200 Level Computer Science

Course Code / Title: CSC 203-Discrete Structure (2R)

Lecturer: DR. AROWOLO, O.A

Introduction to Discrete Structures

Unit 1: Set Theory
Unit 2: Proofs and Induction
Unit 3: Logic

SET THEORY
Set Theory is a mathematical theory that underlies all of modern mathematics. The best way
to understand mathematics is to talk and write about mathematics. Mathematics is not all
about finding solutions to given tasks. Therefore, as we tackle a more advanced and abstract
mathematics in this unit, your basic understanding of it will be helped by how well you can
read, write and talk about mathematical statements.

Statement Definitions

A declarative sentence which is either true or false is called a statement. A statement is said
to be an Atomic Statement if it cannot be divided into smaller statements, otherwise it is
called a Molecular Statement.

These statements are examples of atomic statements:

• Mobile numbers in Nigeria have 11 digits.

• 5 is larger than 7.

• 12 is a perfect square.

• Every even number greater than 2 can be expressed as the sum of two primes.

However, these are not statements:

• Would you like some ice cream?

• The product of two numbers.

• 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + · · · + 2n + 1.
• Go to the lecture room!

• 4 + x = 12

The sentence “4 + x = 12” is not a statement because it contains an unknown variable, x.

Depending on the value of x, the sentence is either true or false, however, right now it is
neither true nor false. We can also build a complicated (molecular) sentence by combining
more than one or more simple atomic or molecular sentences by using Logical Connectives.

An example of a molecular statement is:

Mobile numbers in Nigeria have 11 digits and 5 is larger than 7.

This example of a molecular statement can also be broken down into smaller statements
which were only connected by an “and”. Obviously, molecular statements are still statements,
therefore, they must be either true or false.

The five connectives we can consider are “and”, “or”, “if… then”, “if and only if”, and “not.

“and” - I am a boy and my sister is a girl.

“or” - Delight is a boy or a girl.

“if… then” - If you register then you can write the exam.

“if and only if”- You can register if and only if you were admitted.

“not - You are not admitted.

The connectives, “and”, “or”, “if… then”, “if and only if”, connects two statements and are
called binary connectives while the connective “not” applies to only a single sentence and is
called a unary connective.

In order to determine the truth values of molecular statements, the key observation to make is
to completely determine the truth values of the parts and the type of connective(s). We do not
necessarily need to know what the individual parts actually say; we however, only need to
know whether those parts are true or false. Therefore, in order to analyse logical connectives,
we use propositional variables (also called sentential variables) which are the letters found in
the middle of the English alphabet represented in capital: P, Q, R, S, … to represent each
atomic statements in the molecular statement. These variables can only have two values, true
or false. The logical connectives: “and”, “or”, “if… then”, “if and only if”, and “not” can be
represented by these symbols ^, v, →, ↔, and ¬ respectively.

Logical Connectives

• P ∧ Q is read as “P and Q,” and it is called a conjunction.

• P ∨ Q is read as “P or Q,” and it is called a disjunction.

• P → Q is read as “if P then Q,” and it is called an implication or conditional.

• P ↔ Q is read as “P if and only if Q,” and it is called a bi-conditional.

• ¬P is read as “not P,” and it is called a negation.

The truth value of a statement is determined by the truth value(s) of its part(s), depending on
the connectives: Truth Conditions for Connectives.

• P ∧ Q is true when both P and Q are true

• P ∨ Q is true when P or Q or both are true.

• P → Q is true when P is false or Q is true or both.

• P ↔ Q is true when P and Q are both true, or both false.

• ¬P is true when P is false and vice versa.

Sets

Definition of Set: An informal definition of set is that a set is an unordered collection of

distinct objects. The objects in a set are called the elements, or members, of the set. A set is
said to contain its elements. The number of objects in a set can be finite or infinite.

Notations

A single set, A can be expressed with the following notations:

A = {1, 2}; A = {2, 1}; A = {1, 2, 1, 2}; A = {x | x is an integer, 1 ≤ x ≤ 2}

The notation, A = {1, 2} is read as, “A is the set containing the elements 1 and 2.”
The curly braces “{ }” is used to enclose the elements of a set and the comma “,” is used to
separate the elements inside the braces.

integer, 1 ≤ x ≤ 2} is read as “the set of all x such that x is an integer between 1 and 2 (1 and
2 inclusive)”.

Considering the notation: 5 ∈ {1, 2, 5}

The symbol “∈” implies “is in” or “is an element of.” Therefore, the notation is read as 5 is
an element of a set containing 1,2, and 5. This is a true statement. We can also write another
true statement if we say that 3 “is not” an element of the set containing 1, 2, and 5. This can
be written as:

3 ∉ {1, 2, 5}

Some other notations

⊆: A ⊆ B asserts that A is a subset of B | every element of A is also an element of B.

If A is {2, 3, 4}, B is {2, 3, 4, 5}. Then A ⊆ B.

If A is {2, 3, 4}, B is {2, 3, 4}. Then A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

If A is {2, 3, 4, 5}, B is {2, 3, 4, 6, 7}. Then B ⊈ A.

⊂: A ⊂ B asserts that A is a proper subset of B | every element of A is also an element of

B, but every element of B is not an element of A.

Let A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Then, A ⊂ B.

If A is {2, 3, 4}, B is {2, 3, 4}. Then A ⊄ B (read as A is a NOT a proper subset of B).

U: A fixed set which contains all other sets under investigation is called universal set.

In other words, all other sets under investigation are subsets of the universal set and it is
denoted by U.

Example: Considering human population, the universal set consist of all people in the world.
Operations on Sets
∪: A ∪ B is the union of A and B: is the set containing all elements which are elements
of A or B or both.

If A is {1, 2, 4, 5}, B is {2, 3, 4}. Then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

∩: A ∩ B is the intersection of A and B: the set containing all elements which are
elements of both A and B.

If A is {1, 2, 4, 5}, B is {2, 3, 4}. Then A ∩ B = {2, 4}

\: A \ B is A minus B: the set containing all elements of A which are not elements of B.

Let A = {1, 2, 4, 5, 6}, B = {2, 3, 4}. Then A \ B = {1, 5, 6}.

Ac : The complement of A is the set of everything which is not an element of A.

Let the universal set, U be {1, 2, . . . , 9, 10}, A = {2, 3, 4}. Then Ac = {1, 5, 6,..,9, 10}.

|A|: The cardinality (or size) of A is the number of elements in A.

|{1, 2, 3}| = |{a, b, c}| = |{1,{1, 2}, 5}| = |{1, 2, ∅}| = 3.

×: A × B is the Cartesian product of two non-empty sets A and B: the set

of all ordered pairs (a, b) with a ∈ A and b ∈ B.

Let A be a set. A × A is the set of ordered pairs (x, y) where x, y ∈ A.

The expression A × A × · · · × A (n times) can also be denoted as An which is the set of all
ordered subsets (with repetitions) of A of size n.

Examples

i. {0, 1}n the set of all “strings” of 0 and 1 of length n.

ii. Let A = {1, 2}, B = {3, 4, 5}. Then A × B = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5)}.
Example

Prove that A × B = B × A, only if A = B.

Solution
Proof: Let A × B = B × A. then, A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A. Therefore, A = B.

Rules of Set Theory

Let P, Q and R be sets.

i. Commutative Law: (P ∪ Q) = (Q ∪ P) and (P ∩ Q) = (Q ∩ P).

ii. Associative Law: (P ∪ (Q ∪ R)) = ((P ∪ Q) ∪ R) and (P ∩ (Q ∩ R)) = ((P ∩ Q) ∩ R).

iii. Distributive Law: (P ∪ (Q ∩ R)) = (P ∪ Q) ∩ (P ∪ R) and (P ∩ (Q ∪ R)) = (P ∩ Q) ∪ (P ∩ R).

iv. De M gan’s Law: (P ∪ Q)C = (Pc ∩ Qc) and (P ∩ Q)C = (Pc ∪ Qc)

Some special sets we will consider in this unit:

•∅ The empty set that contains no element (also denoted as { }).

•U The universe set is the set of all elements

•ℕ {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }, the non-negative integers

• ℕ+ {1, 2, 3, . . . }, the positive integers

•ℤ {. . . −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 . . . }, the integers

•ℚ {q | q = a/b, a, b ∈ ℤ, b 6= 0}, the rational numbers

• ℚ+ {q | q ∈ Q, q > 0}, the positive rational

•ℝ The real numbers

• ℝ+ The positive reals

• P(A) The power set of any set A is the set of all subsets of A.

Disjoint Set

Sets X and Y are said to be disjoint sets, if they have no element in common, that is, no
element of X is in Y and no element of Y is in X.

Example:

i. Given 𝑋 = {1,2,3} and 𝑌 = {4,5,6}, then 𝑋 and 𝑌 are disjoint sets.

ii. If 𝑃 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} and 𝑄 = {𝑑,, 𝑓, 𝑔}, then 𝑃 and 𝑄 are not disjoint sets, since 𝑑 is in
both sets.

Power Set

We call the set of all subsets of A, the power set of A, and write it as P(A)

Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Find P(A).

Solution: P(A) is a set of sets, all of which are subsets of A.

So, P(A) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}.

Note: The power set of a set A is normally, 2n, where n is the cardinality of the set A.

Therefore, since |A| = 3, the cardinality of the power set of A, |P(A)| = 23 = 8.

Note: Although 2 ∈ A, it will be wrong to say that 2 ∈ P(A) because none of the elements in
P(A) are numbers. However, we can say that {2} ∈ P(A) because {2} ⊆ A.

We can relate the symbols of union and intersect to resemble the logic symbols of “or” and
“and”. Remember that the statement x ∈ A ∪ B is read as x is an element of A or x is an
element of B. Therefore,

x ∈ A ∪ B ↔ x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B.

Similarly,

x ∈ A ∩ B ↔ x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B.

Also,

x ∉ A ↔ ¬ (x ∈ A)

Example

Let A = {2, 4, 6}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, C = {1, 2, 3}, D = {1, 3, {4, 5}, x}, and

E = {7, 8, 9}.

Determine each statement to be true, false, or meaningless.

1. A ⊂ B. 2. B ⊂ A. 3. A ∈ C. 4. ∅ ∈ B. 5. ∅ ⊂ A.
6. A < E. 7. 3 ∈ C. 8. x ⊂ D. 9. {9} ⊂ E.
Solution

1. True. Every element in A is an element in B.

2. False. For example, 1 ∈ B but 1 ∉ A.

3. False. The elements in C are 1, 2, and 3. The set A is not equal to 1, 2, or 3.

4. False. The set B has exactly 6 elements, and none of them is an empty set.

5. True. Everything in the empty set (nothing) is also an element of A. Notice that the empty
set is a subset of every set.

6. Meaningless. A set cannot be less than another set.

7. True. 3 is one of the elements of the set C.

8. Meaningless. x is not a set, so it cannot be a subset of another set.

9. True. 9 is the only element of the set {9}, and is an element of E, so every element in

{9} is an element of E.

Venn Diagrams

A Venn Diagram is a great tool used to visualize and represent operations on sets. It is used
to display sets as intersecting circles. We can highlight a region under consideration when we
carry out an operation. The cardinality of a set can be represented by putting numbers in the
corresponding area.

Relations
Definition: A relation on a single set S is a subset of S × S. A relation on sets S and T is a
subset of S × T. Now, let’s consider relationships among sets. For example, we can say that X
is married to Y and they both have a child, Z. In our daily lives, we deal a lot with talks about
relationships. For example, if we consider two human beings (A, B), “taller-than”, “smarter-
than” are relations between them. That is (A, B) ∈ “taller-than” if person A is taller than
person B. “≥” is a relation on R; “≥” = {(x, y) | x, y ∈ R, x ≥ y}.

Definition: A relation R on a set S is:

i. Reflexive if for all x ∈ S, (x, x) ∈ R.

ii. Symmetric if for all x, y ∈ S, whenever (x, y) ∈ R, (y, x) ∈ R.

iii. Transitive if for all x, y, z ∈ S, whenever (x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ R, then (x, z) ∈ R.

Example

i. “≤” is reflexive, but “<” is not.

ii. “sibling-of” is symmetric, but “≤” and “sister-of” is not.

iii. “sibling-of”, “≤”, and “<” are all transitive, but “parent-of” is not (however, “ancestor of”
is transitive).

A relation that is reflexive, symmetric and transitive is called an Equivalence relation and is
denoted by the symbol “≡”.

Let “≡” be an equivalence relation on the set S. An equivalence class is a maximal subset E
of the set S such that any two elements in the set E is related. There can be multiple
equivalence class corresponding to the relation ≡.

Assignments

1. Describe each of the following sets both in words and by listing out enough elements to see
the pattern.

a. {x : x + 2 ∈ ℕ}.

b. {x : x + 2 ∈ ℕ+}.

c. {x ∈ ℕ : x + 2 ∈ ℕ}.

d. {x : x ∈ ℕ ∨ −x ∈ ℕ}.

e. {x : x ∈ ℕ ∧ −x ∈ ℕ}.

2. Let A = {7, 1, 2, 3, 6}, B = {2, 3, 4}, C = {1, 6, 7} and D = {5, 8, 4, 9} be subsets of U =

{n € ℕ : 1 ≤ n ≤10}.

a. Find the following;

i. A ⋃ C ii. (A ⋂ Dc) ⋃ (A ⋂ B)c

iii. ∅ ⋃ B iv. (A ⋃ B)c

b. Represent the sets in 2a above by the use of a Venn Diagram.

3. Using a Venn Diagram, determine if the representation A ∩ B¯ is equivalent to A \ B.

4. Using the sets W = {2, a, {u, v, w}, ∅}, X = {∅, a}, Y = {1, 2, 4} and Z = {2, 4, 8}.

Determine if the following statements are true, false or meaningless. State your reasons for
each.

i. w € A ii. B € A iii. D > C iv. {2, a}€ A

5. Find the cardinality of each set below (show cardinality check):

i. A = {23, 24, . . . , 37, 38}

ii. B = {1, {2, 3, 4}, 5, ∅}

iii. P(K € L) € K = {n € ℕ : n ≤ 19} and L = { n € ℕ : n is prime}

iv. P(C) € C = {a, b, c, d}

6. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7}. Find B × A.

7. If |A| = 5 and |B| = 8 and |A ∪ B| = 11 what is the size of A ∩ B?

8. If |Ac ∩ B| = 10 and |A ∩ Bc | = 8 and |A ∩ B| = 5 then how many elements are there is A

∪ B?

PROOFS AND INDUCTION

Basic Proof Techniques

Proof techniques can either be direct, indirect or by induction. The choice of a proof
technique depends on the problem or task at hand. Therefore, it is important to realize that
there is no single method applicable to solving all tasks. This implies that your level of
ingenuity, skills and implementation of common sense must be applied to every task. In this
Unit, we will discuss the direct, proof by induction and indirect proofs (proof by
contrapositive and proof by contradiction).

1. Direct Proof (Proof by Construction)

In order to prove a mathematical statement, we have to show that for a given premise, the
conclusion given can be derived. Considering any given task: such that we are given a
premise X, how do we show that a conclusion Y holds? One way to achieve this is by giving
a Direct Proof. In this form of proof, we start with a premise X, and directly deduce the
conclusion Y through a series of logical steps.
The two steps to directly prove that X → Y is true.

a. Demonstrate that Y must follow from X.

Example 1. Let n be an integer. If n is even, then n2 is even. If n is odd, then n2 is odd.

Solution 1

Using direct proof: For an integer k;

If n is even, then n = 2k, and

n2 = (2k)2 = 4k2 = 2 (2k2), which is even.

If n is odd, then n = 2k + 1, and

n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k2 + 4k + 1 = 2 (2k2+ 2k) + 1, which is odd.

2. Proof by Induction

The initial step

Firstly, prove that the proposition is true for n = 1. If the claim is that the proposition is true
for n ≥ a, first prove it for n = a.

Inductive step

Prove that if the proposition is true for n = k, then it must also be true for n = k + 1. This is
the difficult step and we will break it down into steps.

Step 1: Here we perform Inductive Hypothesis by writing down what the proposition asserts
for the case n = k.

Step 2: Now, write down what the proposition asserts for the case n = k + 1. Clearly
remember that this is what you have to prove.

Step 3: By using the assumption made in Step 1, try and prove the statement in Step 2.

Have in mind that this stage varies from problem to problem depending on the mathematical
contents, therefore, there is no single way to solve all problems. The main aim here is to
apply your skills and determine how you get from Step1 to Step2.

After the initial and inductive steps have been successfully performed, we then conclude
immediately that the proposition is true for all n ≥ 1.

Example 2: The sum of the first n positive integers is 1

2n(n + 1).

Initial step: If n = 1, the sum is simply 1.

Now, for n = 1, 1/2n (n + 1) = 1/2× 1 × 2=1. So, the result is true for n = 1.
Inductive step:

Stage 1: Our assumption (the inductive hypothesis) asserts that

1+2+3+ ··· + k = 1/2k(k + 1).

Stage 2: We want to prove that

1+2+3+ ··· + (k + 1) = 1/2(k + 1)[(k + 1) + 1] = 1/2(k + 1)(k + 2).

Stage 3: How can we get to stage 2 from stage 1?

The answer here is that we get the left-hand side of stage 2 from the left-hand side of stage

1 by adding (k + 1). So, 1+2+3 + ··· + (k + 1) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + k + (k + 1)

=1/2k(k + 1) + (k + 1) using the inductive hypothesis

= (k + 1)( 1/2k + 1) factorising

=1/2(k + 1)(k + 2) which is what we wanted to prove.

This completes the inductive step. Hence, the result is true for all n ≥ 1.

Example.3. If a and b are consecutive integers, then the sum a + b is odd.

Solution.3

Proof. We have to define the propositional form F(x) to be true when the sum of x and its
successor is odd.

Step 1: Let’s consider the proposition F(1). The sum 1 + 2 = 3 is odd because we can
demonstrate there exists an integer k such that 2k + 1 = 3. That is, 2(1) + 1 = 3. Thus, F(x) is
true when x = 1.

Step 2: Assume that F(x) is true for some x. Thus, for some x we have that x + (x + 1) is odd.
We add one to both x and x + 1 which gives the sum (x+1) + (x+2). We can make claim to
two things: firstly, the sum (x+1) + (x+2) = F(x+1). Secondly, we claim that the addition of
two (2) to any integer does not change the evenness or oddness of that integer (e.g., 1 + 2 = 3,
2 + 2 = 4). With these two observations we claim that F(x) is odd implies F(x + 1) is odd.

Step 3: By the principle of mathematical induction, we thus claim that F(x) is odd for all
integers x. Thus, the sum of any two consecutive numbers is odd.

3. Indirect Proofs
 Proof by Contrapositive

This proof starts by assuming that the conclusion Y is false, and through a series of logical
steps deduce that the premise X must also be false.
Based on first-order logic we can make a statement such as P → Q is equivalent to ¬Q →¬P.
Steps to proving a theorem by contrapositive:

a. Assume ¬Q is true.

b. Show that ¬P must be true.

c. Observe that P → Q by contraposition

Example 4: Let n be an integer. If n is even, then n2 is even.

Solution 4

Proof by contrapositive: Suppose that n is not even. Then by solution 1 above, n2 is not even
as well. Yes, that all!

 Proof by Contradiction.

This form of proof assumes both that the premise X is true and the conclusion Y is false, and
reach a logical fallacy.

Steps to proving a theorem by contradiction:

a. Assume P is true.

b. Assume ¬Q is true.

c. Demonstrate a contradiction.

Example 5 Let’s apply this form of proof to example.4

Solution 5

Proof by contradiction: Suppose that n2 is even, but n is odd. Applying solution 1, we see that
n2 must be odd. But n2 cannot be both odd and even at the same time.

Conclusion

You have learnt from this unit that proof techniques can either be direct, indirect or by
induction. That the choice of a proof technique depends on the problem or task at hand. You
should note that there is no single method applicable to solving all tasks. This means that
your level of ingenuity, skills and implementation of common sense must be applied to every
task.

LOGIC
Propositional Logic
Logic is the study of consequences. Given a few mathematical statements or facts, we would
like to be able to draw some conclusions. For example, we can say the statement: “Abuja is
the capital of Nigeria” is True and that the statement: “The month of December is fall in the
summer” is False. This kind of statements are called propositions because they are either true
or false. The truth or falsehood of a proposition is called its truth value. As stated earlier,
propositional variables (also called sentential variables) which are the letters found in the
middle of the English alphabet represented in capital: P, Q, R, S, … to represent each atomic
statements in the molecular statement. These variables can only have two values, true or
false. The logical connectives: “and”, “or”, “if… then”, “if and only if ( or if)”, and “not”
represented by these symbols ˄, v, →, ↔, and ¬ respectively. The atomic statements: “It is
raining” and “I need an umbrella” can be represented by the letters P and Q respectively.

Example1. Make a truth table for the statement ¬P ∨ Q.

Solution 1: In solving such exercises, you will have to be careful as to knowing the exact
position of the ¬. Note that this statement is not ¬ (P ∨ Q), the negation belongs only to P (i.e.
¬P). Here is the truth table:

Example 2: Analyze the statement, “if you get more doubles than any other player you will
lose, or that if you lose you must have bought the most properties,” using truth tables.

Solution 2: Let’s start by breaking down the molecular statement into atomic statements. Let
P be the statement “you get more doubles than any other player,”; Q be the statement “you
will lose,” and R be the statement “you must have bought the most properties.” Now let’s
construct a truth table to represent the statement as this symbol (P → Q) ∨ (Q → R).

The truth table needs to contain 8 rows in order to account for every possible combination of
truth and falsity among the three statements. Here is the full truth table:
This is a true statement about monopoly, such that it is regardless of how many properties
you own, how many doubles you roll, or whether you win or lose, the outcome is true for all
8 possible combinations.

The statement about monopoly in example 2 is an example of a tautology. Tautology is a

statement which is true on the basis of its logical form alone. Tautologies are always true but
they don’t tell us much about the world. No knowledge about monopoly was required to
determine that the statement was true.

Logical Equivalence

Two molecular statements P and Q are logically equivalent provided P is true precisely when
Q is true. That is, P and Q have the same truth value under any assignment of truth values to
their individual atomic parts. Then we symbolize it as P ≡ Q. In order to verify that two or
more statements are logically equivalent, you may have to make a truth table for each and
check whether the columns for the statements are identical.

Example 3: Check if the statement ¬P ∨ Q is logically equivalent to P → Q.

Solution 3: let us start by making the truth table for these statements. Check example 1 and
our first truth table.

Since the statements ¬P ∨ Q and P → Q either both true or both false for whatever values of
P and Q. We therefore say these statements ¬P ∨ Q and P → Q are logically equivalent.

Exercise 4: Make a truth table to determine whether the statement ¬ (P∨Q) is logically
equivalent to ¬P ∧ ¬Q.
Solution 4

Try it yourself.

The solution to exercise 4 will show that both statements are logically equivalent. It also
shows that we can distribute a negation over a disjunction (“or”). Likewise, the distribution of
negation over a conjunction (“and”) is also possible.

De Morgan’s Laws

1. ¬ (P ∧ Q) is logically equivalent to ¬P ∨ ¬Q

2. ¬ (P ∨ Q) is logically equivalent to ¬P ∧ ¬Q

Example 5: Without using truth tables prove that the statements ¬ (P → Q) and P ∧ ¬Q are
logically equivalent.

Solution 5: Let’s start with one of the statements, and transform it into the other through a
sequence of logically equivalent statements.

Start with ¬ (P → Q).

We can rewrite the implication as a disjunction this is logically equivalent to ¬ (¬P ∨ Q).
(Solution 3 shows that P → Q is logically equivalent to ¬P ∨ Q)

By applying DE Morgan’s law we get

¬¬P ∧ ¬Q. (the double negation ¬ ¬P is logically equivalent to P)

Finally, use double negation to arrive at:

P ∧ ¬Q

Deduction Rule

An argument is valid provided the conclusion must be true given that the premises are true.

This means that for all times the premises are found to be true, the conclusion must be true
for the argument to be a valid deduction rule, else it is invalid.

Example 6:

Solution 6. Considering solution 2, we can see that:

Our premises are P → Q and P. From the truth table we can see that row 1 where both of the
premises are true, our condition Q is also true. Therefore, if P → Q and P are both true, we
see that Q must be true as well. This implies that the argument is a valid deduction rule.

Example 7

Solution 7:

The premises P → Q, Q → R and R are all true in rows 1, 5, and 7. However, the conclusion
P ∨ Q is not always true when the premises are all true as seen in row 7. Hence this is not a
valid deduction rule.
Tutor-Marked Assignment

1. Consider the statement about a party, “If it’s your birthday or there will be cake, then there
will be cake.”

a. Translate the above statement into symbols. Clearly state which statement is P and which is
Q.

b. Make a truth table for the statement.

c. Assuming the statement is true, what (if anything) can you conclude if there will be cake?

d. Assuming the statement is true, what (if anything) can you conclude if there will not be
cake?

e. Suppose you found out that the statement was a lie. What can you conclude?

2. Make a truth table for the statement (P ∨ Q) → (P ∧ Q).

3. Using a truth table, determine if the following statements are logically equivalent.

i. (P ∨ Q) → R and (P → R) ∨ (Q → R)

iii. “I will not eat or drink” and “I will not eat and I will not drink”. Hint: First translate to
statement into a logical expression.

4. Simplify the following statements (so that negation only appears right before variables).

a. ¬(P → ¬Q).

b. (¬P ∨ ¬Q) → ¬(¬Q ∧ R).

c. ¬((P → ¬Q) ∨ ¬(R ∧ ¬R)).

d. It is false that if Sam is not a man then Chris is a woman, and that Chris is not a woman.

5. Show that

is a valid deduction rule.