Chapter - 5

MAGNETISM

Basic Properties of Magnets:

1. Attractive property – Every magnet has two poles.
2. Directive Property – The pole of the magnet which points towards the geographical north is called
north seeking or north (N) pole. The other pole which points towards the geographical south is
called south seeking or south (S) pole of the magnet.
3. Like poles repel and unlike poles attract
4. Magnetic poles always exist in pairs.
5. Magnetic induction – A magnet induces magnetism in a magnetic substance placed near it.

Some Important Definitions Connected with Magnetism:

1. Magnetic Field - The space around the magnet within which its influence can be experienced is
called its magnetic field.
2. Uniform Magnetic Field - A magnetic field in a region is said to be uniform if it has same
magnitude and direction at all points of that region.
3. Magnetic Poles - These are regions of apparently concentrated magnetic strength in a magnet
where the magnetic attraction is maximum.
4. Magnetic Axis - The line passing through the poles of the magnet is called the magnetic axis of the
magnet.

5. Magnetic Equator - The line passing through the centre of the magnet and at right angles to the
magnetic axis is called the magnetic equator of the magnet.
6. Magnetic Length - The distance between the two poles of the magnet is called the magnetic length
of the magnet. It is slightly less than the geometric length of the magnet.

Magnetic Dipole: An arrangement of two equal and opposite magnetic poles separated by a small distance
is called a magnetic dipole.
Magnetic Dipole Moment (𝒎): The magnetic dipole moment of a magnetic dipole is defined as the
product of this pole strength and the magnetic length. It is a vector quantity, directed from S-pole to N-
pole.
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒒𝒎 𝟐𝒍
𝒎
SI Unit – J/T or Am 2

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Magnetic Field: The space around a magnet within which its influence can be experienced is called its
magnetic field.
MAGNETIC FIELD LINES
A magnetic field line of force may be defined as the curve the tangent to which at any point gives
the direction of the magnetic field at that point.
Properties of magnetic field lines of force:
1. Magnetic lines of force are closed curves.
2. The lines of force never cross each other. If they do so, that would mean there are two directions of
the magnetic field at the point of intersection, which is impossible.
3. They start from and end on the surface of the magnet normally.
4. The lines of force have a tendency to contract lengthwise and expand sidewise. This explains
attraction between unlike poles and repulsion between like poles.
5. The relative closeness of the lines of force gives a measure of the strength of the magnetic field
which is maximum at the poles.

MAGNETIC FIELD OF A BAR MAGNET AT AN AXIAL POINT: (Qualitative Treatment Only)

𝝁𝟎 𝟐𝒎 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝒓
⃗⃗ 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒂𝒍 =
𝑩
𝟒𝝅 (𝒓 − 𝒍𝟐 )𝟐
𝟐

If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙, then
⃗⃗⃗
𝝁𝟎 𝟐𝒎
⃗𝑩
⃗ 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒂𝒍 =
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟑
MAGNETIC FIELD OF A BAR MAGNET AT AN EQUATORIAL POINT: (Qualitative Treatment
Only)

𝝁𝟎 ⃗⃗⃗
𝒎
⃗⃗ 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂 =
𝑩
𝟒𝝅 (𝒓 + 𝒍𝟐 )𝟑/𝟐
𝟐

If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙, then
⃗⃗⃗
𝝁𝟎 𝒎
⃗𝑩
⃗ 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂 =
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟑

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TORQUE ON A MAGNETIC DIPOLE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD: (Qualitative Treatment Only)

𝝉 = 𝒎 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
⃗ = 𝒎
𝝉 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑩
Special cases:-
1. θ = 00/1800, sin θ = 0, τ=0
2. θ = 900, sin θ = 1, τ = mB (Maximum)

Similarities Between Bar Magnet and a Current Carrying Solenoid:

1. When a current carrying solenoid suspended in freely always comes to rest in N-S direction like a
bar magnet.
2. Two current carrying solenoids exhibit mutual attraction or repulsion like two bar magnets.
3. Pattern of magnetic field of both current carrying solenoid and bar magnets are the same.

A CURRENT CARRYING SOLENOID AS AN EQUIVALENT BAR MAGNET:

A solenoid can be considered as a combination of circular loops. Then the solenoid becomes an
arrangement of small magnetic dipoles placed in a line. The opposite poles neutralize each other except at
the ends. Thus a current carrying solenoid is equivalent to a bar magnet.

A BAR MAGNET AS AN EQUIVALENT CURRENT CARRYING SOLENOID:

The electrons in an atom keep on revolving around its nucleus and hence set up an electric current.
These atomic currents are equivalent to small circular current loops. In a magnet these current loops are
arranged in parallel. At any point inside the magnet, the currents from adjacent loops cancel each other but
there will be a net current in on the surface. Due to this the bar magnet is equivalent tot a current carrying
solenoid.

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SOME IMPORTANT TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS:
1. Magnetizing field (B0):- The magnetic field that exists in vacuum and induces magnetism is called
magnetizing field.
𝑩𝟎 = 𝝁𝟎 𝒏𝑰
2. Magnetic induction (BM):- It is defined as the total number of magnetic lines of force crossing per
unit area normally through a material.
𝑩𝑴 = 𝝁𝟎 𝒏 𝑰𝑴
𝐼𝑀 - magnetization surface current.

Under the influence of 𝐵0, the magnetic moments of the atomic current loops of the core tend to
align themselves with or against the 𝐵0. This gives rise to a net current on the surface of the core
and is called magnetization surface current IM.
The total magnetic field inside the core = 𝑩𝟎 + 𝑩𝑴
3. Magnetizing field intensity (H) - Its magnitude may be defined as the number of ampere turns (nl)
flowing round the unit length of the solenoid required to produce the given magnetizing field.
𝑯 = 𝒏𝑰
𝑩𝟎
𝑯=
𝝁𝟎
SI Unit – Am-1
⃗⃗⃗ ) - The magnetic moment developed per unit volume of a material
4. Intensity of magnetization (𝑴
when placed in a magnetizing field is called intensity of magnetization or simply magnetization.
⃗⃗⃗
𝒎
⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ =
𝑽
Since the magnetic moment developed per unit length of the solenoid = 𝑛𝐼𝑀 𝐴
𝒏𝑰𝑴 𝑨
⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ = = 𝒏𝑰𝑴
𝑨
𝑩𝑴 = 𝝁𝟎 𝒏 𝑰𝑴 = 𝝁𝟎 𝑴
Therefore, the total magnetic field, 𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 (𝑯 + 𝑴)
5. Magnetic Permeability () - The magnetic Permeability of a material may be defined as the ratio
of its magnetic induction B to the magnetic intensity H.
𝑩
𝝁=
𝑯
SI unit :- TmA-1

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 6. Relative permeability (r) - It is defined as the ratio of the permeability of the medium to the
permeability of the free space.
𝝁
𝝁𝒓 =
𝝁𝟎
7. Magnetic susceptibility () - It is defined as the ratio of the intensity of magnetization M to the
magnetizing field intensity H.
𝑴
𝝌𝒎 =
𝑯
8. Relation between magnetic permeability and magnetic susceptibility.
𝝁 𝒓 = 𝟏 + 𝝌𝒎

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

1. Diamagnetic substances - Diamagnetic substances are those which develop feeble magnetization
in the opposite direction of the magnetizing field. Such substances are feebly repelled by magnets
and tend to move from stronger to weaker parts of a magnetic field.
Examples; Bismuth, copper, lead, zinc, tin, gold, silicon, nitrogen (at STP), water, sodium
chloride, etc.
2. Paramagnetic substances - Paramagnetic substances are those which develop feeble magnetization
in the direction of the magnetizing field. Such substances are feebly attracted by magnets and tend
to move from weaker to stronger parts of a magnetic field.
Examples; Manganese, aluminium, chromium, platinum, sodium, copper chloride, oxygen
(at STP), etc.
3. Ferromagnetic substances - Ferromagnetic substances are those which develop strong
magnetization in the direction of the magnetizing field. They are strongly attracted by magnets and
tend to move from weaker to stronger parts of a magnetic field.
Examples; Iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium and alloys like alnico.

Curie’s Law: From experiments it is found that the intensity of magnetization (M) of a paramagnetic
material is
(i) Directly proportional to the magnetizing field intensity H.
(ii) Inversely proportional to the absolute temperature T.
𝑯
𝑴 ∝
𝑻
𝑪
𝝌𝒎 =
𝑻
Where C is curie constant. The above relation is called Curie’s law. This law states that “far away from
saturation, the susceptibility of a paramagnetic material is inversely proportional to the absolute
temperature.” Beyond the saturation value Ms, Curie law is not valid.

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Modified curie’s law for ferromagnetic substances: The temperature at which a ferromagnetic substance
becomes paramagnetic is called Curie temperature or Curie point TC. Above the curie point the
susceptibility varies with temperature as
𝑪′
𝝌𝒎 =
𝑻 − 𝑻𝑪
Where C’ is a constant. This is modified Curie’s law for a ferromagnetic material above the Curie
temperature. It is also known as Curie-Weiss law. This law states that ” the susceptibility of a
ferromagnetic substance above its Curie temperature is inversely proportional to the excess of temperature
above the Curie temperature.”

PROPERTIES OF DIAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES

1. When placed in an external magnetic field, it develops feeble magnetization in the opposite
direction of the applied field.

2. When a rod of diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the lines of force get expelled or
repelled. Consequently the magnetic induction inside the material becomes less than the
magnetizing field.
3. When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, a diamagnetic substance moves from stronger to the
weaker parts of the field.

4. When a rod of diamagnetic material is suspended freely in a uniform magnetic field, it aligns itself
perpendicular to the magnetizing field.
5. The susceptibility (Xm = M/H) of a diamagnetic materials is small and negative.
6. The relative permeability μr (=1+Xm) is positive but less than 1.
7. The susceptibility of diamagnetic substances is independent of the magnetizing field and the
temperature.

8. The magnetization of a diamagnetic substance lasts so long as the magnetizing field is applied.

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PROPERTIES OF PARAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES

1. When placed in an external magnetic field, it develops feeble magnetization in the direction of the
applied field.

2. When a rod of paramagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the lines of force get slightly
more concentrated inside the material. The magnetic induction B becomes slightly greater than the
magnetizing field.
3. When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, a paramagnetic substance moves from weaker to the
stronger parts of the field.

4. When a rod of paramagnetic material is suspended freely in a uniform magnetic field, it aligns itself
parallel to the magnetizing field.
5. Its susceptibility has a small but positive value.
6. The relative permeability has a value slightly greater than 1.
7. The magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic material varies inversely as the absolute temperature.

8. For a given temperature, the intensity of magnetization is proportional to the magnetizing field so
⃗⃗⃗⃗0.
the susceptibility and permeability do not show any variation with the field 𝐵

9. As soon as the magnetizing field is removed, a paramagnetic substance loses its magnetism.

PROPERTIES OF FERROMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES

1. When placed in an external magnetic field, it develops strong magnetization in the direction of the
applied field.

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2. When a ferromagnetic substance is placed in a magnetic field the lines of force concentrate greatly
into the material so that the magnetic induction B becomes much more than the magnetizing field.
3. When a ferromagnetic substance is placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, it moves from weaker
to the stronger parts of the field.
4. When a rod of ferromagnetic material is suspended freely in a uniform magnetic field, it quickly
aligns itself parallel to the magnetic field.
5. The intensity of magnetization M is proportional to the magnetizing field intensity H for its smaller
values. For moderate values of H, M increases rapidly and then finally attains constant value for
large H.
6. The susceptibility of ferromagnetic material has a large positive value. It is of the order of several
thousands.
7. The relative permeability has a large positive value. It is of the order of several thousands.
8. The susceptibility of ferromagnetic material decreases with the temperature in accordance with
Curie-Weiss law.
9. At a certain temperature called Curie point, the susceptibility suddenly falls and the ferromagnetic
substance becomes paramagnetic.
10. The magnetization developed depends not only on the value of magnetizing field but also on the
past magnetic and mechanical history of the material.
11. A ferromagnetic material retains magnetism even after the magnetizing field is removed.

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