Chapter 5: Processor

By the end of this chapter, the trainee should be able to:

a) Trace the evolution of processors.
b) Outline processor characteristics.
c) Classify Processors.
d) Describe types of process slots and sockets.

This topic is estimated to take hours

Introduction

Definition: The processor is a chip or a logical circuit that responds and

processes the basic instructions to drive a particular computer.
The main functions of the processor are fetching, decoding, executing,
and write back the operations of an instruction.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

• CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

• CPU performs all types of data processing operations.

• It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).

• It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 • Memory or Storage Unit

• Control Unit

• ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit
supplies information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also
known as internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or
Random-Access Memory (RAM).

Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary
memory are two types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory
unit are −

• It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.

• It stores intermediate results of processing.

• It stores the final results of processing before these results are released
to an output device.

• All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.
Control Unit

This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not
carry out any actual data processing operations.

Functions of this unit are −

• It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions

among other units of a computer.

• It decodes and executes instructions obtained from software programs.

• It controls and supports the timing of each operation.

• It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.

• It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and

directs the operation of the computer.

• It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or

results from storage.

• It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,

• Arithmetic Section

• Logic Section

Arithmetic Section

Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by
making repetitive use of the above operations.

Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing,
selecting, matching, and merging of data.

The CPU or processor is the portion of a computer system that carries out the
instructions of a computer program, and is the primary element carrying out
the computers functions.

The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed dramatically

since the earliest examples, but their fundamental operation remains much
the same.

Early CPUs were custom-designed as a part of a larger, sometimes one-of-a-

kind computer. The standardization method began in the era of discrete
transistor mainframes and minicomputers and rapidly accelerated with the
popularization of the integrated circuit (IC) The speed of the processor is a
major determinant on the performance of the pc.

The CPU is one of the most expensive components on the motherboard and
also very delicate.

The processor itself is a flat plate of silicon made up from millions of

transistors etched onto the plate in a huge computer logic framework. A
ceramic cover is placed over the micro circuitry to protect it and to conduct
heat away to other heat sinks.

The CPU is extremely susceptible to electrostatic discharge (ESD). They are

also compatible with various operating system software.

General Purpose Processor

There are five types of general-purpose processors they are:

 Microcontroller
Microprocessor
Embedded Processor
DSP
Media Processor.

Microprocessor

The general-purpose processors are represented by the microprocessor in

embedded systems. There are different varieties of microprocessors available
in the market from different companies. The microprocessor is also a general-
purpose processor that consists of a control unit, ALU, a bunch of registers
also called scratchpad registers, control registers and status registers.

There may be an on-chip memory and some interfaces for communicating

with the external world like interrupt lines, other lines for the memory and
ports for communicating with the external world. The ports often called the
programmable ports that means, we can program these ports either to be
acting as an input or as an output. The general-purpose processors are shown
in the below table.

Clock MIPS
S.NO Processor Speed Bus Width Power Price

The clock The bus width A million The power of

Intel speed of of Intel instructions this
Pentium Intel Pentium 111 per second of processor is
1 111 Pentium processor is 32 Intel Pentium 97 W $900
 111 111 processor
processor is is ~900
1GHz

The clock
speed of the A million
IBM The bus width instructions
PowerPC of the IBM per second of
750X PowerPC IBM PowerPC The power of
IBM processor is 750X processor 750X this
PowerPC 550 is processor is processor is
2 750X MHz 32/64 ~1300 5W #900

The clock
speed of the The bus width
MIPS R5000 of the MIPS
processor is R5000
MIPS 250 processor is
3 R5000 MHz 32/64 NA NA NA

The clock The million

speed of The bus width instructions
StrongARM of per second of
SA-110 StrongARM StrongARM The power of
processor is SA- SA- this
StrongARM 233 110processor is 110processor processor is
4 SA-110 MHz 32 is 268 1W NA

Microcontroller
The microcontroller is basically a computer that comes in various packages
and sizes. The reading input and responding to output is the basic function of
the microcontroller. Generally, it is known as General Purpose Input Output
(GPIO). Some of the microcontrollers are Microchip Atmega328-AU, Microchip
P1C16F877A-I/P, Microchip P1C16F1503-I/P, Microchip P1C16F671-I/SN,
Microchip P1C18F45K22-I/P, etc.

Embedded Processor

An embedded processor is one type of processor which is designed to control

mechanical functions and electrical functions. It consists of several blocks they
are the processor, timer, an interrupt controller, program memory and data
memory, power supply, reset and clock oscillator circuits, system application-
specific circuits, ports and interfacing circuits.

Digital Signal Processor

The digital signal processor is one type of processor used for measuring,
filtering and/or compress digital or analog signals. The signal processing
means analysis and manipulation of signal. This processing can be done via
computer or Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC), Field
Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) or Digital Signal Processor (DSP) to obtain
the clear signal. The DSP processors are used in an oscilloscope, barcode
scanners, mobile phones, printers, etc. These processors are fast and use for
real-time applications. The typical DSP system is shown in the below figure.
typical-system-for-digital-signal-processors
The digital signal processors are shown in the below table

MIPS
S.NO Processor Clock Speed Bus Width Price

The million The price of

The bus width of instructions per the
The clock speed T1 second for T1 T1 C5416
of the T1 C5416 C5416 C5416 The
T1 C5416 processor is 160 Processor is 32 The processor is processor is
1 Processor MHz ~600 $34

The clock The million The price of

The bus width
speed of the instructions per the
of
DSP 32C second DSP 32C
DSP 32C
DSP 32C Processor is for DSP 32C Processor
Processor is 32
2 Processor 80 MHz Processor is 40 $75

Applications of DSP

The applications of the digital signal processor are

• Speech processing
 • Image processing
• Medical processing
• Biometric Processing
• Seismology
• Radar
Media Processor

The image/video processor is the media processor that is designed or created

to deal with the data in real-time. The voice user interface and professional
audio are the applications of the audio processor. Some of the media
processors are TN2302AP IP, IN2602 AP IP, DM3730, DM3725, DM37385,
DM388, TMS320DM6467, TMS320DM6431, etc.

Application-Specific System Processors (ASSPs)

The application-specific system processor is a semiconductor integrated circuit
product used to implement a specific function. The performance,
characteristics and die size of the application-specific system processor is the
same as the ASIC. The ASSP’s are used in various types of industries to
perform video encoding or decoding and audio encoding or decoding. In place
of embedded software, the application-specific system processor is used to
run the
application and it provides the solution faster. Example: IIM7100, W3100A
Application-Specific Instruction Set Processors (ASIPs)

The application-specific instruction-set processors are designed for specific

applications. These processors have low power consumption, high
computational speed, and good flexibility. Due to programmability, the data
path utilization is high in ASIPs, and the performance of this instruction set
processor is good.
ASIC Processors

The application-specific integrated circuits are built for specific applications.

These chips are small in size and consume low power. The design cost of ASIC
is high and this is the main disadvantage. The application-specific integrated
circuit chips are used in satellites, modems, computers, etc. Some of the top
ASICs manufacturer companies are Ams AG. Listed Company, Bitfury. Private
Company, XMOS Semiconductor Private Company, Analogix Semiconductor
Private Company, EDAptive Computing Private Company, Lumen Radio
Private Company, Integrated Device Technology, Hookit. Private Company,
etc. Multiprocessor

The multiprocessor is a computer with more than one CPU, each shares main
memory, a computer bus, and peripherals to simultaneously process the
programs and these systems are also known as tightly coupled systems. The
advantages of multiprocessors are increased throughput, increased reliability
and economy of scale. These processors are used when very high speed is
required to process a large volume of data. The symmetric multiprocessor is
shown in the below figure.
symmetric-multiprocessors

Characteristics of Multiprocessors
The Characteristics of Multiprocessor are
• The multiprocessors consist of more than two processors or two
processors which are similar
• Memory and input/output facilities shared by the processors
• The access time of the memory is the same for each processor
because the processors are connected by bus
• Access to the input/output devices are shared by the processors
• The same function performed by all the processors
Processor modes
This article gives the information of Processor Mode. Processor Mode also
called as CPU modes or CPU “privilege level”. The CPU modes are used by
processor to create an operating environment for automatic. Specifically, the
CPU mode controls how the processor sees and manages the system
memory and task that use it. There are three different modes of operation
but one more mode is added for new 64 bit processor:

1. Real Mode.
2. Protected Mode.
3. Virtual Mode Real Mode.
4. 64 bit extension Mode.

Real Mode:

The original IBM PC could only address 1MB of system memory and the
original versions of DOS created to work on it were designed with this in
mind. DOS is it’s by nature a single tasking operating system meaning it
can only handle one program running at a time. The decision made in these
early days have carried forward until now and in each new processor care
had to be taken to be able to put the processor in a mode that would be
compatible with the original Intel 8088 chip. This is called Real Mode. Real
mode is of course used by DOS and “standard” DOS application.

Protected Mode:

Starting with the 80286 chip in the IBM AT, a new CPU mode was published
called protected mode. This is much more powerful mode of operation than
real mode and is used in all modern multitasking operating systems. The
name of this mode comes from its primary use, which is by multitasking
operating systems. Each running program has its own assigned memory
locations, avoiding conflict with other programs. If a program tries to use an
unauthorised memory address, a “protection fault” is generated. The
advantages of protected mode (compared to real mode) are:

• Full access to all of the system memory. There is no 1 MB limitation in

mode
• Ability to multiple tasking meaning having the operating system
manages the execution of multiple programs simultaneously.
 • It supports virtual memory which gives the permission the system to
use the hard disk to emulate additional system memory when needed.
• Faster (32 bit) access to memory and faster 32 bit drivers to
do I/O transfer.

The name of this mode comes from its primary use which is multitasking
operating system. Each program that is running has its own assigned
memory location which is protected from conflict with other programs. If a
program tryes to access a memory address that it isn’t allowed to a
“protection fault” is generated.

Protected mode is now used by the most people use their PCs.

Virtual Mode:

This mode is also called virtual 8086 mode. The third mode of operation is
actually an some more capability, an enhancement of protected mode. The
use Protected mode is for to run graphical multitasking operating system
such as the various types of windows. There is often desire to be able to run
DOS program under the window, but DOS programs need to be run in the
real mode not protected mode. Virtual real mode is used to solve this
problem. Virtual real mode is also used when you use a DOS box or run a
DOS game in Windows 95. To help improve the memory management and
multitasking capabilities of real mode processors, various add-on programs
can be used. The protocol that defines how DOS works in protected mode is
called DOS protected mode interface (DPM).

64 Bit Extension Mode:

This mode is also called Long Mode. 64 bit extension mode is the mode
where a 64 bit application can access the 64 bit instruction and registers
while 32 bit and 16 bit programs are executed in a compatibility sub mode.
This is what about the processor modes.

Processor chips

1. AMD (Advanced Micro Devices)

AMD is a global supplier of integrated

Evolution of Intel Processors Introduction
Founded on July 18, 1968
Founders:
• Robert Noyce
• Gorden Moore
• Andrew
Headquartered in Santa Clara, California
Grew as start up in 1968 to industrial grant by 1981
Above1 lakhs employees, $55 billion revenue Intel Corporation
Intel 4004
• First 4-bit microprocessor
• Introduced November 15, 1971 by Intel
• First commercially available computer processor
• Clock rate 740 kHz.
• Executes 60,000 instructions per second
• Instruction set contained 46 instructions
• Number of Transistors 2,300 at 10 µm
 • Addressable Memory 640 bytes
• Register set contained 16 registers
• Designed to be used in Busicom calculator

Intel 4040
• Successor of Intel 4004
• Introduced in 1974
• Clock Speed 500 – 740 kHz
• Instruction set increased to 60 instructions
• Number of Transistors 3,000 at 10 µm
• Register set increased to 24 registers 7 Intel 4040

Intel 8008.
• First 8-bit processor
• Introduced April 1, 1972
• Clock Speed 500 kHz
• Execute 50,000 instructions per second
• Number of Transistors 3,500 at 10 µm
• Addressable Memory 16 KB
• Register set contained 7 registers
• Designed for use in Datapoint 2200 microcomputer
Intel 8080
• Introduced April, 1974
• Clock Speed 2 MHz
• Transistors 4,500 at 6 µm
• 10 times faster than Intel 8008
• Execute 500,000 instructions per second

Intel 8085
• Introduced 1976
• Clock Speed 3 MHz
• Executes 0.37 MIPS
• Number of transistors 6,500 at 3 μm
• 100 million copies were sold 11 Intel 8085
Intel 8086
• First 16-bit processor
• Introduced in June 8, 1978
• Introduction of x86 architecture
• Clock speed is 4.77 – 10 MHz
• 29,000 transistors at 3 µm
• Execute 2.5 MIPS
• Used in portable computing, IBM PS/2 computers

Intel 8088
• Introduced June 1, 1979
• Backward compatible 8086
• Clock speed is 5 – 10 MHz
• Created as a cheaper version of Intel’s 8086
• Used first in IBM-PC
• Highly successful due to large sale of IBM-PC 14 Intel 8088

Intel 80186 & 80188

• Introduced in 1982
• Clock speed was 6 MHz
 • 80188 was a cheaper version of 80186
55,000 transistors at 3 µm
Had additional components
like:
o Interrupt Controller
o Clock Generator
o Local Bus Controller
o Counters

Intel 80286
• Introduced in February 2, 1982
• Clock speed was 8 MHz
• 134,000 transistors at 1.5 µm
• Execute 4 MIPS
• First with memory management, protection abilities
• Introduces “Virtual Memory Concept”
• Widely used in IBM PC 16

Intel 80386
• First 32-bit processor
 • Introduced in October 17, 1985
• Clock speed 16 – 33 MHz
• 2,75,000 transistors at 1.5 µm
• Address 4 GB of memory
• Concept of paging was introduced
• Bestselling microprocessor in history

Intel 80486
Included an internal clock multiplier circuit that allowed the processor
to operate the on-chip circuitry at faster clock rates (clock doubling)
This meant that the circuits inside the chip ran at twice the speed of the
external electronics.
Data was transferred between the processor, the internal cache and the
math coprocessor at twice the speed, considerably enhancing
performance.
The 486DX4 took this technique further, tripling the clock speed to run
internally at 75mhz or 100mhz and also doubled the amount of primary
cache to 16k.
Examples
• DX2-50 clock doubled the 25mhz clock
• DX2-66 clock doubled the 33mhz clock
• DX4-100 clock tripled the 33mhz clock
• DX$-75 clock tripled the 25mhz clock features
Introduced in 1989
million transistors at 1 µm
 Clock speed 16 – 100 MHz
1TB Virtual Memory Cache Memory of 8 KB was introduced
Used in Desktop computing and Servers

Intel Pentium
• Introduced in March 22, 1993
• Originally named 80586
• Clock speed 60 – 66 MHz
• Executes 110 MIPS
• 3.1 million transistors at 0.8 µm
• Virtual Memory 64 TB
• 16 KB L1 cache memory
Intel Pentium Pro
• Introduced in November 1, 1995
• Clock speed 150 – 200 MHz
• 5.5 million transistors at 0.5 µm
• 16 KB L1 cache memory
• 256 KB L2 cache memory
• Access up to 64GB of memory
• Primarily designed for servers
• Used in ASCI Red supercomputer
Intel Pentium II
• Introduced on May 7, 1997
• Clock speed 233 - 450 MHz
• 7.5 million transistors at 0.35 µm
• Execute 333 MIPS
• L2 cache & processor were on one circuit
Intel Pentium III

• Introduced on Feb 26, 1999 ✓ Clock speed 0.45 – 1.4 GHz

• 9.5 million transistors at 0.25 µm
• L2 cache increased to 512 KB
• Used faster core than its predecessor
Intel Pentium IV

• Introduced on November 20, 2000

• Clock speed 1.3 – 3.8 GHz
• 42 million transistors at 0.18 µm
• Widely popular processor
• Used in desktops, laptops & entry level servers as well
Intel Atom

• Introduced on 2008
• 32- or 64-bit processor
• Single, Dual Core processor ✓ Clock speed 0.6 – 2.13 GHz

• 47 million transistors at 45 nm ✓ Also known as Centrino Atom

• Low power, small size processor
• Widely used in Portable Netbooks

Intel Celeron

• 32 bit or 64-bit processor

• Introduced on April, 1998
• Single, Dual Core processor ✓ Clock speed 0.26 – 3.6 GHz ✓
2MB L3 cache
 • Used in budget range PC’s

Intel Xeon

• 32 bit or 64-bit processor

• In use from 1998
• Clock speed 0.4 – 4.4 GHz
• Up to 16 cores
• Up to 24MB L3 cache
• Very high-end processor
• Used for non-consumer workstation, server
Intel Pentium Dual Core
• 32 bit or 64 bit processor
• Introduced on 2006
• Dual Core processor
• Clock speed 1.3 – 2.6 GHz
• 228 million transistors at 90 nm
• Support for Simultaneous Multi-Threading 28
Intel Core 2 Series
• Pure 64 bit processor
• Introduced on July 27, 2006
• Multi core on a single chip
• Dual, Quad Core processor
• Clock speed 1.06 – 3.33 GHz
• 291 million transistors at 45 nm
• 64 KB of L1 cache per core
• 4 MB of L2 cache
• Core 2 Duo widely used in desktops, laptops
• Core 2 Quad used for business purposes
Intel Core i3
• Introduced in January 7, 2010
 • Clock Speed 1.2 – 3.7 GHz
• 4 MB L3 cache
• Dual Core processor
• 2 – 4 logical processors
• Supports Hyper threading
• Entry level processor in today’s era
• Supports in-built security features

Intel Core i5
• Introduced September 8, 2009
• Clock Speed 1.06 – 3.6 GHz
• Support for Hyper Threading
• Support for Turbo Boost
• Dual Core mobile processor
• Dual, Quad Core desktop processor
• 4 logical processors
• 4 – 8 MB L3 cache
• Mid to High end processor series
• Desktop versions comes with support for Overclocking 32
Intel Core i7
• Introduced November 17, 2008
• Clock Speed 1.6 – 4.4 GHz
• Dual, Quad Core processor
• 4 – 8 logical processors
• 6 – 15 MB L3 cache
• High end processor Series
✓ Comes with support for Overclocking
✓ Widely used in Gaming Laptops 33
 Modern Trends of Processor
• Intel was the first microprocessor producer
• Intel owns more than 83% microprocessor market share
• Intel supplies processors to Apple, Samsung, HP, Dell & others
• Intel Core i3, i5 Dual Core are most sold in India
• Gaming Geeks use i7 processors, along with a high-power GPU
for enhanced performance
• Processors with suffix “K” can be Overclocked for getting
ultimate performance Servers, Workstations are deployed on
Intel Xeon chips

Conclusion
• Growth is tremendous
• Speed of microprocessor is increasing day-by-day
• Architecture has been reduced to very small, 22 nm
• Microprocessor are also used in various devices like mobiles,
watches, ATM, cameras Price reduced in recent years
• Much more in the upcoming years

Factors to consider when upgrading a processor

• Socket architectures
• Compatibility of the motherboard