Tiget Ayelgn PH, MSc

email: tig.ayelgn@gmail.com
0927664178
Introduction
₦ minerals are inorganic elements essential to the nutrition of humans

₦Do not contribute energy (calories) to the diet

₦Not changed by digestion or metabolism

₦minerals can not be destroyed by heat, air, acid, or mixing

₦Minerals constitute one of two major classes of biologically critical

micronutrients required for normal health and development of humans
 Some function of minerals
Very Important Roles in overall health and well-being

Assist in chemical reactions in cells

 Crucial to the immune System Function

 Fluid Balance, Nutrient Transport into Cells , Nerve Transmission

Helps for contraction of skeletal and cardiac muscle

Minerals act as Cofactors - substance that binds to an enzyme to help catalyze

a reaction. As Antioxidant Systems and help for Energy Production
Structure
• Minerals are important components of bone and teeth
• Calcium, magnesium, phosphate

Hormone components
• Regulatory role or role in hormone action
• Calcium, iodine, magnesium, manganese, sodium, potassium
Classification
Two Groups(Major and Trace Minerals)
1. Major Minerals (macrominerals) Need more than 100 mg/day Min. of 5
grams in the body. These include: Calcium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sulfur,
Sodium and Chloride.

2. Trace minerals: essential mineral nutrients found in the human body in

amounts smaller than 5 gm; sometimes called micro minerals. If the daily
requirements is less than 100mg/day they are called minor elements. The
distinction between the major and trace minerals does not mean that one group is
more important than the other.
Macro and micro minerals

Macro minerals Trace minerals

Sodium (Na), potassium (K), Manganese (Mn), iron (Fe),

chlorine (Cl), magnesium (Mg), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), zinc
calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), (Zn), fluorine (F), iodine (I),
sulfur (S) selenium (Se)

requirement of these is >100 orequirement of these is <100

mg/day mg/day
 Bioavailability of minerals
Degree in w/c the nutrient from food is absorbed and utilized in the body,

nutritional status and competing minerals in GI tract can affect absorption,

Binders can Reduce Bioavailability; Oxalates, Phytates, and Polyphenols and
other Nutrients can Improve Bioavailability.

 Vitamin D enhances calcium absorption. Vitamin C enhances iron

absorption.

 Animal Protein enhances zinc absorption.

 cont…
Oxalates Found in many vegetables, fruits, grains, legumes, spices, herbs, and
almost all nuts and seeds. If too much oxalate absorbed can associate with
excess calcium to form sharp calcium-oxalate crystals results decreasing
minerals.

 Phytates (Phytic Acid) is a P store of plants considered an anti-nutrient for

humans - interferes with absorption of nutrients Chelators of: magnesium,
calcium, zinc and iron in your gut. Found in Grains, Legumes, Nuts and Seeds
Cont…
Mineral Balance is highly Controlled by; 1. GI tract regulates absorption
based on needs; are either excreted in feces or reabsorbed via large
intestine. 2. Kidneys -Excrete Excess and Reabsorb Minerals
Sodium
• The majority of the total body sodium ion is found in the extracellular fluids.
• Na ions represent approximately 2% of the total electrolyte composition in the human
body.
• The intracellular Na+ concentration is around 10mM while the concentration in the
blood is around 135mM–145mM.

• Along with Cl– and K+, Na+ is required for normal cellular osmolarity, maintenance of
normal water distribution and water balance in the body, and maintenance of normal
acid-base balance.
Cont…
• It is a key circulating electrolyte and also functions in the regulation
of Na+/K+-ATPases with potassium ion.

• The functions of the Na+/K+-ATPases in the body are numerous with

primary roles being in the processes of nerve transmission in the central and
peripheral nervous systems, in the functioning of muscle cells, in particular
cardiac muscle function, and in the regulation of fluid and ionic balance via
the kidneys.
Regulation of Na in blood
Diatery source of Na
o Table salt

o Monosodium glutamate

o Highly processed foods

o Some meats, dairy products, seafood

Bioavailability
o Affected by malabsorption

Hypernatremia

o It occurs nearly always due to water deficiencies rather than Na+ excess

Hyponatremia

o Can be caused by some drugs such as ; diuretics, or excessive sweating , kidney disease , diarrhea and heart failure
Potassium (K)
An electrolyte (chief intracellular cation )

Potassium ions represent approximately 5% of the total

electrolyte pool in the human body.

 The majority of potassium ion in the body is found

intracellularly.

The average intracellular potassium concentration in around

150mM,

Whereas the concentration of potassium in the blood is only

around 3.5mM–5mM.

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Potassium (K)….
Functions:
◦ Lower blood pressure
◦ Protein synthesis
◦ Fluid and electrolyte balance (used as an acid buffer)
◦ Nerve transmission
◦ Contraction of muscles
◦ Critical for maintaining heartbeat
◦ Cofactor for several reactions in carbohydrate metabolism
◦ Energy production (pyruvate kinase)
15
Absorption & excretion of K
o Absorption in small intestine & colon

o Blood potassium regulated by:

• Kidneys

• Aldosterone increases excretion

Dietary sources of K

• Meats, milks, fruits, vegetables, grains, legumes

16
 Potassium (K)…
Hypokalemia: caused by excessive losses of potassium from the body
following prolonged vomiting, certain drugs and kidney disease

o Aldosterone is a hormone that increases urinary excretion of

potassium

Hyperkalemia: weakness, tingling sensations, triggers vomiting and

cardiac arrest in extreme cases

Toxicity : supplementation

17
 Chloride (Cl–)
• Chlorine (as chloride ion: Cl–) is a major ion necessary for
digestive processes as it is required for the formation of gastric acid
(HCl) within the lumen of the stomach.

• The majority of the chloride ion in the body is found in the

extracellular fluid compartment.

• Chloride ion represents approximately 3% of the total electrolyte

composition of the human body.

• Chloride ion functions along with sodium ion (Na+) and potassium
ion (K+) in the maintenance of electrolyte balance.
18
 Chloride…
Chloride ion is required for the function of several ligand gated
channels.
Helps to move CO2 from blood into the lungs for excretion.
Chlorine is added to public water supplies to destroy bacteria and
some protest pathogens.

19
Chlorine (Cl)…
Deficiencies
o Metabolic alkalosis
(increased bicarbonate compensates for decreased Cl)
o Growth retardation

Toxicity is rare

20
 Calcium (Ca)
Most abundant mineral in animal tissues
• 99% in bones and teeth as hydroxyapatite (collagen matrix)
• 1% present in blood & other tissues

Lots of functions:
• Bone structure
• Nerve function
• Blood clotting
• Muscle contraction
• Cellular metabolism
21
 Dietary requirements of Ca
Dietary requirements:
• Adult : 800 mg/day;
• Women during pregnancy, lactation and post-menopause: 1.5
g/day
• Children (1-18 yrs): 0.8-1.2 g/ day
• Infants: (< 1 year): 300-500 mg /day
Food Sources:
• Best sources: milk and milk product
• Good sources: beans, leafy vegetables, fish, cabbage, egg yolk

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Ca….
Three forms of plasma Ca

Ionized Ca (diffusible): about 50% is ionized from which

functionally the most active

Complex Ca with organic acid (diffusible): about 10% is

found in association with citrate or phosphate

Protein bound Ca (non-diffusible): about 40% is found in

association with albumin and globulin

23
Ca Homeostasis

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In the skin:
7-dehydrocholesterol
(a precursor made in the
liver from cholesterol)
UV light from
the sun

Previtamin D3
Foods

Vitamin D3
(an inactive form)
In the liver: Hydroxylation
25-hydroxy vitamin D3

In the Hydroxylation
kidneys:
1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D3
(active form)
Factors promoting Ca absorption
1. Vit-D induce the synthesis of Ca binding protein (calbindin) in the
intestinal epithelial cells and promotes Ca absorption

2. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) enhances Ca absorption through the

increased synthesis of calcitriol

3. Acidity helps to keep calcium soluble and absorbable

4. Lactose promotes calcium uptake by intestinal cell

5. Lysine and arginine facilitate Ca absorption

26
Factors inhibiting Ca absorption
1. Phytates and oxalates form insoluble salts and interfere with Ca
absorption

2. The high dietary phosphate results in the formation of insoluble Ca

phosphate and prevent Ca uptake

3. The free fatty acids are react with Ca to form insoluble Ca soaps

4. The alkaline condition is unfavorable for Ca absorption

5. High content of dietary fiber interferes with Ca absorption

6. Low estrogen levels (i.e. postmenopausal women)

7. Excess magnesium in diet inhibits calcium absorption

27
Action on the kidney and intestine
o Action on the kidney: increase the Ca reabsorption
o Action on the intestine: indirect, increase the intestine absorption
of Ca by promoting the synthesis of calcitriol

29
 Calcitonin (CT)
• It is a hormone secreted by parafollicular cells of thyroid gland

• CT has the ability to decrease blood Ca and P levels and its major
target cells also in bone, kidney and intestine

1. bone: Inhibit the activity of the osteoclasts,

2. intestine: inhibit absorption of Ca

3. kidney: enhance of Ca excretion from urine

30
 Deficiencies of Ca-Rickets

 Weakness and deformity of the bones that occurs from vitamin D

deficiency or dietary deficiency of Ca and P in a growing person
or animal 31
Deficiencies Ca -Osteoporosis

 Progressive loss of bone density, thinning of bone tissue

and increased vulnerability to fractures in the elderly

people of both sexes 32
 Ca Toxicity
o Deposition of Ca in soft tissue

o Impaired kidney function – kidney stone formation

o Interference of other nutrient absorption

o Iron & zinc

33
 Phosphorous (P)
o 2nd most abundant mineral behind calcium
o 80% of P occurs in combination with Ca in the bone and teeth
o About 10% is found in muscles and blood in association with
proteins, carbohydrate and lipids
o The remaining 10% is widely distributed in various chemical
compounds
o Found in all foods

34
 Functions of P
o Strengthens bones and teeth

o Components of cell membranes

o Maintains acid-base balance

o As a component of high energy molecules such as ATP and creatine

phosphate

o Phosphate is a component of phospholipids

o Is component of the bone and teeth

o As an important component of nucleic acids

o used to store & transfer energy

35
 Dietary requirements of P
o The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of phosphate is based
on the intake of calcium
• For adult, the ratio of Ca:P of 1:1 is recommended (800mg/day);
• For infant, however, the ratio is around 2:1, which is ratio found
in human milk
Sources
• milk, cereals, leafy vegetable, meat, eggs

36
 Absorption of P
Phosphate absorption occur from jejunum
1. Calcitriol promotes phosphate uptake along with calcium.
2. Acidity favors while phytate decreases phosphate uptake by
intestinal cells

37
Phosphorus Deficiency

• Rickets, osteomalacia, osteoporosis

o Hyperphosphatemia due to damage in kidney

o Hypophosphatemia is very rare

38
 Magnesium (Mg)

Fig. Magnesium is normally found inside cells.

39
 Magnesium (Mg)
Functions

• Associated with Ca and P, present in bone and teeth

• 70% of Mg in skeleton

• Enzyme activation (e.g., pyruvate dehydrogenase)

• Protein synthesis

• Enzyme action (co-factor)

• Normal muscle contraction & relaxation

• Nerve transmission

40
Dietary sources & bioavailability of Mg
Green leafy vegetables, seafood, legumes, nuts, dairy products,
chocolate, brown rice, whole grains

Bioavailability influenced by:

• Calcium

• Phosphorus

41
Deficiency & Toxicity of Mg
Deficiencies

• Abnormal nerve & muscle function

• Increase risk for CVD & type 2 diabetes

• Hypomagnesemic tetany

Toxicity
• Large dose supplements

• Intestinal distress, alterations in heart beat

42
Sulfur (S)
o Component of amino acids

• E.g, Cystine and methionine for bioactive and structural

proteins

o Chondroitin sulfate is a constituent of cartilage

o Part of biotin & thiamin

o Part of insulin

found in thiamin

 high sulfur content in skin, hair, nails

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 2) Trace minerals
o Need in small amounts of these (less than 100mg/day)

o Found in plants and animals

o Content in plant foods depends on soil content

o They are difficult to quantify biochemically

o Bioavailability often influenced by other dietary factors (especially

other minerals)

44
 Iron (Fe)
o It occurs in human body as either ferrous ( Fe2+) and Ferric (Fe3+)
forms

o Adult has about 2-5gm of iron distributed throughout the body

depending on gender, diet, size and menstrual status

o Mostly present in the erythrocytes as hemoglobin i.e. the blood

builder!

45
 Iron (Fe)
 The total content of iron in an adult body is 3-5 g
1. About 70%: in the erythrocytes of blood as a constituent of Hb
2. At least 5%: in Mb of muscle
3. Heme is the most predominant iron containing substance: e.g.
Hb, Mb, cytochromes
4. Non-heme iron: e.g. transferrin, ferritin, hemosiderin
o Ferritin is used to store extra iron

o Transferrin transports iron in the blood plasma

o Hemosiderin is a compact storage of iron

46
 Function of Fe
o Oxygen Transport & Storage
• Hemoglobin
• Myoglobin
o Electron Transport & Energy Metabolism
• Cytochromes
• Fe-S proteins
o Substrate Oxidation & Reduction
– Iron dependent enzyme-
• Ribonucleotide reductase
• Amino acid oxidases
• Fatty acid desaturases
• Nitric oxide synthetase All use O2 as a substrate
• Peroxidases
 Dietary requirements
Dietary requirements:
• Adult man: 10 mg/day
• Menstruating woman: 18 mg/day
• Pregnant and lactating woman: 40 mg/day

Sources:
• Rich source: organ meats (liver, heart,
kidney)
• Good source: leafy vegetables, cereals, fish,
apple, dried fruits
• Poor sources: milk, wheat, polished rice
48
 Absorption of Fe
o Iron is only absorbed in an inorganic form

o Ferric (Fe+3) must be converted to ferrous (Fe+2) before absorption.

o This is helped by reducing substances in food as cysteine and vitamin C

o In the plasma ferrous is oxidized rapidly to the ferric state to be carried

by transferrin

49
 Absorption of Fe…
 Two types of iron:
• Heme iron bound in porphyrin rings (in animal sources)
• Non-heme iron present as iron salts ( in plant sources)

 Absorption of heme iron is 20-30 %

 Absorption of non-heme iron is 1-10 %

Non-heme Absorption

Enhancers : ascorbic acid, meat

Inhibitors : phytates, phosphates, oxalates, iron binding phenolic

compounds ( tea, coffee, cocoa)
50
Absorption of Fe
Iron storage
• Iron can be stored by ferritin (a protein) or hemosiderin

o Stored in liver, bone marrow, intestinal mucosa, and spleen

o A apoferritin molecule can combine with 4,000 atoms of iron

Ferritin Ferritin
52
Iron Deficiency Symptoms
Anemia

Impaired work performance

Impaired immunity

Pale skin, nailbeds, mucous membranes

Concave nails

Inability to regulate body temperature

Pica
Toxicity symptoms of Fe
 Hemosiderosis: this is less common disorder and due to excessive
iron in the body.

 Hemochromatosis: this is rare disease in which iron is directly

deposited in the tissue (liver, spleen, pancreas and skin)

o GI irritation
 Zinc (Zn)
o Essential trace element called the growth mineral

• Zinc is an integral component of many metalloenzymes in the body

o Intracellular regulation, e.g. cellular growth, differentiation and

death

55
Zinc (Zn)…
• Zinc is important for:
o Normal taste and appetite
o Normal growth and healing of wounds
o Mobilization of vitamin A from its stores

• Acts as a component of insulin and some enzymes such as carbonic anhydrase

and carboxypeptidase.

• It is involved in the synthesis and stabilization of proteins, DNA, and RNA and
plays a structural role in ribosomes and membranes.

• Necessary for the binding of steroid hormone receptors and several other
transcription factors to DNA.

• Absolutely required for normal spermatogenesis, fetal growth, and embryonic

development.
56
 Dietary sources of Zn
o Breast milk, beef, poultry are good sources

o Phytates, fiber and lignin reduce bioavailability of zinc from

cereals, legumes and tubers

o Calcium and casein may reduce bioavailability of zinc from

cow’s milk

57
 Deficiency of Zn
o Deficiency of zinc causes testicular degeneration by the testicular
proteolytic enzyme which is normally inhibited by zinc

Risk factors:

o High phytate staple foods

o Low intake of “fleshy” food

o High rate of diarrhea

o Nutritional iron deficiency

Deficiency symptoms- growth retardation, delayed sexual maturation,

impaired immune function, hair loss, eye and skin lesions, loss of appetite

58
 Iodine (I)
o Iodine is needed to make thyroid hormones

o Iodine is critical for the growth and development of the brain and
central nervous system

o More than half the iodine in the body is found in the thyroid gland

o Iodine is an essential component of thyroid hormones, including

thyroxine

59
Iodine (I)…

60
 Iodine (I)…
 Forms in the body: thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) – active
form

 Iodine is an essential component of the thyroid hormones, thyroxin

and triiodothyroxine.

Iodine and sodium iodide are readily absorbed from the skin, lungs
and intestine

62
 Dietary sources of iodine

oMilk, sea foods

oDrinking water

oPlant source depends on whether or not iodine present in

the soil

oIodized Salt
Iodine Deficiency Disorders (IDD)
Fetal IDD

Abortion Neonatal IDD

Stillbirth Neonatal goiter
Congenital defects
Hypothyroidism
Mental retardation
Infant mortality
Deaf-mutism

Dwarfism

Psychomotor defects

Cretinism

Infant mortality
64
65
 Iodine Deficiency Disorders (IDD)

Child/Adolescent

o Goiter

o Hypothyroidism

o Impaired mental and physical

development

66
 Iodine Deficiency Disorders (IDD)
Adult

o Goiter

o Hypothyroidism

o Impaired mental function

o Iodine-induced hyperthyroidism (too much thyroid hormone)

67
 Vitamins
Tiget. A PH, MSc
Defintion
Vitamins are defined as "small organic molecules present in diet
which are required in small amounts.
Most of the vitamins are not synthesized in the body and hence they
must be supplied in the diet.
 However few vitamins are synthesized in the body though most of
them are present in diet as such some are present as precursors.
The precursor forms of vitamins are called as provitamins, in the body
these provitamins are converted to vitamins.
Classification
 Classification of Vitamins ,Vitamins are divided into two groups.
1. fat soluble vitamins
2. water soluble vitamins.
Fat Soluble Vitamins ,
• They are vitamins A, D, E and K. They have common properties. Fat
soluble, Require bile salts for absorption, Stored in liver, Stable to
normal cooking conditions, Excreted in feces.
Cont…

Water Soluble Vitamins:

They are members of vitamin B complex and Vitamin C
Their common properties are Water soluble, Except Vitamin B12 others
are not stored, Unstable to normal cooking conditions, Excreted in
urine.
Importance of vitamin
BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
Vitamins are essential for growth, maintenance and reproduction.
 Fat soluble vitamins are required for normal color vision, blood clotting,
bone formation and maintenance of membrane structure.
Most of the water soluble vitamins function as coenzymes or prosthetic
groups of several enzymes involved in carbohydrate, lipid and amino acid
metabolism etc.
 Vitamins A and D act as steroid hormones.
 Deficiency of fat soluble vitamins produce night blindness, skeletal
deformation, haemorrhages and hemolysis.
Cont…
Deficiency of water soluble vitamins produce beriberi, glossitis, pellagra, microcytic
anaemia, megaloblastic anaemia and scurvy.

Some vitamin analogs are used as drugs. For example folic acid analogs are used as
anticancer agents and antibiotics.

 Moderate consumption of some vitamins is found to decrease occurrence or severity of

some diseases. For example carotenes, Vitamin E and Vitamin D consumption at moderate
level reduces incidence of cancer and cardiovascular diseases.
Cont…
Consumption of vitamin C in significant amounts reduces severity of
cold.
They slow down ageing process also why?.
Vit B12, Folic acid and Vit B6 are beneficial to coronary artery
disease patients, b/c they lower plasma homocysteine levels.
 Water soluble
A. VITAMIN B COMPLEX, Thiamin (Vitamin B1), Riboflavin (Vitamin B2),
Niacin (vitamin B3), Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6), Biotin, Folic acid,
Cyanocobalamin (Vitamin B12), Pantothenic acid.

• VITAMIN B1( THIAMIN ), It is a heat labile sulfur containing vitamin. It contains

pyrimidine ring and thiazole ring ,which are joined by methylene bridge. It is highly alkaline
sensitive.

• Absorption and Transport , It is absorbed in small intestine by active transport mechanism and
simple diffusion, Then it reaches liver through circulation.
Cont…
• THIAMIN Function, Thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP ) is the active
form of thiamin.
• It(TPP) is formed from thiamin in presence of ATP in a reaction
catalyzed by thiamin kinase present in liver. TPP is the prosthetic
group of many complex enzymes like pyruvate dehydrogenase, α-keto
glutarate dehydrogenase etc.
• THIAMIN Sources , Rich Sources are Outer coatings of food grains
like rice, wheat and yeast, Good sources are Whole cereals, pulses,
oilseeds and nuts and Fair sources are like Meat, liver and egg and
fish.
 TPP as a Coenzyme
• Pyruvate to acetyl-CoA for citric acid cycle
CoA NAD+ NADH + H+
Glucose →→ Pyruvate Acetyl-CoA →Citric Acid Cycle
CO2
• a-ketoglutarate to succinyl-CoA
CoA NADH + H+
NAD+
a-ketoglutarate Succinyl-CoA
CO
• dECARBOXYLATION reactions2 – decarboxylation (removal of
carboxyl group which is released as CO2) of alpha keto acids
(metabolite of amino acids)
• Transketolase is the TPP dependent enzyme which catalyses
formation of 5-sugar components of RNA and DNA in the
pentose phosphate pathway
Cont…
Thiamine Deficiency results beriberi (dry and wet ).

Early signs of beri beri are insomnia, headache, dizziness, loss of

appetite, muscle weakness, numbness and pricking sensation in lower
limbs and fatigue.

(a) Wet beriberi, In which cardiovascular system is affected and it is

characterized by edema. Edema appears in lower limbs, trunk, face and
serous cavities, Blood pressure becomes abnormal, Heart becomes weak
and death occurs due to heart failure.
 Cont…
(b) Dry beriberi, In which central nervous system is affected. In addition to early
signs severe muscle wasting occurs. As a result individual is unable to walk and
becomes bed ridden. Death may occur if not treated if alcohol drunker.

Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) Chemistry

• It contains heterocyclic isoalloxazine ring and ribitol a sugar alcohol. It is

sensitive to light and alkali but stable to heat and acidic medium.

• Absorbed in small intestine and distributed to all tissues by circulation.

Functions , Active forms of riboflavin are FMN and FAD.

 Flavoprotein Function
• Redox reactions
• Take electrons from substrate
• Give electrons to substrate
• Riboflavin cofactor is either:
• Reduced (gains electrons) and substrate is oxidised
• Oxidised (loses electrons) and substrate is reduced
• Riboflavin does this by moving hydrogen atoms
• Succinate dehydrogenase has a riboflavin cofactor

FAD FADH2
Succinate Fumarate
Flavoprotein Function

• An FAD-containing enzyme participates in breakdown

of fatty acids to acetyl-CoA (reaction known as b-
oxidation)
• An FMN-containing enzyme shuttles H atoms into the
electron carrier chain
• FADH2-containing enzyme glutathione reductase
converts the oxidised form of gluthathione to the
reduced form
Cont…
• They act as prosthetic groups of several enzymes, FMN is flavin mononucleotide and FAD is
flavin adenine dinucleotide.

• They act as carriers of hydrogen atoms in redox reactions.

Sources

• Whole grains, legumes, pulses, green leafy vegetables, yeast, eggs, milk and meat are good
sources.

Root vegetables and fruits are fair sources.

Cont…
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) Deficiency.

• In humans riboflavin deficiency causes oral, facial, occular lesions.

(a) Angular Stomatitis(Lesions of mouth particularly at corners of
mouth). (b) Cheliosis (Red swollen and cracked lips). (c)
Vascularization of cornea and conjuctiva and blood shot eyes. (d)
Glossitis. Inflammated magenta coloured tongue.
Cont…
NIACIN Chemistry

The word niacin refers to two pyridine derivatives, they are nicotinic acid
and nicotinamide, Both are highly stable to heat and stable to alkali and
acid.

Nicotinic acid and nicotinamide are absorbed in small intestine and reach
various tissues through circulation where they are converted to NAD and
NADP.
Cont…
Functions

 Nicotinamide is component of two coenzymes NAD and NADP. NAD is nicotinamide

adenine dinucleotide and NADP is nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate.

Sources: Whole grains, peanuts, legumes, yeast, liver, fish and meat are good sources.
Milk and egg are poor source of niacin. Vegetables and fruits are poor source of niacin.

Niacin Deficiency: its deficiency causes pellagra in which skin, gastrointestinal tract
and nervous system are affected.

Dermatitis, Diarrhoea and Dementia are characteristic symptoms of pellagra.

NAD+ as Electron Acceptor

• NAD+ and NADP+ participate in over 200 cellular

reactions, especially those used to produce ATP
• NAD+ and NADP+ act as electron and H+ ion acceptors
 Functions of NAD+ and NADP+
• NAD+ also reduced in many reaction in the citric acid cycle

• It is also reduced in the reaction which converts alcohol to

acetaldehyde

• NADPH is a reduced form of NADP+ and is used in the

pathway for fatty acid synthesis

• Cells which synthesise a lot of fatty acids (e.g. in the liver)

have a higher NADPH concentration than those which do
not (e.g. muscle cells)
 Cont…
PYRIDOXINE Chemistry

 Three compounds derived from pyridine show vitamin B6 activity. They are pyridoxine,
pyridoxal and pyridoxamine. Pyridoxine is stable to heat and sensitive to light and alkali.

Pyridoxine is easily absorbed and reaches various tissues through circulation, In the tissues
pyridoxine is converted to pyridoxal and pyridoxamine.

Functions

Pyridoxal phosphate is active form, It is formed from pyridoxal by phosphorylation catalyzed

by pyridoxal kinase.
Cont…
 Pyridoxal phosphate act as prosthetic group or co enzyme of enzymes
which are involved in transamination, decarboxylation,
transsulfuration, desulfuration and non- oxidative deamination
reactions.

Pyriodoxal phosphate is coenzyme for enzymes that are involved in

the synthesis of heme, serotonin, catecholamines and coenzyme A
synthesis.
Cont…
Sources; Whole grains, legumes, liver and yeast are good sources.
Leafy vegetables, milk, meat and eggs are fair sources.

Pyridoxine Deficiency; It is rare in human adults.

In children vitamin B6 deficiency causes epileptic form convulsions

(seizures) due to decreased formation of neuro transmitters like GABA,
serotonin and catecholamines.
Cont…
BIOTIN Chemistry

• It is a sulfur containing vitamin. It consist of imidozole ring fused to

tetrahydro thiophene with valerie acid side chain. It is stable to heat but
alkaline sensitive.

• It is absorbed in the small intestine and reaches liver and other tissues through
circulation.

Function

• Biotin is prosthetic groups of several carboxylases like pyruvate carboxylase,

acetyl-CoA carboxylase, propionyl-CoA carboxylase etc.
Cont…
 Biotin is attached to ε-amino groups of Iysyl residue of apoenzyme through,
amide linkage.

 In carboxylation reaction it acts as a carrier of CO2 Dietary

 sources ; Whole cereals, legumes, groundnuts, milk, meat and fish are good
sources. Vegetables and fruits are fair sources.

 Biotin deficiency is rare in humans because it is present in most of the

commonfoods.
 Cont…
FOLIC ACID Chemistry

Folic acid consist of pteridine nucleus, p-aminobenzoic acid and glutamate. It is

sensitive to light and acid but stable to heat and alkali.

Absorption and transport , Folic acid present in natural foods is called as folyl
polyglutamate. In the intestinal mucosal cells hydrolase form folic acid which is
reduced to N5 - methyl tetrahydrofolate.

 Methyl tetrahydrofolate is the major circulating form probably bound to protein.

 Cont…
Function

Tetrahydrofolate or FH4 which is reduced form of folic acid is carrier of one carbon units.

 Folic acid is required for the synthesis of DNA through nucleotides particularly TMP formation, in
rapidly dividing cells like bone marrow or erythropoietic cells or intestinal cells.

 Folic acid prevents neural tube defects (NTD) that occur during fetal development.

Sources

 Green leafy vegetables like spinach, cabbage, ladyfinger, curry and mint leaves, pulses like black
gram, green gram, eggs and liver are good sources. Coconuts, whole cereals and milk are fair
sources
 Cont…
Folic Acid Deficiency; Megaloblastic anaemia is the main symptom of folic acid
deficiency. It is most common in pregnant women and in unweaned children.

CYANOCOBALAMIN (VITAMIN B12) Chemistry

 It has complex chemical structure. It is made up of Tetrapyrrole ring system called as

corrin ring with a central cobalt (Co) atom with molecular formula (C63 H88 N14
O14 PCO)

 The absorption of vitamin B12 takes place in ileum. Transcobalamin II delivers

vitamin B12 to tissues. Storage ; Unlike other water soluble vitamins vitamin B12 is
stored in the liver and other tissues.
Cont…
Functions

 Vitamin B12 act as prosthetic group or coenzyme.

 Vitamin B12 Deficiency, affects bone marrow, intestinal tract and neurological system.

 In vitamin B12 deficiency these systems are affected because DNA synthesis, methionine
synthesis and fatty acid synthesis are altered.

PANTOTHENIC ACID Chemistry

• It is an amide of β-alanine and dihydroxy dimethyl butyric acid (Pantoic acid)

• It is stable to heat but unstable to alkali or acid.

Cont…
Absorption and transport, Intestinal phosphatases release pantothenic acid
from dietary sources. Free pantothenate or its salts are freely absorbed in the
intestine and reach various tissues through circulation.
Functions
• Pantothenic acid is a component of coenzyme A. Coenzyme (CoA)
participates in several enzymatic reactions of carbohydrate, lipid and amino
acid metabolism. It serves as carrier of acyl groups during fatty acid
biosynthesis.
Cont..

Pantothenic acid deficiency, It cause burning feet, abdominal cramps,

restlessness and fatigue in humans.

Sources; Organ meat, liver, milk, whole cereals, legumes and eggs are
good sources. Vegetables and fruits are poor sources.
Cont…
B. VITAMIN C (ASCORBIC ACID) Chemistry

 It is a sugar acid known as hexuronic acid.

Ascorbic acid is easily oxidized by atmospheric O2 to dehydroascorbic acid

 High temperature (cooking) accelerates oxidation. Light and alkali also

promotes oxidation.

Vitamin C is readily absorbed in the intestine by sodium dependent active

transport mechanism and reaches various body tissues through circulation.
Ascorbic acid enters various cells like erythrocytes, leucocytes etc. freely.
Cont… Functions
• Ascorbic acid act as antioxidant. It is free radical scavenger.
• Since it is a strong reducing agent it protects carotenes, vitamin E and other
B vitamins of dietary origin from oxidation.
• It is required for the hydroxylation of proline and lysine residues of
collagen, Since collagen is component of ground substance of capillaries,
bone and teeth vitamin C is required for proper bone and teeth formation
also.
• It participates in hydroxylation reactions of steroid biosynthesis.
• It is required for catecholamine synthesis from tyrosine.
• In the liver bile acid synthesis requires ascorbic acid.
Cont…
• It is required for the absorption of iron in the intestine. It maintains
iron in ferrous form.
• Catabolism of tyrosine requires ascorbic acid.
• Vitamin C is effective in controlling bacterial invasion by inhibiting
activity of bacterial hyaluronidase enzyme. It acts as inhibitor of this
enzyme due to structural similarity to glucuronate of hyaluronin, the
substrate of hyaluronidase.
Vitamin C deficiency ;In adults deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy.
But it rarely occurs in normal people. The symptoms of scurvy are (a)
Haemorrhages in various tissues particularly in inside of thigh, calf and
forearm muscles.
 Cont…
It may be due to capillary fragility. (b) General weakness and anaemia. (c)
Swollen joints, swollen gums and loose tooth. (d) Susceptible for infections.
(e) Delayed wound healing. (f) Bone fragility and osteoporosis.

Vitamin C deficiency in infants gives rise to infanitle scurvy. It occurs in

weaned infants who are fed on diets low in vitamin C.

Sources; Guava, coriander and amarnath leaves, and cabbage are rich

sources. Fruits like lemon, orange, pineapple, papaya, mango and tomato are
good sources. • Apples, bananas and grapes are fair sources.
 FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
VITAMIN A Chemistry

They are retinol (Vitamin A alcohol), retinal (Vitamin A aldehyde) and retinoic acid (Vitamin A acid).

 They are composed of β­ionine ring (methyl substituted cyclohexenyl ring) and side chain containing
two isoprene units with four conjugated double bonds.

Due to the presence of double bonds in isoprenoid side chain vitamin A exhibits cis-trans (geometric)
isomerism.

Due to the presence of 4 double bonds vitamin A can be oxidized by air or light slowly.
Cont…
 In nature vitamin A occurs in two forms retinolesters -In the foods of animal
origin and carotenes in plant foods as provitamin.

Absorption of Vitamin A, in the intestine pancreatic esterase hydrolyzes

retinolesters present in the diet to retinol and free fatty acid in presence of bile
salts.

Retinol is absorbed by mucosal cells.

 Dietaryβ-carotene is cleaved into two molecules of retinal by a dioxygenase

present in the intestinal mucosal. It is transported by lipoprotein.
 Cont…
Functions of vitamin A

The three major retinoids; retinal, retinol and retinoic acid have unique functions.

 Retinal is required for normal and color vision.

 Retinol is required for reproduction and growth. it is required for differentiation

and function as steroid hormone.

 Retinoic acid is required for the synthesis of glycoproteins or

mucopolysaccharides. It also act as steroid hormone. It also promote growth and
differentiation.

Retinol and retinoic acid are involved in regulation of gene expression.

 Cont…
Retinal and colour vision, Three light sensitive pigments present in cones are
responsible for colour vision.

They are porphyropsin, iodopsin and cyanopsin.

All three pigments contain 11-cis retinal and are sensitive to red, green and
blue colours respectively.

 When the photon (light) strikes retina depending on the colour of the light a
particular pigment is bleached. This leads to generation of nerve impulse and
perception of colour by brain.

Defective apoprotein production due to faulty genes leads to colour blindness.

 Cont…
Deficiency of Vitamin A

 Night blindness, In early stages, the affected individual is not able to see clearly in dim light
or night due to block in the resynthesis of rhodopsin, In the later stage of deficiency the
affected individual cannot see or read in dim light, thus loss of night vision (night blindness)
is the major initial symptom of Vitamin A deficiency.

Night blindness in adults or in preschool children is common in countries where intake of

vitamin A is low.

 Growth of bone and formation of tooth are defective. Thick and long bones are formed.

 Nerve growth also affected. Degeneration of myelin sheath occurs.

Cont…
 Keratinisation of mucous secreting epithelial cells (hyperkeratosis) lining respiratory tract
and reproductive tract occurs. Mucous secretion by salivary and lacrymal glands is also
affected.

Deposition of keratin in skin (xeroderma) gives rise to characteristic toad skin appearance.

Reproductive disorders like testicular degeneration, resorption of foetus or foetal

malformation are observed.

Degenerative changes in kidneys.

 Cont…
Sources;

 (a) Animal sources; Marine fish oils like halibut liver oil, cod liver oil and shark liver
oils are excellent sources, Liver of sheep or goat is also excellent source, Butter, egg, and
milk are good sources. Freshwater fish contain Vitamin A2 (dehydroretinol) which is
only 40% active.

(b) Plant sources. In plant foods vitamin A is present as carotenes; Plant oil like red
palm oil is excellent source; Leafy vegetables, coriander leaves, curry leaves, spinach
and cabbage are good sources; Yellow vegetables like carrot, pumpkin and sweet potato
and ripe tomatoes also contain appreciable amounts of vitamin A.

 Fruits; Yellow pigmented fruits papaya, mango, jackfruit, banana and oranges also
contain vitamin A in good amounts.
 Cont…
VITAMIN D Chemistry
 It is also called sunshine vitamins, Its active forms are vitamin D2 (ergo
calciferol) and vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol).
 Calcitriol is the most active form of vitamin D that acts as steroid hormone.
They are formed from provitamins which are sterols.
Absorption, transport and storage, Dietary vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 are
absorbed in the small intestine in presence of bile salts.
 Absorbed Vit D is incorporated into chylomicrons and enters circulation via
lymph.
 Vitamin D is stored in liver and adipose tissue.
 Cont…
Functions of calcitriol

Major action of calcitriol is to increase absorption of calcium and phosphate in

in duodenum and jejunum.

Calcitriol is required for bone formation and mineralisation of bone. It

osteocalcin a calcium binding protein of bone. Osteocalcin is involved in
bone.

 Calcitriol affects calcium and phosphorus excretion by kidney. It reduces the

phosphorus.

 Vitamin D is involved in maintenance of normal muscle tone. Calcitriol is an

hormone. It stimulates cell mediated immunity. It plays a vital role in
 Cont…
Vit D deficiency symptoms( Rickets)
 In children vitamin D deficiency causes rickets, results in soft bones. This leads to
deformities in skull, chest, spine, legs and pelvis.
Its deficiency causes osteomalacia in adults, it is seen in pregnant women and women
with inappropriate diet. Skeletal pain is early sign, Deformities of ribs, spine, pelvis and
legs are seen.
Vitamin D deficiency causes osteoporosis in old people. Photolysis of provitamins
decreases with age. This and together with decreased sex hormone production may lead
to deficiency.
Symptoms are bone pain and porous bones. Bone fractures are common.
 Cont…
Sources;

Vitamin D is mostly present in foods of animal origin. Marine fish liver oils
like halibut liver oil, cod liver oil and shark liver oil are good sources. Sardines,
egg yolk and butter contains small amounts. However, milk is a poor source of
vitamin D, Mushrooms contain small amounts of vitamin D.

Toxicity (Hyper vitaminosis) • Ingestion of mega doses of vitamin D results in

toxicity of Vit D. • Signs and symptoms of vitamin D toxicity are loss of
appetite, nausae, thirst, vomiting, polyuria and calcification of lungs, renal
tubules and arteries. Muscle wasting also occurs. Demineralisation of bone
similar to vitamin D deficiency is seen.
 Cont…
VITAMIN E Chemistry

₩Chemically they are tocopherol

₩They are derivatives of tocol or 6-hydroxy chromane ring with phytyl side chain.

₩Tocopherols are alkaline sensitive and their vitamin activity is destroyed by

oxidation.

₩ Among all tocopherols α-tocopherol is most potent and widely distributed in

nature.

₩ Cooking and food processing may destroy vitamin E to some extent.

 Cont…
₦ Dietary tocopherols are absorbed in small intestine in the presence of bile salts.

₦ Absorbed tocopherols are incorporated into chylomicrons in mucosal cells of

intestine and enters circulation via lymph.

₦ In plasma tocopherols are released from chylomicrons by lipoprotein lipase.

₦ Liver takes up half of tocopherol and it is stored. Skeletal muscle and adipose
tissue also stores vitamin E.

₦ From the liver tocopherols are transported to other tissues in β-lipoprotein.

Cont…
Functions of Vitamin E
¥ α-tocopherol in cell membrane and cytosol function as antioxidant, It is
present in high concentration in tissues which are exposed to high O2
pressure like erythrocytes, lungs, retina etc.
¥ It acts as chain breaking antioxidant.
¥ Vitamin E is involved in maintenance of muscle tone
¥ Vitamin E increases synthesis of hemeproteins, Vitamin E prevents
dietary vitamin A and carotenes from oxidative damage.
¥ Sources; Cereal germ oils like wheat germ oil, corn germ oil and vegetable
oils like coconut oil, sun flower oil, peanut oil, ricebran oil, palm oil,
mustard oil, cotton seed oil and soyabean oil are rich sources of vitamin E,
Vegetables, fruits and meat are relatively poor sources of vitamin E.
Cont…
VITAMIN K Chemistry

Ω Chemically they are quinones, Vitamin K1 also called as phylloquinone, is the major form of vitamin
found in plants particularly in green leafy vegetables.

Ω Vitamin K2 also known as menaquinone is the vitamin K present in animals and synthesized by
intestinal flora.

Ω They are derivatives of naphthoquinone and differ in side chain. Phylloquinone contain phytylside
chain where as, menaquinone contains polyisoprenoid side chain made up of 7 isoprene units.
 Cont…
∑ Vitamin K of dietary origin is absorbed in small intestine in presence of bile
salts.
∑ In mucosal cells of intestine absorbed vitamin K is incorporated into
chylomicrons.
∑ It reaches liver after entering circulation through the lymph. Liver distributes
vitamin K to other tissues.
∑ It rarely accumulates in liver and peripheral tissues.
Sources
∑ Plant Sources ;Cauliflower, Cabbage, spinach, turnip greens, peas and soybean
are rich sources.
∑ Animal sources ;Dairy products like cheese, butter and farm products like eggs
and liver are good sources.
 Cont…
Functions of Vitamin K

↉ Vitamin K is required for the synthesis of blood clotting factors like

prothrombin (factor II), cothromboplastin (factor VII), (factor IX) and (factor
X).

↉ It is required for the carboxylation of the γ-carbon atom of glutamic residues

of these factors.

↉ The γ-carboxylation generates calcium binding sites which is essential for

blood clotting process.
Cont…
Deficiency Symptoms of vitamin K
Ǣ Haemorrhage in the new born is most common vitamin K deficiency
symptom.
Ǣuncontrolled bleeding through nose (epitaxis) and gastrointestinal tract is
likely to occur.
ǢHowever it can be treated successfully with intra muscular injections of
vitamin K.
Ǣ In adults vitamin K deficiency rarely occurs. However prolonged use of
antibiotics may cause vitamin K deficiency due to elimination of intestinal
flora.
Free radical and their role for
diseases development
Tiget. A
Definition
₦Free radicals are highly reactive substances produced continuously during metabolic
processes.

₦They participate mainly in physiological events such as the immune response, metabolism
of unsaturated fatty acids, and inflammatory reaction.

₦The balance between free radicals and antioxidants is disrupted in many diseases.
 Introduction
This disruption may be attributed to a number of factors, the inability of the cells to produce sufficient
amounts of antioxidants and excess production of reactive oxygen species

Excess free radical results in impairment of DNA, enzymes, Membranes. This induces changes in the
activity of the immune system and in the structure of basic biopolymers which is related to
mutagenesis and aging processes.
Cont…
The free radical can be defined as a chemical species, an atom or molecule that
has one or more unpaired electrons in valance shell. • As free radical contains
an odd number of electron, which make it unstable.
it can react quickly with other compound, trying to capture the needed electron
to gain stability.
HOW FREE RADICALS ARE FORMED ?
Generally, free radical attacks the nearest stable molecule" stealing" its
electron.
When the attacked molecule loses its electron, it becomes a free radical itself,
beginning a chain reaction cascade resulting in disruption of a living cell.
 Cont…
A) Covalent bond cleavage of normal molecule or atom: Atoms are blinded
together when they share or transfer electron to form molecule. A covalent
bond is formed when a pair of electron is shared.
B) Electron transfer: Electron transfer is a far more common an important
source of generation of free radicals in biological system. i) Oxidation
reaction: By loss of a single electron from a normal molecule. ii) Reduction
reaction: By addition of a single electron to a normal molecule H-H→ H¯ +
H+
The most important free radicals in biological system are radical derivatives
of oxygen. • (reactive oxygen species )ROS includes free radical as well as
other non-radical derivatives of oxygen e.g. H O & Singlet Oxygen. These
ROS can produce oxidative damage to the tissue and hence are known as
oxidants in biological system.
 SOURCES OF FREE RADICAL
There are two important sources of reactive oxygen species generation in
the biological system

Reactive oxygen species, in particular OH•, can react with all biological
macromolecules (lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates). The
initial reaction generates a second radical, which can react with a second
macromolecule to continue the chain reaction.
 Cont…
Proteins are modified in structure and function by radical reactions. Metal-
catalyzed protein oxidation results in addition of carbonyl groups or cross-
linking or fragmentation of proteins.

 Lipid (peroxidation) aldehydes can react with sulfhydryl (cysteine) or basic

amino acids (histidine, lysine).

Similarly, modification of individual nucleotide bases, single-strand breaks

and cross-linking are the typical effects of reactive oxygen species on nucleic
acids. Mechanism of action
Cont…
The immune system uses the lethal effects of oxidants by making
production of oxidizing species a central part of its mechanism of
killing pathogens; with activated phagocytes producing both ROS and
reactive nitrogen species.

These include superoxide (•O−2), nitric oxide (•NO) and their

particularly reactive product, peroxynitrite (ONOO-).
 Cont…
Although the use of these highly reactive compounds in the cytotoxic response of
phagocytes causes damage to host tissues, the non-specificity of these oxidants is an
advantage since they will damage almost every part of their target cell Immune
defense.

Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, such as super oxide anion, hydrogen peroxide,
hydroxyl radical, and nitric oxide and their biological metabolites also play an
important role in carcinogenesis.

ROS induce DNA damage, as the reaction of free radicals with DNA includes strand
break base modification and DNA protein cross-links.
 Cont…
Aging is also associated with an increase in the levels of oxidatively damaged
proteins, lipids and DNA .

Aging in mammals is universal, degenerative, and appears unavoidable even

in very sheltered environments.

Free radical theory of aging says; aging is caused by accumulation of damage

inflicted by reactive oxygen species (ROS).

It proposes that organisms age because they accumulate oxidative damage
 Antioxidant
Antioxidant is a molecule that inhibits the oxidation of other molecules.

 Oxidation reactions can produce free radicals. In turn, these radicals can start chain
reactions.

When the chain reaction occurs in a cell, it can cause damage or death to the cell.

 Antioxidants terminate these chain reactions by removing free radical intermediates,

and inhibit other oxidation reactions.

The lichens have played an important role as a source for new antioxidant agents.
 Cont…
∏ Antioxidants are classified into two broad divisions, depending on whether they
are soluble In water (hydrophilic) or in lipids (lipophilic). Or may be enzymatic
and non enzymatic

∏ These compounds may be synthesized in the body or obtained from the diet.

∏ antioxidants react with oxidants in the cell cytosol and the blood plasma
antioxidants protect cell membranes from lipid peroxidation. But in aging
antioxidant levels decline, resulting in a disruption in the balance between
antioxidants and prooxidant molecules, This results in the generation of oxidative
stress
Cont…
An imbalance between the production of reactive species and
antioxidant defense activity, and its enhanced state has been associated
with many of the chronic diseases such as: cancer, diabetes,
neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases ..

researches have led some to suggest that the long-term consumption

of food rich in antioxidants can retard or avoid the occurrence of such
diseases .
Role of free radical for chronic diseases
progression
Cont…
There are two techniques:

1. it maximizes antioxidant intake from foods and supplements.

 2. second, it minimizes factors that promote the formation of free

radicals, Like;
 Choose organic, additive-free foods.

 Drink only purified water.

 Avoid exposure to volatile chemicals.

 Limit exposure to air pollution Protect ourselves from free radical and long our life
Cont…

• Foods rich in antioxidants; 1. Berries: blueberries, cranberries and

blackberries. 2. Carrots: Fresh, crisp carrots beta carotene. 3. Green
Vegetables: Vegetables of all colors . 4. Grains: the immunity-boosting
compounds. 5. Legumes: vitamin E 6. Green Tea: neutralize harmful
free radicals.
Cont…