Application of First order ODE

Low of Cooling: The temperature of a body change at a rate which is

proportional to the difference in temperature between the body itself and the
outside medium.

Problem 01:

A thermometer reading 180 F is brought into a room the temperature of which is

700 F. One minute later the thermometer reading is 310 F. Determine the
temperature reading as a function of time and in particular, find the temperature
reading five minutes after the thermometer is first brought into the room.

Solution: By Newton’s law of cooling,

𝑑𝑢
= 𝑘 𝑢 − 70
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑢
⇒ = 𝑘𝑑𝑡
𝑢 −70

⇒ ln 𝑢 − 70 = 𝑘𝑡 + ln 𝑐
𝑢−70
⇒ ln = 𝑘𝑡
𝑐

𝑢 −70
⇒ = 𝑒 𝑘𝑡
𝑐

⇒ 𝑢 − 70 = 𝑐𝑒 𝑘𝑡

⇒ 𝑢 = 7 = +𝑐𝑒 𝑘𝑡 ……………………………………………(1)

The conditions are,

When, 𝑡 = 0, 𝑢 = 180 𝐹

When, 𝑡 = 1, 𝑢 = 310 𝐹
Now, when 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑢 = 180 𝐹 then from (1)

18 = 70 + 𝑐𝑒 𝑘.0

⇒ 18 = 70 + 𝑐 ∙ 1

⇒ 𝑐 = −52

Now, when 𝑡 = 1, then 𝑢 = 310 𝐹, then from (1)

31 = 70 + 𝑐𝑒 𝑘∙1

⇒ 𝑐𝑒 𝑘 = 31 − 70

⇒ −52𝑒 𝑘 = −39 [𝑐 = −52]

⇒ 𝑒 𝑘 = 0.75 ⇒ 𝑘 = ln 0.75

∴ 𝑘 = −0.29

Then from (1)

𝑢 = 70 − 52exp(−0.29)𝑡 ……………………………………….(2)

When, 𝑡 = 5, then from (1)

𝑢 = 70 − 52𝑒𝑥𝑝 −0.29 × 5

= 70 − 52𝑒𝑥𝑝 −1.45

= 70 − 12.33

= 57.66

= 58

∴ 𝑢 = 580 𝐹
Thus, 𝑢 = 70 − 52𝑒𝑥𝑝 −0.29𝑡

When 𝑡 = 5, then 𝑢 = 580 𝐹

Chemical Conversion:

The time rate of change of the amount 𝑥 of unconverted substance is

proportional to 𝑥.

𝑑𝑥
i.e. = −𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡

with the condition that 𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0

𝑑𝑥
= rate of change of the unconverted substance
𝑑𝑡

𝑥 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

x0 = amount of substance at time t = 0

Problem 02

The conversion of a substance B follows the law of chemical conversion if

only a fourth of substance has been converted at the end of substance has been
converted at the end of the ten seconds. Find when nine-tenths of the substance
will have been converted.

Solution: Let, 𝐵 = 𝑥 = 𝑥0

3
Here, 𝑥 = 𝑥0 , when 𝑡 = 10𝑠
4

Now, from chemical conversion law,

 𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡

3
⇒ 𝑥0 = 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
4

3
⇒ = 𝑒 −10𝑘
4

⇒ −10𝑘 = −0.2876

⇒ 𝑘 = 0.02876

∴ 𝑘 = 0.02876

1
Now, 𝑥 = 𝑥0
10

Now, 𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡

1
⇒ 𝑥0 = 𝑥0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −0.02876𝑡
10

1
⇒ ln = −0.02876𝑡
10

2.30258
⇒𝑡=
0.02876

⇒ 𝑡 = 80.06

∴ 𝑡 = 80 sec.

Problem 03

A certain radioactive substance has a half life of 38 hours. Find how long it take
for 90% of the radioactivity to be dissipated.

Solution:
We know,

𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ……………………………………………………………(1)

1
When 𝑥 = 𝑥0 , 𝑡 = 38 hours, then from (1)
2

1
𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
2 0
1
⇒ = 𝑒 −38𝑘
2

⇒ −38𝑘 = ln 0.5

−0.69314
⇒𝑘=
−38

∴ 𝑘 = 0.01824

90
Now, when 𝑥 = 𝑥0 , then 𝑡 =?
100

90
Now, we have, 𝑥 = 𝑥0 − 𝑥0
100

10
= 𝑥0
100

We know from (1),

𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡

10
⇒ 𝑥0 =𝑥0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
100

1
⇒ = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −0.01824𝑡 [𝑘 = 0.01824]
10

⇒ −0.01824𝑡 = ln 0.1

∴ 𝑡 = 126.23 hrs.
 Linear Homogeneous Equation with Variable Coefficients

An equation of the form

𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑 𝑛 −1 𝑦 𝑑 𝑛 −2 𝑦
𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 𝑛−2 … … … + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑅(𝑥)…..………(1)
𝑑𝑥𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑛 −1 𝑑𝑥 𝑛 −2

is called linear homogeneous equation with variable coefficients, where 𝑎0 ,

𝑎1 , 𝑎2, ……….,𝑎𝑛 are constant and 𝑅(𝑥) is constant or function of 𝑥.

This equation also called Cauchy Euler equation.

Working Rule

Let, 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧

⇒ 𝑧 = ln 𝑥

𝑑𝑧 1
⇒ = ……………………………………………………………………(1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
Now, = ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
⇒, = ∙ [from (1)]……………………………………………………(2)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑧

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
⇒𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
⇒𝑥 = 𝐷𝑦, when 𝐷 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
Again, =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑦
⇒ = [From (2)]
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑧
 1 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 1
= + ∙
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑥

1 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 1
= + −
𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑥2

1 𝑑 2𝑦 1 1 𝑑𝑦
= ∙ ∙ − ∙
𝑥 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑑𝑧

1 𝑑 2𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
= 2
∙ − ∙
𝑥 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑥2 𝑑𝑧

𝑑 2𝑦 1 𝑑 2𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
⇒ = ∙ − ∙
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑥2 𝑑𝑧

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝑥2 = −
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧

𝑑 2𝑦
⇒ 𝑥2 = 𝐷2 𝑦 − 𝐷𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑 2𝑦
⇒ 𝑥2 =𝐷 𝐷−1 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2

Similarly,

𝑑 3𝑦
𝑥3 =𝐷 𝐷−1 𝐷−2 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 3

…………………………………

…………………………………

𝑑𝑛 𝑦
𝑥𝑛 = 𝐷 𝐷 − 1 𝐷 − 2 ………………………. 𝐷 − 𝑛 − 1 𝑦
𝑑𝑥𝑛

If putting these values in Cauchy Euler equation then it transform into Linear
equation with constant coefficient.
 𝒅𝟑 𝒚 𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
Problem 01: Solve 𝒙𝟑 𝟑
+ 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙

Solution:

Given the equation,

𝑑 3𝑦 𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑥3 3
+ 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0…………………………………….…..(1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

Let, 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧

⇒ 𝑧 = ln 𝑥

𝑑𝑧 1
⇒ = ……………………………………………………………………(2)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
Now, = ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
⇒, = ∙ [from (2)]……………………………………………………(3)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑧

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
⇒𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
⇒𝑥 = 𝐷𝑦, when 𝐷 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
Again, =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑦
⇒ = [From (3)]
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑧

1 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 1
= + ∙
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑥

1 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 1
= + −
𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑥2

1 𝑑 2𝑦 1 1 𝑑𝑦
= ∙ 2
∙ − 2
∙
𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑧
 1 𝑑 2𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
= 2
∙ − ∙
𝑥 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑥2 𝑑𝑧

𝑑 2𝑦 1 𝑑 2𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
⇒ = ∙ − ∙
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑥2 𝑑𝑧

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝑥2 = −
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧

𝑑 2𝑦
⇒ 𝑥2 = 𝐷2 𝑦 − 𝐷𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑 2𝑦
⇒ 𝑥2 =𝐷 𝐷−1 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2

Similarly it can be prove that,

𝑑 3𝑦
𝑥3 =𝐷 𝐷−1 𝐷−2 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 3

Putting these values in (1), we get

𝐷 𝐷 − 1 𝐷 − 2 𝑦 + 3𝐷 𝐷 − 1 𝑦 − 2𝐷𝑦 + 2𝑦 = 0

⇒ 𝐷3 − 3𝐷 + 2 𝑦 = 0 ……………………………………….………..…(4)

Let, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑧 be the trial solution of (4), then

𝑚3 − 3𝑚 + 2 = 0

⇒ 𝑚 − 1 𝑚2 + 𝑚 − 2 = 0

⇒ 𝑚 = 1, 1, −2

∴ General solution is,

𝑦 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑧 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑐3 𝑒 −2𝑧

⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 ln 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑐3 𝑒 −2 ln 𝑥
 𝑐3
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 ln 𝑥 𝑥 +
𝑥2

𝟐
𝟐𝒅 𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝟐
Problem 02: 𝟏 + 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟔 𝟏 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏𝟔𝒚 = 𝟖 𝟏 + 𝟐𝒙
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙

Solution:

Given the equation,

2
2𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
1 + 2𝑥 − 6 1 + 2𝑥 + 16𝑦 = 8 1 + 2𝑥 2 …………………….…(1)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

Let, 1 + 2𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧

⇒ 𝑧 = ln(1 + 2𝑥)

𝑑𝑧 2
⇒ = ……………………………………………………….…….…(2)
𝑑𝑥 1+2𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
Now, = ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
⇒ = ∙ [from (2)]……………………….………………………(3)
𝑑𝑥 1+2𝑥 𝑑𝑧

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
⇒ (1 + 2𝑥) =2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
⇒ (1 + 2𝑥) = 2𝐷𝑦, when 𝐷 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
Again, =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑 2 𝑑𝑦
⇒ = [From (3)]
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 1+2𝑥 𝑑𝑧

2 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 2
= + ∙
1+2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 1+2𝑥

2 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 4 𝑑𝑦
= −
1+2𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 1+2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑧
 2 𝑑 2𝑦 2 4 𝑑𝑦
= ∙ ∙ − ∙
1+2𝑥 𝑑𝑧 2 1+2𝑥 1+2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑧

2 𝑑 2𝑦
2𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
⇒ 1 + 2𝑥 =4∙ −4∙
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧

2
2𝑑 𝑦
⇒ 1 + 2𝑥 = 4𝐷2 𝑦 − 4𝐷𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2

2
2𝑑 𝑦
⇒ 1 + 2𝑥 = 4𝐷 𝐷 − 1 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2

Now, putting these values in (1), we get

4𝐷 𝐷 − 1 𝑦 − 6.2𝐷𝑦 + 16𝑦 = 8 𝑒 𝑧 2

⇒ 𝐷2 − 4𝐷 + 4 𝑦 = 2𝑒 2𝑧 …………………………………………………(4)

Let,

Let, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑧 be the trial solution of (4), then

𝑚2 − 4𝑚 + 4 = 0

⇒ 𝑚 = 2,2

∴ the complete solution of (4) is

𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑧 𝑒 2𝑧

2
= 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 ln(1 + 2𝑥) 1 + 2𝑥

Now, from (4) we get,

1
𝑦𝑝 = 2𝑒 2𝑧
𝐷 2 −4𝐷+4

2
= 𝑒 2𝑧
𝐷−2 2
 2𝑧 2
= 𝑒 2𝑧 [𝑓 2 = 0, 𝑓 ′ 2 = 0, 𝑓 ′′ (2) ≠ 0]
2−0

= 𝑧 2 𝑒 2𝑧

= 𝑧 2 𝑒 2 ln 1+2𝑥

2 2
= ln 1 + 2𝑥 1 + 2𝑥

The general solution is,

𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝

2
= 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 ln(1 + 2𝑥) 1 + 2𝑥 + 1 + 2𝑥 2 ln 1 + 2𝑥 2

Problem 03: Solve 𝟐𝒙𝟐 𝒚′′ − 𝒙𝒚′ + 𝒚 = 𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐥𝐧 𝒙

Solution: Given the equation,

2𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ − 𝑥𝑦 ′ + 𝑦 = 4 sin ln 𝑥 ……………………………………..….……..(1)

Let, 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧

⇒ 𝑧 = ln 𝑥

𝑑𝑧 1
⇒ = ……………………………………………………………………(2)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
Now, = ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
⇒, = ∙ [from (2)]……………………………………………………(3)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑧

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
⇒𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
⇒𝑥 = 𝐷𝑦, when 𝐷 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
 𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
Again, =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑦
⇒ = [From (3)]
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑧

1 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 1
= + ∙
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑥

1 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 1
= + −
𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑥2

1 𝑑 2𝑦 1 1 𝑑𝑦
= ∙ ∙ − ∙
𝑥 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑑𝑧

1 𝑑 2𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
= 2
∙ − ∙
𝑥 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑥2 𝑑𝑧

𝑑 2𝑦 1 𝑑 2𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
⇒ = ∙ − ∙
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑥2 𝑑𝑧

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝑥2 = −
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧

𝑑 2𝑦
⇒ 𝑥2 = 𝐷2 𝑦 − 𝐷𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑 2𝑦
⇒ 𝑥2 =𝐷 𝐷−1 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2

Now substituting these values in (1) we get,

2𝐷 𝐷 − 1 𝑦 − 𝐷𝑦 + 𝑦 = 4 sin 𝑧

⇒ 2𝐷2 − 3𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = 4 sin 𝑧 …………………………………………….(4)

Let,

Let, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑧 be the trial solution of (4), then

Then A.E is,

 2𝑚2 − 3𝑚 + 1 = 0

⇒ 𝑚 − 1 2𝑚 − 1 = 0

1
⇒ 𝑚 = ,1
2

𝑧
Thus, 𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑒 2 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑧

Now from (4) we can write

1
𝑦𝑝 = 4 sin 𝑧
2𝐷 2 −3𝐷+1

4
= sin 𝑧
2 −12 −3𝐷+1

4 sin 𝑧
=
−2−3𝐷+1

−1+3𝐷
= 4 sin 𝑧
−1−3𝐷 −1+3𝐷

3𝐷−1
=
1−9𝐷 2

12𝐷−4
= sin 𝑧
1+9

1
= 12𝐷 − 4 sin 𝑧
10

12 𝑑 4
= sin 𝑧 − sin 𝑧
10 𝑑𝑧 10

2 6
= − sin 𝑧 + cos 𝑧
5 5

2 6
= − sin ln 𝑥 + cos ln 𝑥 , [𝑧 = ln 𝑥]
5 5

Hence the general solution is,

𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝

𝑧
2 6
= 𝑐1 𝑒 2 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑧 − sin 𝑧 + cos 𝑧
5 5

ln 𝑥
2 6
= 𝑐1 𝑒 2 + 𝑐2 𝑒 ln 𝑥 − sin ln 𝑥 + cos ln 𝑥
5 5

Home work
𝟐
𝟐𝒅 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
1. Solve 𝟏 + 𝒙 + 𝟏+𝒙 + 𝒚 = 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍𝒏 𝟏 + 𝒙
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙

Ans: 𝒚 = 𝒄𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬[𝐥𝐧 𝟏 + 𝒙 ]+𝒄𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐥𝐧 𝟏 + 𝒙 − 𝐥𝐧 𝟏 + 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐥𝐧 𝟏 + 𝒙

𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
2. Solve 𝒙𝟐 −𝒙 + 𝟒𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒍𝒏 𝒙 + 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍𝒏 𝒙
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝟏
Ans: 𝒚 = 𝒙 𝒄𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑 𝒍𝒏 𝒙 + 𝒄𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑 𝒍𝒏𝒙 + 𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒍𝒏𝒙 −
𝟏𝟑
𝟏
𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍𝒏𝒙 + 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
𝟐
 Differential Equation with Constant Coefficients

Linear Differential Equation:

A differential equation of the form

𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑 𝑛 −1 𝑦 𝑑 𝑛 −2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑎1 𝑑𝑥 𝑛 −1 + 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 𝑛 −2 … … … … … . . + 𝑎1𝑛− 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑅(𝑥) … …(1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑛

Where 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … … … . , 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑅(𝑥) are functions of 𝑥 or constants, is called a linear

differential equation of order 𝑛.

If R.H.S member 𝑅(𝑥) is zero then (1) reduces to

𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑 𝑛 −2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑛
+ 𝑎1 𝑛 −1
+ 𝑎 2 𝑛 −2
… … … … … . . + 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Then it is called homogeneous linear differential equation.

In terms of operator D, the differential equation (1) can be written as

𝐷𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝐷𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝐷 𝑛−2 + …. …. …. + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 0 …. …. … (2)

⇒𝑓 𝐷 𝑦=0

Some properties of Differential Operators:

If 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3,… …… .….. 𝑚𝑛 be the nth different roots 𝑑

𝐷=
of (2), then 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚 1 𝑥 , 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚 2 𝑥 , … … . 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
𝑑2
are all independent solution of (2). 𝐷 = 2
𝑑𝑥
Therefore the general solution is .
𝑦 = 𝑐1𝑒 𝑚 1 𝑥 + 𝑐2𝑒 𝑚 2 𝑥 +.. … … + 𝑐𝑛𝑒 𝑚 𝑛 𝑥
.
1. Now, 𝑓 𝐷 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑚)𝑒 𝑚𝑥
𝑑
.
Since, 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑛
𝑛
⇒𝐷 𝑒 𝑚𝑥
= 𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑥 𝐷 = 𝑛
𝑑𝑥
.
. 𝑑
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑥
⇒ 𝐷𝑛 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 𝑚𝑛 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 1
= 𝑑𝑥
𝐷
𝒅
𝒊. 𝒆. =𝑫=𝒎
𝒅𝒙
2. Remark:

If 𝑒 𝑚 1 𝑥 , 𝑒 𝑚 2 𝑥 , 𝑒 𝑚 3 𝑥 … …. … 𝑒 𝑚 𝑛 𝑥 be the 𝑛 independent solution of the

𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑𝑛−2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
differential equation 𝑎0 𝑛
+ 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 … … … … … . . + 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑑𝑥

Then its general solution is

𝑦 = 𝑐1𝑒 𝑚 1 𝑥 +𝑐2𝑒 𝑚 2 𝑥 + 𝐶3 𝑒 𝑚 3 𝑥 .. … … + 𝑐𝑛 𝑒 𝑚 𝑛 𝑥

Where, 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … … … … . 𝑐𝑛 are arbitrary constants.

𝑑
Proof: Let, 𝑓 𝐷 = 𝑎0 𝐷𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝐷𝑛−1 + ⋯ … … … … . +𝑎𝑛−1 𝐷 + 𝑎𝑛 [where 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑥 ]

be a polynomial in 𝐷.

If 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 be a solution, then 𝑓 𝐷 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝐷)𝑒 𝑚𝑥

= 𝑎0 𝐷𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝐷𝑛−1 + ⋯ … … … … . +𝑎𝑛−1 𝐷 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑒 𝑚𝑥

= 𝑎0 𝑚𝑛 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑎1 𝑚𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + ⋯ … … . +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑒 𝑚𝑥

𝑆𝑜, 𝑓 𝐷 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑚)𝑒 𝑚𝑥

If m is a root of the equation, then 𝑓(𝑚) = 0, which implies

𝑓 𝐷 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 0 …. ….. ….. (1)

Next consider the effect of the operator, 𝐷 − 𝑚

Then, 𝐷 − 𝑚 𝑦 = 0…. ….. ….. (2)

Let 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 be a solution

Then 𝐷 − 𝑚 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑥 − 𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 0

i.e. 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 is a solution of equation (2).

Similarly,

𝐷 − 𝑚1 𝐷 − 𝑚2 … … … … . 𝐷 − 𝑚𝑛 = 0….. ….. (3)

Then, 𝑒 𝑚 1 𝑥 , 𝑒 𝑚 2 𝑥 , 𝑒 𝑚 3 𝑥 … …. … 𝑒 𝑚 𝑛 𝑥 are also solution of equation (3), where

𝑒 𝑚𝑥 ≠ 𝑜, as 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 → 0 as 𝑥 → −∞.

Example: Let 𝑓 𝐷 = 2𝐷2 + 5𝐷 − 12 then solve 2𝐷2 + 5𝐷 − 12 𝑦 = 0.

We know, 𝑓 𝐷 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑚)𝑒 𝑚𝑥

𝑓 𝑚 = 2𝑚2 + 5𝑚 − 12 = 0

3
⇒ 𝑚 = −4, 2

3
∴ 𝑚1 = −4, 𝑚2 = 2

3
𝑓 −4 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 − 2 = 0

We know that if 𝑚 is a root , then 𝑓 𝐷 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 0

3
∴ 2𝐷2 + 5𝐷 − 12 𝑒 −4𝑥 = 0 and 2𝐷2 + 5𝐷 − 12 𝑒 2𝑥 = 0

𝑠𝑜, 𝑦1 = 𝑒 −4𝑥 is a solution of 2𝐷2 + 5𝐷 − 12 𝑦 = 0

3
And 𝑦2 = 𝑒 2𝑥 is a solution of 2𝐷2 + 5𝐷 − 12 𝑦 = 0

3
General Solution, 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 −4𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑥

3. Effect of 𝑫 − 𝒂 :

𝐷 − 𝑎 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑦 = 𝐷 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑦

𝑑
= 𝑑𝑥 𝒆𝒂𝒙 𝒚 − 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑦

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑦 +𝑒 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑦
𝑑𝑥
 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝐷𝑦

2
𝐷−𝑎 𝒆𝒂𝒙 𝒚 = 𝐷 − 𝑎 𝐷 − 𝑎 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑦

= 𝐷 − 𝑎 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝐷𝑦

= 𝐷 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝐷𝑦 − 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝐷𝑦

= 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝐷2 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝐷𝑦

= 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝐷2 𝑦 .

𝑛
𝐷−𝑎 𝒆𝒂𝒙 𝒚 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝐷𝑛 𝑦

∴ 𝑓 𝐷 − 𝑎 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑓(𝐷)𝑦

Example: Solve 𝐷 − 3 4 𝑦 = 0

Solution: multiplying by 𝑒 −3𝑥

𝑒 −3𝑥 𝐷 − 3 4 𝑦 = 0 ……………………………………………………………………..(1)

⇒ 𝐷4 𝑒 −3𝑥 𝑦 = 0

1
𝑒 −3𝑥 𝑦 = 𝐷 4 . 0

1
= 𝐷 3 𝐶1

1
= 𝐷 2 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2

1 𝑥2
= 𝐷 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 + 𝑐3
2

𝑥3 𝑥2
= 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3 𝑥 + 𝑐4
6 2
 𝑥3 𝑥2
∴ 𝑒 −3𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3 𝑥 + 𝑐4
6 2

∴ 𝑦 = (𝑐1 𝑥 3 + 𝑐2 𝑥 2 + 𝑐3 𝑥 + 𝑐4 )𝑒 3𝑥

Auxiliary Equation:

Consider the second order differential equation, 𝐷2 𝑦 + 𝑎1 𝐷𝑦 + 𝑎2 𝑦 = 0… … … ……..(1)

Let the trial solution of (1) be, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 , so it will satisfy (1).

i.e. 𝐷2 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑎1 𝐷𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 0

⇒ 𝑚2 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑎1 𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 0

⟹ 𝑚2 + 𝑎1 𝑚 + 𝑎2 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 0

Since, 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 ≠ 0, so, 𝑚2 + 𝑎1 𝑚 + 𝑎2 = 0

This equation is called Auxiliary equation.

That is equating to zero the coefficient of 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 to obtain Auxiliary equation

To find the auxiliary equation the following three cases should be

remember:

Case I: When the roots are real and unequal

Let, 𝑚 = 𝛼, 𝛽
1. 1. 𝑚2 − 5𝑚 + 6 = 0
Then, its general solution is, 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝛽𝑥 2. 2. 𝑚2 − 2𝑚 + 1 = 0
3. 3. 𝑚2 + 4𝑚 + 5 = 0
Example: If 𝑚 = 2, −3

Then, 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −3𝑥
Case II: Let the roots are real and equal

Let, 𝑚 = 𝛼, 𝛼

Then, its general solution is, 𝑦 = (𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥)𝑒 𝛼𝑥

Again, Let, 𝑚 = 𝛼, 𝛼, 𝛼

Then, its general solution is, 𝑦 = (𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥+𝑐3 𝑥 2 )𝑒 𝛼𝑥

Example: If 𝑚 = 2,2, 2

Then, 𝑦 = (𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥+𝑐3 𝑥 2 )𝑒 2𝑥

Case III: Let the roots are imaginary

Let 𝑚 = 𝛼 ± 𝑖𝛽

Then the general solution is, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 𝑐1 cos 𝛽𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 𝛽𝑥

Where, 𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐2 are arbitrary constants.

Example: If 𝑚 = −1 ± 2𝑖

Then the general solution is ,

𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐1 cos 2𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 2𝑥

If 𝑚 = ±3𝑖

Then, 𝑦 = 𝑐1 cos 3𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 3𝑥

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Problem 01 (Case I): Solve 2 −3 +𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Solution: Given equation is, 2 −3 + 𝑦 = 0 …. ….. ….. (1)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

Let, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 be the trial solution of (1).

𝑑𝑦 𝑑 2𝑦
Then, = 𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑥 , = 𝑚2 𝑒 𝑚𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

Substituting these value in equation (1) we get,

 2𝑚2 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 − 3𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 0

⇒ 2𝑚2 − 3𝑚 + 1 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 0

Thus the auxiliary equation is

2𝑚2 − 3𝑚 + 1 = 0, since 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 ≠ 0

⇒ 𝑚 − 1 2𝑚 − 1 = 0
1
⇒ 𝑚 = 1, 2

So, the general solution is

1
𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑥

Where 𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐2 are arbitrary constants.

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Problem 02 (Case II): Solve −6 + 9𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

Solution: Consider the equation,

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
−6 + 9𝑦 = 0 ….. …. …. (1)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

Let, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 be the trial solution of (1)

Then, 𝑚2 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 − 6𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 9𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 0

Thus the A.E be,

𝑚2 − 6𝑚 + 9 = 0

⇒ 𝑚−3 𝑚−3 = 0

⇒ 𝑚 = 3, 3

So, the general solution is

𝑦 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 3𝑥

Where 𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐2 are arbitrary constants.

𝑑 3𝑦 𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Problem 03 (Case I+II): Solve 3
− −8 + 12𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Solution: Given the equation,
𝐷3 𝑦 − 𝐷2 𝑦 − 8𝐷𝑦 + 12𝑦 = 0 …. ….. ……(1)

Let, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 be the trial solution of (1)

Then, 𝑚3 𝑒𝑚𝑥 − 𝑚2 𝑒𝑚𝑥 − 8𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑥 + 12𝑒𝑚𝑥 = 0

⇒ 𝑚3 − 𝑚2 − 8𝑚 + 12 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 0

So the auxiliaet equation be,

𝑚3 − 𝑚2 − 8𝑚 + 12 = 0
⇒ 𝑚−2 𝑚−2 𝑚+3 =0

⇒ 𝑚 = 2, 2, −3

So, the general solution is, 𝑦 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑐3 𝑒 −3𝑥

Where 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐3 are arbitrary constants.

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Problem 04 (Case III): Solve +4 + 5𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

Solution: Let the equation be,

𝐷2 𝑦 + 4𝐷𝑦 + 5𝑦 = 0 …. …. …. (1)

Let, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 be the trial solution of (1) then,

𝑚2 𝑒𝑚𝑥 + 4𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑥 + 5𝑒𝑚𝑥 = 0

⇒ 𝑚2 + 4𝑚 + 5 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 0

So the auxiliary equation be

𝑚2 + 4𝑚 + 5 = 0, since 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 ≠ 0

⇒ 𝑚 = −2 ± 𝑖

Hence the general solution is, 𝑦 = 𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑐1 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 𝑥

Where 𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐2 are arbitrary constants.

Problem 05 (Case III): Solve 𝐷4 + 8𝐷2 + 16 𝑦 = 0

Solution: Given the equation,

𝐷4 + 8𝐷2 + 16 𝑦 = 0 … … … (1)

Let, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 be the trial solution of (1) then

𝑚4 𝑒𝑚𝑥 + 8𝑚2 𝑒𝑚𝑥 + 16𝑒𝑚𝑥 = 0

⇒ 𝑚4 + 8𝑚2 + 16 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 0

So the auxiliary equation be

𝑚4 + 8𝑚2 + 16 = 0

⇒ 𝑚2 + 4 𝑚2 + 4 = 0

⇒ 𝑚 = ±2𝑖, ±2𝑖

Thus the solution of the equation be,

𝑦 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 + 𝑐3 + 𝑐4 𝑥 sin 2𝑥

Where 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐4 are arbitrary constants.

H.W

Solve: 𝑫𝟒 + 𝟏 𝒚 = 𝟎

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Ans: m=± (𝟏 + 𝒊), 𝒊==± 𝟏+𝒊 , −𝒊 = 𝟏−𝒊
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝒙 𝒙
−
g.s, 𝒚 = 𝒆 𝟐 𝒄𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝒄𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 + 𝒆 𝟐 𝒄𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝒄𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
 Differential Equation with Right hand side non-zero

Particular Integral:
1
We know, 𝑓 𝐷 𝑦 = 𝑅(𝑥), then its particular integral is, 𝑅(𝑥) and denoted by
𝑓 𝐷
𝑦𝑝 .
1
i.e. 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑅(𝑥)
𝑓 𝐷

Following formula should be remembered:

−1
1. 1−𝐷 = 1 + 𝐷 + 𝐷2 + 𝐷3 + … … … … … ..
−1
2. 1+𝐷 = 1 − 𝐷 + 𝐷2 − 𝐷3 + … … … … … ..
−2
3. 1+𝐷 = 1 + 2𝐷 + 3𝐷2 + 4𝐷3 + … . … . . … ..
−2
4. 1−𝐷 = 1 − 2𝐷 + 3𝐷2 − 4𝐷3 + … . … . . … ..

Note:

1. 𝐷𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛!

2. 𝐷𝑛+1 𝑥 𝑛 = 0
𝑑
3. 𝐷 = (Operator)
𝑑𝑥

1
4. = 𝑑𝑥 (Inverse operator)
𝐷

1
5. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝐷

Determination general method of particular Integral:

1
Rule 01: If 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑅(𝑥) and 𝑅 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑚 , then using binomial expansion on
𝑓 𝐷

𝑓 − (𝐷) up to 𝐷𝑚 , we can find 𝑦𝑝 .

1
Example: 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑥𝑚
𝐷−𝛼
 1
= 𝐷 𝑥𝑚
−𝛼 1−
𝛼

1 𝐷 −1
=− 1− 𝑥𝑚
𝛼 𝛼

1 𝐷 𝐷2 𝐷𝑚
=− 1+ + 2
+ … …. … .. + + ⋯ … . . 𝑥𝑚
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼 𝛼𝑚

1 𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 −1 𝑚 (𝑚 −1)𝑥 𝑚 −2 𝑚!
=− 𝑥𝑚 + + + ⋯………+ +0
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼2 𝛼𝑚

1
Rule 02: If 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑅(𝑥) and 𝑅 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 , by successive differentiation we
𝑓 𝐷
show

𝐷𝑒 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥

𝐷2 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎2 𝑒 𝑎𝑥

𝐷3 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎3 𝑒 𝑎𝑥

.
.
.
𝐷𝑛 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑒 𝑎𝑥

So, 𝑓 𝐷 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑎)𝑒 𝑎𝑥

Now,

1 1
(i) If 𝑓 𝑎 ≠ 0, then 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
𝑓(𝐷) 𝑓(𝑎)

1 𝑥 𝑥
(ii) If 𝑓(𝑎) = 0 and 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) ≠ 0 , then 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 , [𝑓 ′ (𝑎) ≠ 0]
𝑓(𝐷) 𝑓′ (𝐷) 𝑓′ (𝑎)
 1 𝑥2
(iii) If 𝑓(𝑎) = 0 and 𝑓 ′ 𝑎 = 0, 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) ≠ 0 , then 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 =
𝑓(𝐷) 𝑓′′ (𝐷)

𝑥2
𝑒 𝑎𝑥 , [𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) ≠ 0]
𝑓′′ (𝑎)

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Example: Solve −3 + 2𝑦 = 𝑒 5𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

Solution: Given the equation

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
−3 + 2𝑦 = 𝑒 5𝑥 …………………………………………..(1)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

Then A.E
𝑚2 − 3𝑚 + 2 = 0

⇒ 𝑚−2 𝑚−1 =0

⇒ 𝑚 = 1, 2

𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑥

(1) Can be written in the following form

𝐷2 − 3𝐷 + 2 𝑦 = 𝑒 5𝑥
1
⇒ 𝑦𝑝 = 2
𝑒 5𝑥
𝐷 − 3𝐷 + 2
1
= 2
𝑒 5𝑥
5 −3∙5+2
1 5𝑥
= 𝑒
12

Hence the general solution is, 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝

1 5𝑥
= 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒
12
 1
Rule 03: If 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑅(𝑥) and 𝑅 𝑥 = sin 𝑎𝑥/ cos 𝑎𝑥
𝑓 𝐷

1 1
i.e 𝑦𝑝 = sin 𝑎𝑥 or 𝑦𝑝 = cos 𝑎𝑥
𝑓(𝐷 2 ) 𝑓(𝐷 2 )

By successive differentiation we can write

𝐷 sin 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝑎𝑥

⇒ 𝐷2 sin 𝑎𝑥 = −𝑎2 sin 𝑎𝑥

⇒ 𝐷3 sin 𝑎𝑥 = −𝑎3 cos 𝑎𝑥

⇒ 𝐷4 sin 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎4 sin 𝑎𝑥

⇒ 𝐷2 2
sin 𝑎𝑥 = −𝑎2 2
sin 𝑎𝑥

So, 𝐷2 𝑛
sin 𝑎𝑥 = −𝑎2 𝑛
sin 𝑎𝑥

So, 𝑓 𝐷2 sin 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓 −𝑎2 sin 𝑎𝑥

𝑓 𝐷2 cos 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓 −𝑎2 cos 𝑎𝑥

i.e. Replace −𝑎2 on 𝐷2 on L.H.S

1 1
(i) If 𝑓 −𝑎2 ≠ 0, then sin 𝑎𝑥 = sin 𝑎𝑥
𝑓(𝐷 2 ) 𝑓(−𝑎 2 )

1 𝑥
(ii) If 𝑓 −𝑎2 = 0 and 𝑓′ −𝑎2 ≠ 0 then sin 𝑎𝑥 = sin 𝑎𝑥 =
𝑓(𝐷 2 ) 𝑓′ (−𝐷 2 )
𝑥
sin 𝑎𝑥
𝑓′ (−𝑎 2 )

(iii) If 𝑓 −𝑎2 = 0 ,𝑓′ −𝑎2 = 0, 𝑓′′ −𝑎2 ≠ 0 then

1 𝑥2 𝑥2
sin 𝑎𝑥 = sin 𝑎𝑥 = sin 𝑎𝑥
𝑓(𝐷 2 ) 𝑓′′(−𝐷 2 ) 𝑓′′(−𝑎 2 )
 1
Example: 𝑦𝑝 = sin 2𝑥
𝐷 2 +1

1
= sin 2𝑥
−22 +1

1
= − sin 2𝑥
3

1
Rule 04: If 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑅(𝑥) and 𝑅 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝑉, where 𝑉 = sin 𝑎𝑥, cos 𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 𝑚
𝑓 𝐷

1
(i). If 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝑉
𝑓 𝐷

1
Then send 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 to left from right of and replace 𝐷 by 𝐷 + 𝑎 .Then do as
𝑓(𝐷)

similar previous way.

1
i.e. 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝑉
𝑓 𝐷

1
= 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 ∙ ∙𝑉
𝑓 𝐷+𝑎

1 1
(𝒊𝒊) If 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑥 𝑛 cos 𝑎𝑥 or 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑥 𝑛 sin 𝑎𝑥, 𝑛 ≥ 1
𝑓 𝐷 𝑓 𝐷

1
Then, 𝑋 = 𝑥 𝑛 cos 𝑎𝑥
𝑓 𝐷

1
𝑌= 𝑥 𝑛 sin 𝑎𝑥
𝑓 𝐷

1
∴ 𝑋 + 𝑖𝑌 = 𝑥 𝑛 (cos 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑎𝑥)
𝑓 𝐷

1
= 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑖𝑎𝑥
𝑓 𝐷

1
= 𝑒 𝑖𝑎𝑥 𝑥 𝑛 [apply Rule 4 (i)]
𝑓(𝐷+𝑖𝑎 )

Then in the similar manner separate the real and imaginary parts.
 1
(iii) 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑥∙𝑉
𝑓(𝐷)

1 𝑓 ′ (𝐷)
=𝑥 𝑉− ∙𝑉
𝑓(𝐷) 𝑓(𝐷) 2

Problems

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Problem 01: Solve 𝑑𝑥 2 − 6 𝑑𝑥 + 9𝑦 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2

Solution: Consider the equation,

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
−6 + 9𝑦 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ……………………………………(1)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Suppose 𝑑𝑥 2 − 6 𝑑𝑥 + 9𝑦 = 0…………………………………….(2)

Let, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 be the trial solution of (2)

Then the A.E is

𝑚2 − 6𝑚 + 9 = 0

⇒ 𝑚−3 𝑚−3 =0
⇒ 𝑚 = 3, 3

So, the complementary solution of (2) is

𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1+𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 3𝑥

Now (1) can be written in the following form

𝐷2 − 6𝐷 + 9 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2
 1
⇒ 𝑦𝑝 = 2
1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2
𝐷 − 6𝐷 + 9

1
= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2
𝐷−3 𝐷−3

1
= 2
1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2
𝐷−3

1
= 2 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2
𝐷
9 1−
3
−2
1 𝐷
= 1− 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2
9 3

1 2𝐷 𝐷2
= 1+ +3 + ⋯………. 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2
9 3 9

1 2 3
= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝐷 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝐷 2 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2
9 3 9

1 2 1
= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 0 + 1 + 2𝑥 + (0 + 0 + 2)
9 3 3

1 2 2
= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 1 + 2𝑥 +
9 3 3

1 2 7𝑥 7
= 𝑥 + +
9 3 3

1
= 3𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 7
27

Thus the general solution is,

 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝

1
= 𝑐1+𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 3𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 7
27

Where 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 are arbitrary constants.

𝑑 2𝑦
H.W: Solve + 9𝑦 = 5𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 2

1 10
Ans: 𝑐1 cos 3𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 3𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 −
9 9

Problem 02: Solve 𝑫𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒚 = 𝒆𝒂𝒙

Solution: Given the equation,

𝐷2 − 𝑎2 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 ………………………………………..(1)

Then the A.E is

𝑚2 − 𝑎2 = 0

⇒ 𝑚 = ±𝑎

So, the complementary solution is,

𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑒𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒−𝑎𝑥

From (1) we get

1
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
𝐷 2 −𝑎 2
 𝑥
= 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 ,since 𝑓 𝑎 = 0, 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) ≠ 0
2𝐷

𝑥
= 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
2𝑎

The general solution is

𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝

𝑥
= 𝑐1 𝑒𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒−𝑎𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
2𝑎

H.W:

(1). 𝐷2 − 3𝐷 + 2 𝑦 = 𝑒 3𝑥

(2). 𝐷2 + 2𝐷 + 2 𝑌 = 2𝑒 −𝑥

(3). 𝐷2 − 1 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝑒 5𝑥

Problem 03: Solve 𝑫𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒂𝒙

Solution: Given the equation,

𝐷2 + 𝑎2 𝑦 = cos 𝑎𝑥 …………………………………………..(1)

Let, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 be the trial solution of (2)

Then the A.E is,

𝑚2 + 𝑎2 = 0

⇒ 𝑚 = ±𝑖𝑎
The general solution is,

𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 cos 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 𝑎𝑥

From (1) we get,

1
𝑦𝑝 = cos 𝑎𝑥
𝐷 2 + 𝑎2
𝑥
= cos 𝑎𝑥 , [ since 𝑓 −𝑎2 = 0]
2𝐷

𝑥1
= cos 𝑎𝑥
2𝐷

𝑥
= cos 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2

𝑥
= sin 𝑎𝑥
2𝑎

General solution is, 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝

𝑥
= 𝑐1 cos 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 𝑎𝑥 + sin 𝑎𝑥
2𝑎

Where, 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 are arbitrary constants.

Problem 04: Solve 𝑫𝟑 − 𝟑𝑫𝟐 + 𝟒𝑫 − 𝟐 𝒚 = 𝒆𝒙 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

Solution: Given the equation,

𝐷3 − 3𝐷2 + 4𝐷 − 2 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 + cos 𝑥…………………………….(1)

Let, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 be the trial solution of 𝐷3 − 3𝐷2 + 4𝐷 − 2 𝑦 = 0

Then the A.E is,

 𝑚3 − 3𝑚2 + 4𝑚 − 2 = 0

⇒ 𝑚 − 1 𝑚2 − 2𝑚 + 2 = 0

⇒ 𝑚 = 1, 1 ± 𝑖

The complementary solution is,

𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑒𝑥 𝑐2 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐3 sin 𝑥

1
From (1) we get, 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒 𝑥 + cos 𝑥
𝐷 3 −3𝐷 2 +4𝐷−2

1 1
= 𝑒𝑥 + cos 𝑥
𝐷 3 −3𝐷 2 +4𝐷−2 𝐷 2 ∙𝐷−3𝐷 2 +4𝐷−2

𝑥 1
= 𝑒𝑥 + cos 𝑥, 𝑓 1 = 0
3𝐷 2 −6𝐷+4 −12 ∙𝐷−3 −12 +4𝑑−2

𝑥 𝑥
1
= 𝑒 + cos 𝑥
3. 12 − 6.1 + 4 −𝐷 + 3 + 4𝐷 − 2

𝑥 1
= 𝑒𝑥 + cos 𝑥
7−6 3𝐷 + 1

3𝐷 − 1
= 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + cos 𝑥
3𝐷 + 1 3𝐷 − 1

3𝐷 − 1
= 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + cos 𝑥
9𝐷 2 − 1

3𝐷 − 1
= 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + cos 𝑥
9 −12 − 1
 3𝐷 − 1
= 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + cos 𝑥
10

3 1
= 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝐷 cos 𝑥 + cos 𝑥
10 10

The general solution is,

𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝

3 1
= 𝑐1 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑒𝑥 𝑐2 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐3 sin 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝐷 cos 𝑥 + cos 𝑥
10 10

H.W: Solve 𝐷2 − 3𝐷 + 4 𝑦 = cos 4𝑥 + 5

3𝑥
7 7 1
Ans: 𝑒 2 𝑐1 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 𝑥 − sin 4𝑥 + 5
2 2 24

Problem 05: Solve 𝑫𝟐 − 𝟒𝑫 + 𝟒 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 𝒆𝟐𝒙

Solution: Given the equation,

𝐷2 − 4𝐷 + 4 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑒 2𝑥 ………………………………………(1)

Let, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 be the trial solution of 𝐷2 − 4𝐷 + 4 𝑦 = 0

Then the A.E

𝑚2 − 4𝑚 + 4 = 0

⇒ 𝑚 = 2, 2

𝑔. 𝑠, 𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥
 Now, from (1) we can write

1
𝑦𝑝 = 2
𝑥 2 𝑒 2𝑥
𝐷 − 4𝐷 + 4

1
= 𝑒 2𝑥 2
𝑥2
𝐷+2−2

1 2
= 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑥
𝐷2

1 1 2
= 𝑒 2𝑥 ∙ 𝑥
𝐷 𝐷

1
= 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝐷

2𝑥
𝑥3
=𝑒 𝑑𝑥
3

1 4
= 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑥
3.4

1 4 2𝑥
= 𝑥 𝑒
12

The general solution is,

𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝

1 4 2𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑒
12

Problem 06: Solve 𝑫𝟐 − 𝟏 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

Solution: Given the equation,

𝐷2 − 1 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥………………………………………..(1)

Let, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 be the trial solution of 𝐷2 − 1 𝑦 = 0

Then the A.E is

𝑚2 − 1 = 0

⇒ 𝑚 = ±1

𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥

From (1) we get, 𝐷 2 − 1 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥

1
⇒ 𝑦𝑝 = 2
𝑥 2 cos 𝑥
𝐷 −1
1
We put, 𝑋 = 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥
𝐷 2 −1

1
And 𝑌= 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥
𝐷 2 −1

1
∴ 𝑋 + 𝑖𝑌 = 2
𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥
𝐷 −1

1
= 2
𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑖𝑥
𝐷 −1

1
= 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 2
𝑥2
𝐷+𝑖 −1
 1
= 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 2 2
𝑥2
𝐷 + 2𝐷𝑖 + 𝑖 − 1

1
= 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 2
𝑥2
𝐷 + 2𝐷𝑖 − 2

1
𝑋 + 𝑖𝑌 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 𝑥2
𝐷2
−2 1 − 𝑖𝐷 −
2

−1
−𝑒 𝑖𝑥 𝐷2
= 1 − 𝑖𝐷 + 𝑥2
2 2
2
−𝑒 𝑖𝑥 𝐷2 𝐷2
= 1 + 𝑖𝐷 + + 𝑖𝐷 + + … … … 𝑥2
2 2 2

−𝑒 𝑖𝑥 𝐷2
= 1 + 𝑖𝐷 + − 𝐷2 + … … … … … . . 𝑥 2
2 2

−𝑒 𝑖𝑥 2 1
= 𝑥 + 𝑖𝐷𝑥 2 − 𝐷2 𝑥 2 + 0
2 2
−𝑒 𝑖𝑥 2
= 𝑥 + 2𝑖𝑥 − 1
2
1
=− cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥 𝑥 2 − 1 + 2𝑖𝑥
2
1
=− 𝑥 2 − 1 cos 𝑥 − 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 𝑖 2𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 1 sin 𝑥
2
Equating real part from both sides, we get
1
𝑋=− 𝑥 2 − 1 cos 𝑥 − 2𝑥 sin 𝑥
2
 1 2
1
∴ 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = − 𝑥 2 − 1 cos 𝑥 − 2𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝐷2 − 1 2
The general solution is,
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝
1
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − 1 cos 𝑥 − 2𝑥 sin 𝑥
2
Where 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 are arbitrary constants.
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
Problem 07: Solve 𝒅𝒙𝟐
−𝟐
𝒅𝒙
+ 𝒚 = 𝒆𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙

Solution: Given the equation,

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
−2 + 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 …………………………………..……..……(1)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Let, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 be the trial solution of 𝑑𝑥 2
−2
𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑦 = 0 ……………….(2)

The A.E is, 𝑚2 − 2𝑚 + 1 = 0

2
⇒ 𝑚−1 =0
⇒ 𝑚 = 1,1
∴ 𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥

(1) Can be written in the following form,

𝐷2 − 2𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥
1
⇒ 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝐷2 −2𝐷+1

1
= 2 𝑒𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝐷−1

1
= 𝑒𝑥 sin 𝑥 [Rule 4(i)]
𝐷+1−1 2
 1
= 𝑒𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝐷2

1
= 𝑒𝑥 sin 𝑥 [Rule 3]
−12

= −𝑒𝑥 sin 𝑥
General solution is,

𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝

= 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥

Problem 08: Solve 𝐃𝟒 − 𝟏 𝐲 = 𝐞𝐱 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐱

Solution: Given the equation,

𝐷4 − 1 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥………………………………………………………..(1)

Let, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 be the trial solution of 𝐷4 − 1 𝑦 = 0

Then A.E is

𝑚4 − 1 = 0

⇒ 𝑚2 − 1 𝑚2 + 1 = 0

⇒ 𝑚 = ±1, ±𝑖

∴ 𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐3 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐4 sin 𝑥

From (1) we get,

1
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝐷 4 −1

1
= 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝐷 2 −1 𝐷 2 +1
 1
= 𝑒𝑥 2 −1 cos 𝑥 [Rule 4(i)]
𝐷+1 𝐷+1 2 +1

1
= 𝑒𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝐷 2 +2𝐷±1 𝐷 2 +2𝐷+1+1

1
= 𝑒𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝐷2 +2𝐷 𝐷2 +2𝐷+2

1
= 𝑒𝑥 cos 𝑥
−1 +2𝐷 (−12 +2𝐷+2)
2

1
= 𝑒𝑥 cos 𝑥
2𝐷−1 2𝐷+1

1
= 𝑒𝑥 cos 𝑥
4𝐷2 −1

1
= 𝑒𝑥 cos 𝑥 [Rule 03]
4 −12 −1

1
= − 𝑒𝑥 cos 𝑥
5

The general solution is,

𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝
1
= 𝑐1 𝑒−𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑐3 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐4 sin 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥
5

Problem 09: Solve 𝑫𝟐 − 𝟐𝑫 + 𝟏 𝒚 = 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙

Solution: Given the equation,

𝑫𝟐 − 𝟐𝑫 + 𝟏 𝒚 = 𝒙 sin 𝑥 ………………………………………………(10

Let, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 be the trial solution of 𝐷2 − 2𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = 0

Then A.E is
 𝑚2 − 2𝑚 + 1 = 0

⇒ 𝑚 = 1, 1
∴ 𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥

From equation (1) we can write

𝐷2 − 2𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥
1
⇒ 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝐷2 −2𝐷+1

1 2𝐷−2
=𝑥 sin 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 [Rule 4(iii)]
𝐷2 −2𝐷+1 𝐷 2 −2𝐷+1 2

1 2𝐷−2
=𝑥 sin 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
−12 −2𝐷+1 −12 −2𝐷+1 2

𝑥 1 2 𝐷−1
= − ∙ sin 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 [Rule 03]
2 𝐷 4𝐷 2

𝑥 2 𝐷−1
=− sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − sin 𝑥
2 4 −12

𝑥 1
=− −𝑥 + 𝐷 sin 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
2 2
𝑥 co s 𝑥 1
= + cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
2 2

Problem 10: Solve 𝑫𝟐 − 𝟐𝑫 + 𝟏 𝒚 = 𝒙𝒆𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙

Solution: Given the equation,
𝐷2 − 2𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥………………………………………(1)
Let, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 be the trial solution of 𝐷2 − 2𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = 0
Then A.E is

𝑚2 − 2𝑚 + 1 = 0

⇒ 𝑚 = 1, 1
 ∴ 𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥

From equation (1) we can write

𝐷2 − 2𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = 𝑥 ex sin 𝑥
1
⇒ 𝑦𝑝 = 2
𝑥 ex sin 𝑥
𝐷−1

1
= ex x sin 𝑥 [Rule 4(i)]
D+1−1 2

1
= ex x sin 𝑥
D2

1 2𝐷
= ex x sin 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 [Rule 4(iii)]
D 2 𝐷2 2

1 2𝐷
= ex x sin 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
−1 2
−12 2

= ex −x sin 𝑥 − 2𝐷 sin 𝑥
=− ex x sin 𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥

The general solution is,

𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝

= 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 − ex x sin 𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥
 Liner Differential Equation of Order One
𝑑𝑦
The differential equation of the form + 𝑃(𝑥 )𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥) is called first order
𝑑𝑥

liner differential equation if 𝑃 and 𝑄 are only function of 𝑥 or constant. To solve

this equation multiply by 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 .

Integrating Factor: If a differential equation when multiplied by a factor (a

function of 𝑥, 𝑦) becomes exact, this factor is called an integrating factor of the

equation. An integrating factor is sometimes shortly written as I. F.

𝑑𝑦
Theorem 01: Find the rules of general solution of differential equation +
𝑑𝑥

𝑃(𝑥 )𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥), where 𝑃 and 𝑄 are only function of 𝑥 or constant.

Solution: Given the equation,

𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑃(𝑥 )𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥)… … …. …. (1)
𝑑𝑥

Let 𝑅 be the integrating factor of (1), then multiplying (1) by 𝑅, we get

𝑑𝑦
𝑅 + 𝑅𝑃(𝑥 )𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥)𝑅 … … … (2)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
Here we choose 𝑅 such that the left hand side of (2) equal (𝑅𝑦)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑅
Now, 𝑅 + 𝑅𝑃(𝑥 )𝑦 = 𝑅 +𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 𝑑𝑅
⇒ 𝑃𝑅𝑦 = 𝑦
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑅
⇒ 𝑃𝑅 =
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑅
⇒ = 𝑃𝑑𝑥
𝑅

Integrating both sides, i.e

𝑑𝑅
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥
𝑅

⇒ ln 𝑅 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥

⇒ 𝑅 = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥

∴ 𝑅 = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥

i.e. I.F of (1) is 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥 .

Now multiplying both sides of (1) by 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥 , we get

𝑑𝑦
𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥 𝑃(𝑥 )𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥)𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
⇒ 𝑦𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥 = 𝑄𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Integrating both sides w.r.to 𝑥, we get,

 𝑦𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥 = 𝑄𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐

This is the required solution.

𝑑𝑦
Problem 01: Solve (1 − 𝑥 2 ) − 𝑥𝑦 = 1.
𝑑𝑥

Solution: Consider the equation,

𝑑𝑦
(1 − 𝑥 2 ) − 𝑥𝑦 = 1.
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑥𝑦 1
⇒ − = … … … (1)
𝑑𝑥 1−𝑥 2 1−𝑥 2

𝑥𝑑𝑥
−∫
Now, the I.F = 𝑒 1−𝑥 2

𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
1 𝑑𝑥
1 −2𝑥𝑑𝑥 1 1 𝑓(𝑥)
∫ ln (1−𝑥 2 ) ln (1−𝑥 2 )2
=𝑒 2 1−𝑥 2 =𝑒 2 =𝑒 = (1 − 𝑥 2 )2 = ln 𝑓(𝑥)

1
Multiplying both sides of (1) by (1 − 𝑥 2 )2 , we get

1 1
1
2 2 𝑑𝑦 (1−𝑥 2 )2 𝑥𝑦 (1−𝑥 2 )2
(1 − 𝑥 ) − =
𝑑𝑥 1−𝑥 2 1−𝑥 2

1 √1−𝑥 2
𝑑
⇒ 𝑦 ∙ (1 − 𝑥 2 )2 =
𝑑𝑥 1−𝑥 2
 1
𝑑 1
𝑦 (1 − 𝑥 2 )2 =
𝑑𝑥 √1−𝑥 2

Integrating both sides w.r.to 𝑥, we get

1
𝑑𝑥
𝑦 (1 − 𝑥 2 )2 =∫
√1−𝑥 2

⇒ 𝑦√1 − 𝑥 2 = sin−1 𝑥 + 𝐶

Which is the required solution.

𝑑𝑦
Problem 02: Solve (1 + 𝑥 2 ) + 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Solution: Given the equation, (1 + 𝑥 2 ) + 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑦 tan −1 𝑥
⇒ + = … … … (1)
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑥 2 1+𝑥 2

1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 −1 𝑥
Now, the I.F=𝑒 1+𝑥 2 = 𝑒 tan

−1 𝑥
Multiplying both sides of (1) by 𝑒 tan we get,

−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 −1 𝑥 𝑦 −1 𝑥 tan −1 𝑥
𝑒 tan + 𝑒 tan = 𝑒 tan
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑥 2 1+𝑥 2

𝑑 −1 𝑥 −1 𝑥 tan −1 𝑥
⇒ 𝑦 ∙ 𝑒 tan = 𝑒 tan
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑥 2
Integrating w.r.to 𝑥 , we get

−1 𝑥
tan −1 𝑥 tan −1 𝑥 tan
𝑦𝑒 = ∫𝑒 𝑑𝑥 …. …. …. (2)
1+𝑥 2

In R.H.S we put, tan−1 𝑥 = 𝑧

𝑑𝑧 1
Then, =
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑥 2

𝑑𝑥
⇒ 𝑑𝑧 =
1 + 𝑥2

−1 𝑥
(2)⇒ 𝑦𝑒 tan = ∫ 𝑧𝑒 𝑧 𝑑𝑧

−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑧
⇒ 𝑦𝑒 tan = 𝑧 ∫ 𝑒 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 − ∫ ∫ 𝑒 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑧

−1 𝑥
⇒ 𝑦𝑒 tan = 𝑧𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑐

−1 𝑥
⇒ 𝑦𝑒 tan = (𝑧 − 1)𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑐

−1 𝑥 −1 𝑥
⇒ 𝑦𝑒 tan = (tan−1 𝑥 − 1)𝑒 tan +𝑐

−1 𝑥 −1 𝑥
∴ 𝑦𝑒 tan = (tan−1 𝑥 − 1)𝑒 tan +𝑐.

Which is the required solution.

For Practice:

1. 2(𝑦 − 4𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0.

3
𝑑𝑦
2. (1 − 𝑥 2 ) − 𝑥𝑦 = (1 − 𝑥 2 )2 sin 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥

𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: (1) 𝑥 2 𝑦 = 2𝑥 4 + 𝑐.

(2) 𝑦√1 − 𝑥 2 + 3 cos 𝑥 + 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0.

Bernoulli’s Equation

𝑑𝑦
An equation of the form + 𝑃(𝑥 )𝑦 = 𝑄 (𝑥 )𝑦 𝑛 , 𝑛 ≠ 1, where 𝑃 and 𝑄
𝑑𝑥

are only function of 𝑥 or constant is called the Bernouli’s equation.

Theorem 02: Find the general solution of the Bernouli’s equation

𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥)𝑦 𝑛 .
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Solution: Consider the equation, + 𝑃(𝑥 )𝑦 = 𝑄 (𝑥 )𝑦 𝑛 … … … (1)
𝑑𝑥

Dividing both sides by 𝑦 𝑛 , we get

1 𝑑𝑦 𝑦 𝑄 𝑛
+ 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑦
𝑦 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑦𝑛 𝑦𝑛

1 𝑑𝑦 1
⇒ + 𝑃(𝑥 ) =𝑄 .... … … …. (2)
𝑦 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑛 −1
 1
Let, =𝑧
𝑦 𝑛 −1

1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
⇒ −(𝑛 − 1) =
𝑦 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑧
⇒ =
𝑦 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 (1 − 𝑛) 𝑑𝑥

Now, from (2) we get,

1 𝑑𝑧
+ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑧 = 𝑄(𝑥)
(1−𝑛) 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑧
⇒ + (1 − 𝑛)𝑃𝑧 = 𝑄(1 − 𝑛) … … … (3)
𝑑𝑥

∴ 𝐼. 𝐹 = 𝑒 ∫(1−𝑛)𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Now, multiplying both sides of (3) by 𝑒 ∫(1−𝑛)𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 we get,

𝑑𝑧
𝑒 ∫(1−𝑛)𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒 ∫(1−𝑛)𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 (1 − 𝑛)𝑃𝑧 = 𝑄(1 − 𝑛)𝑒 ∫(1−𝑛)𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 ∫(1−𝑛)𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
⇒ 𝑒 = (1 − 𝑛)𝑄 𝑒 ∫(1−𝑛)𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑥

Which is the required solution.

𝑑𝑦
Problem 01: Solve = 𝑥𝑦 3 − 𝑦.
𝑑𝑥

Solution: Given the equation,

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑥𝑦 3 − 𝑦
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
⇒ + 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦3
𝑑𝑥
 1 𝑑𝑦 𝑦
⇒ + =𝑥 (dividing both sides by 𝑦 3 )
𝑦 3 𝑑𝑥 𝑦3

1 𝑑𝑦 1
⇒ + =𝑥
𝑦 3 𝑑𝑥 𝑦2

1
Let, =𝑧
𝑦2

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
⇒ (−2)𝑦 −3 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑧
⇒ = −
𝑦 3 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

Now, from (1) we get,

1 𝑑𝑧
− +𝑧 =𝑥
2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑧
⇒ − 2𝑧 = −2𝑥 … … … (2)
𝑑𝑥

Now, I.F = 𝑒 ∫ −2𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 −2𝑥

Now, multiplying both sides of (2) by 𝑒 −2𝑥 , we get

𝑑𝑧
𝑒 −2𝑥 − 𝑒 −2𝑥 2𝑧 = −2𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
⇒ (𝑧𝑒−2𝑥 ) = −2𝑥𝑒−2𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Integrating both sides we get,

𝑧𝑒 −2𝑥 = −2 𝑥 𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑
⇒ 𝑧𝑒 −2𝑥 = −2 𝑥 𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − { (𝑥) 𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑑𝑥}
𝑑𝑥

1
⇒ 𝑧𝑒 −2𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 𝑐
2

1 −2𝑥 −2𝑥
1 −2𝑥
⇒ 𝑒 = 𝑥𝑒 + 𝑒 +𝑐
𝑦2 2

1 1
⇒ 2
= 𝑥 + + 𝑐𝑒 2𝑥
𝑦 2

Which is the required solution.

𝑑𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
Problem 02: Reduce the equation, + 𝑙𝑛𝑦 = (𝑙𝑛𝑦)2 , to standard form and
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥2

solve it.

Solution: Given the equation,

𝑑𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
+ 𝑙𝑛𝑦 = 2 (𝑙𝑛𝑦)2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

Dividing both sides by 𝑦(𝑙𝑛𝑦)2 we get,

1 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑦 𝑦(𝑙𝑛𝑦)2
+ ∙ (𝑙𝑛𝑦) = 2
𝑦(𝑙𝑛𝑦)2 𝑑𝑥 𝑦(𝑙𝑛𝑦)2 𝑥 𝑥 𝑦(𝑙𝑛𝑦)2
 1 𝑑𝑦 1 1
+ = . … … … (1)
𝑦(𝑙𝑛𝑦 )2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥(𝑙𝑛𝑦 ) 𝑥2

1
Let, =𝑧
𝑙𝑛𝑦

1 1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
⇒ (−1) (𝑙𝑛𝑦 )2 ∙ =
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

−1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
⇒ =
𝑦(𝑙𝑛𝑦 )2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
⇒ =− …. … … (2)
𝑦(𝑙𝑛𝑦 )2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Now from (1) we get,

𝑑𝑧 𝑧 1
− + =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥2

𝑑𝑧 𝑧 1
⇒ − =− … … … (3)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥2

1
− ∫𝑥 𝑑𝑥 −1 1
Now, I.F = 𝑒 = 𝑒 −𝑙𝑛𝑥 = 𝑒 ln 𝑥 =
𝑥

1
Multiplying both sides by , we get
𝑥

1 𝑑𝑧 1 𝑧 1 1
∙ − ∙ =− ∙
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥2

𝑑 1 1
⇒ 𝑧∙ =−
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥3
Integrating both sides, we get

𝑧 1
= −∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥3

𝑧 𝑥 −2
⇒ =− +𝑐
𝑥 −2

1 1 1
⇒ = 2 +𝑐 𝑧=
𝑥(𝑙𝑛𝑦 ) 2𝑥 𝑙𝑛𝑦

Which is the required solution.

For Practice:

1. Reduce the equation to standard form and solve for,

𝑑𝑦 𝑦 𝑥
+ = , at 𝑦(1) = 2.
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 𝑦3

𝑑𝑦
2. Solve 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑦 2 𝑒 𝑥 .

Answer: (1) 𝑥 2 𝑦 4 = 𝑥 4 + 15.

(2) 1 + 𝑥𝑦𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑦𝑒 𝑦

 Exact Differential Equation

Exact Differential Equation: If 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 0 is obtained by differentiating

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐 , the 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 0 is called exact differential, where 𝑀 and 𝑁 are

function of 𝑥, 𝑦.

Example: 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑐 … … … .. (1)

⇒ 𝑑(𝑥𝑦) = 𝑑(𝑐)

⇒ 𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 0

⇒ 𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0 … … … (2)

Since (2) is obtain by differentiating (1).So (2) is called exact differential.

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Note: The differential equation 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 0 is exact if and only if =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Working Rule:

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Rule 01: If
𝜕𝑦
= 𝜕𝑥
, the 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 0 will be exact. 3𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑦 = 0

Then ∫𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + ∫(𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑥)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐

 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Rule 02: If 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 0 will not exact .i.e. ≠
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

But 𝑀 and 𝑁 are both homogeneous and 𝑀𝑥 + 𝑁𝑦 ≠ 0, then

1
𝐼. 𝐹 = (𝑥 2 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 − (𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0.
𝑀𝑥 +𝑁𝑦

Then multiplying the equation with I.F and similarly apply Rule (1).

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Rule 03: If 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 0 will not exact, i.e ≠ , but the differential
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
equation is of the form, 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0, and 𝑀𝑥 − 𝑁𝑦 ≠ 0
1
Then I.F = (1 + 𝑥𝑦)𝑦𝑑𝑥 + (1 − 𝑥𝑦)𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑀𝑥−𝑁𝑦

Then multiplying the equation with I.F and similarly apply Rule (1).

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Rule 04: If 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 0 is not exact , i.e. ≠ and
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

1 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
− = 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑁 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Then, I.F= 𝑒 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

After multiplying the equation with I.F , it become exact and then apply Rule (1).
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Rule 05: If 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 0 is not exact , i.e. ≠ and
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

1 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
− = 𝑓 (𝑦)
𝑀 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Then, I.F= 𝑒 ∫ 𝑓(𝑦)𝑑𝑦

After multiplying the equation with I.F , it become exact and then apply Rule (1).
Example 01(Rule 01) : Solve (3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 5)𝑑𝑥 + (2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 5)𝑑𝑦 = 0.

Solution: Given the equation,

(3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 5)𝑑𝑥 + (2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 5)𝑑𝑦 = 0 … … (1)

Here, 𝑀 = (3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 5)

𝑁 = (2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 5)

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
∴ = 2 and =2
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
i.e. = , so equation (1) is exact.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

In this case, ∫𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + ∫(𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑥)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐

⇒ (3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 5)𝑑𝑥 + (3𝑦 − 5)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐1

𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑠

𝑥2 𝑦2
⇒ 3 + 2𝑦𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 3 − 5𝑦 = 𝑐1
2 2

⇒ 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 − 10𝑥 + 3𝑦 2 − 10𝑦 = 2𝑐1

⇒ 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 − 10𝑦 = 𝐶.

Which is the required equation.

 𝑥 𝑥
𝑥
Problem 02(Rule 01) : Solve: 1 + 𝑒 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒 (1 − )𝑑𝑦.
𝑦
𝑦

𝑥 𝑥
𝑥
Solution: Given, 1 + 𝑒 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒 (1 − )𝑑𝑦 …𝑦 … … (1)
𝑦

𝑥
Here , 𝑀 = 1 + 𝑒 𝑦

𝑥
𝑥
And, 𝑁 = 𝑒 (1 − )𝑦
𝑦

𝑥
𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝑥 𝑥𝑒 𝑦
=𝑒 𝑦 − =−
𝜕𝑦 𝑦2 𝑦2

𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
𝜕𝑁 1 𝑥 𝜕 𝑥 𝑥𝑒 𝑦
=𝑒 𝑦 0− + 1− 𝑒 𝑦 == −
𝜕𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝑦 𝑦2

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
i.e. = , so equation (1) is exact.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

In this case, ∫𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + ∫(𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑥)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐

𝑥
⇒ 1 + 𝑒 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 0 ∙ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐1
𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑠

𝑥
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦
𝑒 𝑑𝑥 + 0 = 𝑐1
𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑠

𝑥
⇒𝑥+ 𝑦𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑐1

Which is the required equation.

Problem 03 (Rule 02): Solve (𝑥 2 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 − (𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0.

Solution: Given the equation,

(𝑥 2 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 − (𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0. … … … (1)

Here, 𝑀 = (𝑥 2 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 2 )

𝑁 = −𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦

𝜕𝑀
= 𝑥2 − 4𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑁
= −3𝑥2 + 6𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
∴ ≠ , So equation (1) is not exact, but equation (1) is homogeneous.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Now, 𝑀𝑥 + 𝑁𝑦 = (𝑥 2 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 2 )𝑥 + (−𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦)𝑦

= 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 3 𝑦 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2

= 𝑥2𝑦2

∴ 𝑀𝑥 + 𝑁𝑦 ≠ 0 .

1
Integrating Factor, I.F =
𝑀𝑥 +𝑁𝑦

1
Now multiplying equation (1) by , then the equation will be exact.
𝑥 2𝑦 2
 1 2 2 )𝑑𝑥
1
(𝑥 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 (𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑥2𝑦2 𝑥2𝑦2

𝑥 2 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 2 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑥2𝑦2 𝑥2𝑦2

1 2 3 𝑥
⇒ − 𝑑𝑥 + − 𝑑𝑦 = 0, it is exact.
𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦2

1 2 3 𝑥
Now, Here 𝑀 = − and 𝑁 = −
𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦2

In this case, ∫𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + ∫(𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑥)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐

1 2 3
⇒ − 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐1
𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦

𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦
⇒ − − 𝑑𝑥 + 3 = 𝑐1
𝑦 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑥 𝑦

𝑥
⇒ − 2𝑙𝑛𝑥 + 3𝑙𝑛𝑦 = 𝑐1
𝑦

Which is the required equation.

Problem 04 (Rule 04): Solve (12𝑦 + 4𝑦 3 + 6𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 3(𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦 = 0

Solution: Given the equation

(12𝑦 + 4𝑦 3 + 6𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 3(𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦 = 0 … … … (1)

Here, 𝑀 = (12𝑦 + 4𝑦 3 + 6𝑥 2 )

𝑁 = 3(𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 2 )

𝜕𝑀
= 12𝑦 2 + 12
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑁
= 3 + 3𝑦 2
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
∴ ≠ , so equation (1) is not exact.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Now, − = 12𝑦2 + 12 − 3 − 3𝑦2
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

= 9𝑦 2 + 9

= 9(1 + 𝑦 2 )

1 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁 9(1 + 𝑦 2 ) 3
∴ − = = = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑁 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 3𝑥(1 + 𝑦 2 ) 𝑥

3
∴ I.F =𝑒 ∫𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 3𝑙𝑛𝑥 = 𝑥 3

Now, multiplying (1) by 𝑥 3 , we get

𝑥 3 (12𝑦 + 4𝑦 3 + 6𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 3𝑥 3 3(𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦 = 0

⇒ (6𝑥 5 + 4𝑥 3 𝑦 3 + 12𝑥 3 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + (3𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 4 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦 = 0

Now it is exact.

So, In this case, ∫𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + ∫(𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑥)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐

(6𝑥 5 + 4𝑥 3 𝑦 3 + 12𝑥 3 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 + 0 ∙ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑠

⇒ 𝑥 6 + 𝑥 4 𝑦 3 + 3𝑥 4 𝑦 = 𝑐

Which is the required equation.

Problem 05 (Rule 05): Solve 𝑦𝑙𝑛𝑦𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 − 𝑙𝑛𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0.

Solve: Given the equation

𝑦𝑙𝑛𝑦𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 − 𝑙𝑛𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0. … … …. (1)

Here, 𝑀 = 𝑦𝑙𝑛𝑦

𝑁 = (𝑥 − 𝑙𝑛𝑦)

𝜕𝑀 1
= 𝑦 ∙ + 𝑙𝑛𝑦 ∙ 1 = 1 + 𝑙𝑛𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝑦

𝜕𝑁
=1
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
∴ ≠ , so equation (1) is not exact.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
Now, − = 1 − 1 − 𝑙𝑛𝑦 = −𝑙𝑛𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

1 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀 𝑙𝑛𝑦 1
∴ − =− = − = 𝑓(𝑦)
𝑀 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦𝑙𝑛𝑦 𝑦

1
∫ −𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1
∴ I.F =𝑒 = 𝑒 −𝑙𝑛𝑦 =
𝑦

1
Now, multiplying (1) by , we get
𝑦

1 1
𝑦𝑙𝑛𝑦𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 − 𝑙𝑛𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑦 𝑦
𝑥 𝑙𝑛𝑦
⇒ 𝑙𝑛𝑦𝑑𝑥 + − 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑦 𝑦

Now it is exact.
𝑥 𝑙𝑛𝑦
Here, 𝑀 = 𝑙𝑛𝑦 and 𝑁 = −
𝑦 𝑦

So, In this case, ∫𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + ∫(𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑥)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐

𝑙𝑛𝑦
𝑙𝑛𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + (0 − ) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐1
𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑦

⇒ 𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑦 − 𝑙𝑛𝑦 𝑑(𝑙𝑛𝑦) = 𝑐1

1
⇒ 𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑦 − (𝑙𝑛𝑦)2 = 𝑐1
2

Which is the required solution.

For Practices (Solve the followings):

1. (1 + 𝑥𝑦)𝑦𝑑𝑥 + (1 − 𝑥𝑦)𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0

2. (4𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 2 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥(𝑥 + 2𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0

3. 𝑦(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 1)𝑑𝑦 = 0

4. (12𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 9)𝑑𝑥 + (5𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 4)𝑑𝑦 = 0

5. (𝑦 4 + 2𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥𝑦 3 + 2𝑦 4 − 4𝑥)𝑑𝑦 = 0

𝑎 2 (𝑥𝑑𝑦 −𝑦𝑑𝑥 )
6. 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦𝑑𝑦 =
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

7. 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦 = 0

8. (𝑥 4 + 𝑦 4 )𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦 = 0

9. [cos 𝑥 tan 𝑦 + cos(𝑥 + 𝑦)]𝑑𝑥 + [sin 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑦 + cos(𝑥 + 𝑦)]𝑑𝑦 = 0

Answer:
1
1. − + 𝑙𝑛𝑥 − 𝑙𝑛𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑥𝑦

2. 𝑥 3 (4𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 2 − 𝑥) = 𝑐
3. 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)𝑦 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑦 2 = 𝑐
4. 6𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 − 9𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 𝑐
5. 𝑥𝑦 3 + 2𝑥 + 𝑦 4 = 𝑐𝑦 2
𝑥
6. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑎2 tan−1 =𝑐
𝑦

7. (𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑦 2 = 𝑐(𝑥 + 𝑦)
8. 𝑦 4 = 4𝑥 4 𝑙𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 4
9. sin 𝑥 tan 𝑦 + sin(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑐
 𝒂𝟐 (𝒙𝒅𝒚−𝒚𝒅𝒙)
Hints: 𝒙𝒅𝒙 + 𝒚𝒅𝒚 =
𝒙𝟐 +𝒚𝟐

𝑎 2𝑦 𝑎 2𝑥
⇒ 𝑥+ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

𝑎 2𝑦 𝑎 2𝑥
𝑀=𝑥+ ,𝑁 = 𝑦 −
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

𝜕𝑀 (𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 )
= 𝑎2 (𝑥 2
𝜕𝑦 +𝑦 2 )2

𝜕𝑁 (𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 )
= 𝑎2 (𝑥 2
𝜕𝑦 +𝑦 2 )2

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
∴ =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

So, it is exact.

In this case, ∫𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + ∫(𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑥)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐

𝑎 2𝑦
In this case, ∫𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐

𝑥2 1 𝑥 𝑦2
⇒ + 𝑎2 𝑦 ∙ ∙ tan−1 + =𝑐
2 𝑦 𝑦 2

𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 + 2𝑎2 tan−1 =𝑐
𝑦