.2.10 Domain Magnetization Reversal in Isolated
Single Domains ........................................................ 150
References ........................................................................................ 151
Further Reading ................................................................................ 152
Exercises ........................................................................................... 152

Chapter 7 Domain Walls ................................................................................... 155

7.1 Properties of Domain Boundaries ......................................... 155
7.1.1 Domain Walls ........................................................... 155
7.1.2 Domain-Wall Energy................................................ 155
7.1.2.1 Exchange Energy ...................................... 156
7.1.2.2 Anisotropy Energy.................................... 158
7.1.3 Width of Domain Walls ........................................... 159
7.1.4 180° and Non-180° Domain Walls ........................... 161
7.1.5 Effects of Stress on 180° and Non-180°
Domain Walls ........................................................... 162
7.1.6 Closure Domains ...................................................... 162
7.1.7 Néel Walls ................................................................ 163
7.1.8 Antiferromagnetic Domain Walls ............................ 164
7.2 Domain-Wall Motion............................................................. 164
7.2.1 Effect of Magnetic Field on the Energy Balance
in Domain Walls....................................................... 165
7.2.2 Domain Walls as Elastic Membranes ...................... 165
7.2.3 Forces on Domain Walls .......................................... 165
7.2.4 Planar Displacement of Rigid, High-Energy
Domain Walls: Potential Approximation ................. 166
7.2.5 Magnetization and Initial Susceptibility in the
Rigid Wall Approximation ....................................... 168
7.2.6 Bending of Flexible, Low-Energy Domain Walls:
Wall Bowing Approximation ................................... 169
7.2.7 Magnetization and Initial Susceptibility
in the Flexible Approximation ................................. 170
References ........................................................................................ 172
Further Reading ................................................................................ 172
Exercises ........................................................................................... 173

Chapter 8 Domain Processes ............................................................................ 175

8.1 Reversible and Irreversible Domain Processes ..................... 175
8.1.1 Domain Rotation and Wall Motion .......................... 175
8.1.2 Strain Theory: Pinning of Domain
Walls by Strains ....................................................177
Contents xv

8.1.3 Inclusion Theory: Pinning of Domain Walls by

Impurities ................................................................. 180
8.1.4 Critical Field When a Domain Wall Is
Strongly Pinned ........................................................ 181
8.1.5 Critical Field When a Domain Wall Is
Weakly Pinned ......................................................... 184
8.2 Determination of Magnetization Curves from
Pinning Models ..................................................................... 185
8.2.1 Effects of Microstructural Features on
Magnetization ........................................................... 185
8.2.2 Domain-Wall Defect Interactions in Metals ............ 187
8.2.3 Magnetization Processes in Materials with
Few Defects .............................................................. 190
8.2.4 Barkhausen Effect and Domain-Wall Motion .......... 192
8.2.5 Magnetostriction and Domain-Wall Motion ............ 193
8.3 Theory of Ferromagnetic Hysteresis ..................................... 193
8.3.1 Energy Loss through Wall Pinning .......................... 193
8.3.2 Irreversible Magnetization Changes......................... 194
8.3.3 Reversible Magnetization Changes .......................... 195
8.3.4 Relationship between Hysteresis Coefficients
and Measurable Magnetic Properties ....................... 196
8.3.5 Effects of Microstructure and Deformation
on Hysteresis ............................................................ 199
8.3.6 Effects of Stress on Bulk Magnetization.................. 199
8.4 Dynamics of Domain Magnetization Processes ...................200
8.4.1 Domain Rotational Processes .................................. 201
8.4.2 Wall Motion Processes .............................................202
8.4.3 Ferromagnetic Resonance ........................................204
8.4.3.1 Spin Resonance.........................................204
8.4.3.2 Domain-Wall Resonance ..........................205
8.4.4 Damping and Relaxation Effects .............................206
8.4.5 Micromagnetic Modeling .........................................207
References ........................................................................................208
Further Reading ................................................................................ 210
Exercises ........................................................................................... 210

Chapter 9 Magnetic Order and Critical Phenomena ......................................... 213

9.1 Theories of Paramagnetism and Diamagnetism ................... 213
9.1.1 Diamagnetism .......................................................... 213
9.1.2 Langevin Theory of Diamagnetism ......................... 214
9.1.3 Paramagnetism ......................................................... 217
9.1.4 Curie’s Law .............................................................. 218
9.1.5 Langevin Theory of Paramagnetism ........................ 219
9.1.6 Curie-Weiss Law ...................................................... 220
9.1.7 Weiss Theory of Paramagnetism ............................. 221
xvi Contents

9.1.8 Consequences of Weiss Theory ............................ 223

9.1.9 Critique of Langevin-Weiss Theory ..................... 223
9.2 Theories of Ordered Magnetism ..........................................224
9.2.1 Ferromagnetism ....................................................224
9.2.2 Weiss Theory of Ferromagnetism ........................224
9.2.3 Mean-Field Approximation .................................. 226
9.2.4 Nearest-Neighbor Interactions .............................. 228
9.2.5 Curie Temperature on the Basis
of Mean-Field Model ............................................ 230
9.2.6 Antiferromagnetism.............................................. 230
9.2.7 Ferrimagnetism ..................................................... 233
9.2.8 Helimagnetism ...................................................... 234
9.3 Magnetic Structure .............................................................. 236
9.3.1 Neutron Diffraction .............................................. 236
9.3.2 Elastic Neutron Scattering .................................... 238
9.3.2.1 Paramagnetic Scattering ....................... 239
9.3.2.2 Ferromagnetic Scattering ......................240
9.3.2.3 Simple Antiferromagnetic
Scattering ........................................ 240
9.3.2.4 Helical Antiferromagnetic Scattering ...240
9.3.3 Inelastic Neutron Scattering ................................. 241
9.3.4 Magnetic Order in Various Solids ........................ 243
9.3.5 Excited States and Spin Waves .............................246
9.3.6 Critical Behavior at the Ordering Temperature ....248
9.3.7 Susceptibility Anomalies ......................................248
9.3.8 Specific Heat Anomalies ...................................... 249
9.3.9 Elastic Constant Anomalies.................................. 249
9.3.10 Thermal Expansion Anomalies ............................ 251
9.3.11 Ising Model ........................................................... 251
References ........................................................................................ 254
Further Reading ................................................................................ 256
Exercises ........................................................................................... 256

Chapter 10 Electronic Magnetic Moments ......................................................... 259

10.1 Classical Model of Magnetic Moments of Electrons ........... 259
10.1.1 Electron Orbital Magnetic Moment ...................... 259
10.1.2 Electron Spin Magnetic Moment ..........................260
10.1.3 Total Electronic Magnetic Moment ...................... 261
10.2 Quantum Mechanical Model of Magnetic Moments
of Electrons .......................................................................... 261
10.2.1 Principal Quantum Number n .............................. 262
10.2.2 Orbital Angular Momentum Quantum Number l ... 262
10.2.3 Spin Quantum Number s ...................................... 263
10.2.4 Magnetic Quantum Numbers ml and ms ...............264
Contents xvii

10.2.5 Quantized Angular Momentum and

Magnetic Moments ............................................. 265
10.2.6 Wave Mechanical Corrections to Angular
Momentum of Electrons ..................................... 267
10.2.7 Normal Zeeman Effect ....................................... 270
10.2.8 Anomalous Zeeman Effect ................................. 272
10.2.9 Stern-Gerlach Experiment .................................. 274
10.3 Magnetic Properties of Free Atoms ..................................... 275
10.3.1 Magnetic Moment of a Closed Shell
of Electrons ......................................................... 275
10.3.2 Atomic Magnetic Moment .................................. 275
10.3.3 Atomic Orbital Angular Momentum .................. 277
10.3.4 Atomic Spin Angular Momentum ...................... 277
10.3.5 Hund’s Rules: Occupancy of Available
Electron States .................................................... 278
10.3.6 Total Atomic Angular Momentum ..................... 279
10.3.7 Russell-Saunders Coupling .................................280
10.3.8 j–j Coupling ........................................................280
10.3.9 Quenching of the Orbital Angular Momentum..... 280
10.3.10 Electronic Behavior in Strong Magnetic Fields..... 283
References ........................................................................................ 283
Further Reading ................................................................................ 283
Exercises ...........................................................................................284

Chapter 11 Quantum Theory of Magnetism ....................................................... 287

11.1 Electron-Electron Interactions ............................................. 287
11.1.1 Wave Functions of a Two-Electron System ........ 287
11.1.2 Heitler-London Approximation .......................... 288
11.1.3 Exchange Interaction .......................................... 290
11.1.4 Wave Function Including Electron Spin .............290
11.1.5 Exchange Energy in Terms of Electron Spin...... 291
11.1.6 Heisenberg Model of Ferromagnetism ............... 294
11.1.7 Interaction Energy in Terms of Electron Spin
and Quantum Mechanical Exchange Energy ..... 295
11.1.8 Exchange Interactions between Electrons in
Filled Shells ........................................................ 296
11.1.9 Bethe-Slater Curve ............................................. 297
11.1.10 Heusler Alloys .................................................... 298
11.2 Localized Electron Theory .................................................. 299
11.2.1 Atomic Magnetic Moment Due to
Localized Electrons ............................................ 299
11.2.2 Quantum Theory of Paramagnetism ..................300
11.2.2.1 Single-Electron Atoms .......................300
11.2.2.2 Multielectron Atoms .......................... 301
11.2.2.3 Curie Law ..........................................302
xviii Contents

11.2.3 Quantum Theory of Ferromagnetism ................... 303

11.2.3.1 Magnetization......................................304
11.2.3.2 Curie-Weiss Law .................................304
11.2.4 Temperature Dependence of the Spontaneous
Magnetization within a Domain ........................... 305
11.2.5 Exchange Coupling in Magnetic Insulators.......... 305
11.2.6 Critique of the Local Moment Model ...................306
11.3 Itinerant Electron Theory ....................................................307
11.3.1 Magnetism of Electrons in Energy Bands ............307
11.3.2 Pauli Paramagnetism of Free Electrons ...............307
11.3.3 Band Theory of Ferromagnetism .........................309
11.3.4 Magnetic Properties of 3d Band Electrons ........... 311
11.3.5 Slater-Pauling Curve ............................................. 312
11.3.6 Critique of the Itinerant Electron Model .............. 313
11.3.7 Correlation Effects among Conduction
Electrons ............................................................ 313
11.3.8 Indirect Exchange ................................................. 314
11.3.9 Giant Magnetoresistance in Multilayers ............... 315
References ........................................................................................ 316
Further Reading ................................................................................ 317
Exercises ........................................................................................... 317

Section iii Magnetics: technological Applications

Chapter 12 Soft Magnetic Materials ................................................................... 321

12.1 Properties and Applications of Soft Magnets ...................... 321
12.1.1 Permeability .......................................................... 321
12.1.2 Coercivity ............................................................. 321
12.1.3 Saturation Magnetization...................................... 322
12.1.4 Hysteresis Loss ..................................................... 322
12.1.5 Conductivity and AC Electrical Losses ................ 323
12.1.6 Electromagnets and Relays ................................... 325
12.1.7 Transformers, Motors, and Generators ................. 326
12.2 Materials for AC Applications ............................................. 326
12.2.1 Iron-Silicon Alloys (Electrical Steels) .................. 326
12.2.2 Iron-Aluminum Alloys ......................................... 332
12.2.3 Nickel-Iron Alloys (Permalloy) ............................ 332
12.2.4 Amorphous Magnetic Ribbons
(Metallic Glasses) ................................................. 336
12.2.5 Amorphous Magnetic Fibers ................................ 341
12.2.6 Nanocrystalline Magnetic Materials .................... 343
12.2.7 Artificially Structured Magnetic Materials .......... 343
12.2.8 Soft Ferrites ..........................................................344
Contents xix

12.3 Materials for DC Applications ............................................. 345

12.3.1 Iron and Low-Carbon Steels (Soft Iron) .............346
12.3.2 Iron-Nickel Alloys (Permalloy) .......................... 347
12.3.3 Iron-Cobalt Alloys (Permendur) ......................... 350
12.4 Materials for Magnetic Shielding ........................................ 352
12.4.1 Shielding Factor .................................................. 353
12.4.2 Multiple Shields .................................................. 354
12.4.3 Shielding of Alternating Fields ........................... 354
References ........................................................................................ 355
Further Reading ................................................................................ 356

Chapter 13 Hard Magnetic Materials ................................................................. 359

13.1 Properties and Applications of Hard Magnets..................... 359
13.1.1 Coercivity ...........................................................360
13.1.2 Remanence.......................................................... 361
13.1.3 Saturation Magnetization.................................... 361
13.1.4 Energy Product ................................................... 361
13.1.5 Demagnetization Curve ......................................364
13.1.6 Permanent Magnet Circuit Design ..................... 365
13.1.7 Stoner-Wohlfarth Model of Rotational
Hysteresis ..................................................... 366
13.1.8 Applications ........................................................ 372
13.1.9 Stability of Permanent Magnets ......................... 372
13.2 Permanent Magnet Materials ............................................... 373
13.2.1 Magnetite ............................................................ 374
13.2.2 Permanent Magnet Steels ................................... 374
13.2.3 Alnico Alloys ...................................................... 375
13.2.4 Hard Ferrites ....................................................... 377
13.2.5 Platinum-Cobalt .................................................. 378
13.2.6 Samarium-Cobalt................................................ 378
13.2.7 Neodymium-Iron-Boron ..................................... 380
13.2.8 Nanostructured Permanent Magnets .................. 383
13.2.9 Samarium-Iron-Nitride ....................................... 386
13.2.10 Comparison of Various Permanent
Magnet Materials ................................................ 387
References ........................................................................................ 389
Further Reading ................................................................................ 391

Chapter 14 Magnetic Recording ......................................................................... 393

14.1 History of Magnetic Recording ........................................... 393
14.1.1 Magnetic Tapes ..................................................... 396
14.1.2 Magnetic Disks ..................................................... 399
14.1.3 Various Types of Recording Devices ................... 401
14.1.4 Magneto-Optic Recording ....................................402
xx Contents

14.2 Magnetic Recording Media .................................................405

14.2.1 Materials for Magnetic Recording Media ............405
14.2.1.1 Gamma Ferric Oxide ..........................405
14.2.1.2 Cobalt Surface-Modified Gamma
Ferric Oxide ........................................406
14.2.1.3 Chromium Dioxide .............................406
14.2.1.4 Powdered Iron .....................................406
14.2.1.5 Metallic Films .....................................407
14.2.1.6 Hexagonal Ferrites ..............................407
14.2.1.7 Perpendicular Recording Media .........408
14.3 Recording Heads and the Recording Process ......................408
14.3.1 Inductive Write Heads .......................................... 410
14.3.2 Writing Process..................................................... 411
14.3.3 Writing Head Efficiency ....................................... 413
14.3.4 Magnetoresistive Read Heads ............................... 415
14.3.5 Reading Process.................................................... 416
14.3.6 Recording Density ................................................ 416
14.4 Modeling the Magnetic Recording Process ......................... 417
14.4.1 Preisach Model ..................................................... 417
14.4.2 Stoner-Wohlfarth Model ....................................... 418
References ........................................................................................ 418
Further Reading ................................................................................ 420

Chapter 15 Magnetic Evaluation of Materials .................................................... 421

15.1 Methods for Evaluation of Materials Properties .................. 421
15.1.1 Magnetic Hysteresis .............................................. 422
15.1.2 Magnetic Barkhausen Effect ................................ 427
15.1.3 Magnetoacoustic Emission ................................... 432
15.1.4 Residual Field and Remanent Magnetization ....... 434
15.2 Methods for Detection of Flaws and Other
Inhomogeneities ................................................................ 435
15.2.1 Magnetic Particle Inspection ................................ 435
15.2.2 Applications of the Magnetic Particle Method ..... 438
15.2.3 Magnetic Flux Leakage ........................................440
15.2.4 Applications of the Flux Leakage Method ........... 443
15.2.5 Leakage Field Calculations...................................444
15.3 Magnetic Imaging Methods .................................................448
15.3.1 Magnetic Force Microscopy .................................449
15.3.2 Scanning SQUID Microscopy .............................. 453
Contents xxi

15.4 Sensitivity to Microstructure and Material Treatment ........ 454

References ........................................................................................ 456
Further Reading ................................................................................ 458

Solutions to Exercises .......................................................................................... 459

Appendix A ........................................................................................................... 567
Appendix B ........................................................................................................... 571
Index ...................................................................................................................... 577
This page intentionally left blank
Preface
A new edition of Introduction to Magnetism and Magnetic Materials is long
overdue, the project having been held up first by the need for a second edition of
Introduction to the Electronic Materials, and then by the new book Introduction
to the Principles of Materials Evaluation. This third edition of Introduction to
Magnetism and Magnetic Materials has been completely revised. The basic science
of magnetism evolves slowly, so that most of the content of Chapters 1 through 11
is as relevant today as it was at the time of the second edition. Nevertheless, I have
taken the opportunity to add a few more exercises to these chapters with once again
complete worked solutions to all exercises at the end of the book. It is my belief that
the best way to learn this subject is to read through the chapters, try the exercises that
test your knowledge on the subject area of the chapter, and then check your solution
against the model answers in the back of the book. That is why I continue to provide
complete worked solutions rather than just a numerical answer, because in the latter
case if you don’t get the answer right, it can be difficult to see where you went wrong.
The book also serves a secondary role as a reference text with a large number
of references to key works in magnetism and magnetic materials. In Chapters 12
through 15, which deal with applications of magnetism and magnetic materials, there
has been enormous progress in the time since the previous edition—particularly in
magnetic recording. In preparing the new edition that is where most of the time and
effort had to be devoted. So in these later chapters, you will find new results and
many new references—often references to web pages, where a lot of the new results
now appear. However, the classic works still provide information on the important
milestones in the development of our subject. So I have interspersed references to
some of the classic works with newer references in these chapters to provide a more
complete treatment of the subject matter.
I would like to acknowledge the assistance of many friends, colleagues and
students in preparing this third edition. In particular I would like to thank: Lawrence
Crowther, Ravi Hadimani, Orfeas Kypris, Ikenna Nlebedim, Zhen Zhang, Helena
Khazdozian, Yan (Michelle) Ni, Neelam Prabhu Gaunkar and Priyam Rastogi.
Finally, thanks to my wife, Helen; our daughters, Sarah and Elizabeth; and our
sons, Andrew and Richard, for their patience.

David Jiles
Iowa State University

xxiii
This page intentionally left blank
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