DCA6104 – ADVANCED DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

SET-I
1. What do you mean by Normalization? How BCNF is different from 3NF?
Solution: There are several normal forms (e.g., 1NF, 2NF, 3NF, BCNF) that define progressively stricter rules
for organizing data in a relational database. Each normal form addresses specific types of data redundancy and
dependency.
 1NF (First Normal Form): Requires that the values in each column of a table are atomic, meaning they
cannot be further divided. It ensures that each cell contains a single, indivisible value.
 2NF (Second Normal Form): In addition to 1NF, it requires that all non-key attributes are fully
functionally dependent on the primary key. This means that if a table has a composite primary key, each
non-key attribute must depend on the entire key, not just part of it.
 3NF (Third Normal Form): In addition to 2NF, it eliminates transitive dependencies. Transitive
dependency occurs when a non-key attribute depends on another non-key attribute, which is itself
dependent on the primary key. 3NF ensures that all non-key attributes are only dependent on the
primary key.
 BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form): BCNF is a higher normal form that deals with certain types of
anomalies that 3NF does not address. Specifically, it focuses on situations where there are non-trivial
dependencies between candidate keys. A table is in BCNF if, for every non-trivial functional
dependency, the determinant is a superkey. In other words, every determinant should be a candidate
key.
In summary, BCNF is more stringent than 3NF. While both 3NF and BCNF aim to eliminate certain types of
data redundancy and dependency, BCNF goes further by addressing specific scenarios involving candidate keys
and their dependencies. Achieving BCNF typically results in a more refined and normalized database schema.
2. Explain the concept of serializability and Recoverability. Illustrate how to manage rollbacks by
locking.
Solution: Serializability: Serializability is a concept in database management systems that ensures the isolation
of transactions from each other, providing a consistent view of the database to concurrent transactions. It
guarantees that the execution of a set of transactions produces the same result as if they were executed serially,
one after the other, even though they may be running concurrently.
There are two common approaches to achieve serializability
 Locking: Transactions request and release locks on data items to control access and prevent conflicts.
Locks can be either shared or exclusive. Shared locks allow multiple transactions to read a data item
simultaneously, while exclusive locks prevent other transactions from accessing the item.
 Timestamping: Transactions are assigned unique timestamps, and the system uses these timestamps to
order the transactions. The order is then used to ensure that transactions do not interfere with each other
in a way that violates serializability.
Recoverability:Recoverability is a property of a database system that ensures that transactions are committed in
a way that allows the system to recover to a consistent state in the event of a failure. It involves managing the
transaction log, which records the changes made by transactions to the database.
Two key concepts related to recoverability are:
 Durability: Once a transaction is committed, its changes should be permanent and survive any
subsequent failures. This is often achieved by writing the changes to non-volatile storage (e.g., disk).

 Recovery: - Rollback: If a transaction encounters an error or needs to be aborted, its effects must be
undone to maintain the consistency of the database.
 - Commit: Once a transaction is successfully completed, its effects become permanent, and the changes are
applied to the database.
Managing Rollbacks by Locking:
When a transaction needs to be rolled back, the system must ensure that any changes made by the transaction
are undone to maintain the consistency of the database. Locks play a crucial role in managing rollbacks:
 Abort and Release Locks: If a transaction needs to be rolled back, all the locks acquired by that
transaction should be released to allow other transactions to proceed. This ensures that no transaction is
left waiting indefinitely for a lock held by a transaction that has been rolled back.
 Undo Operations: The system needs to perform undo operations to revert the changes made by the
aborted transaction. This involves using the information in the transaction log to reverse the effects of
the transaction on the database.
 Isolation: While a transaction is being rolled back, it's essential to isolate it from other transactions. This
might involve temporarily acquiring exclusive locks to prevent other transactions from accessing the
data being rolled back.
In summary, managing rollbacks by locking involves releasing locks held by aborted transactions, performing
undo operations to revert changes, and ensuring isolation during the rollback process. This ensures that the
database remains in a consistent state, even in the face of transaction failures.
3. What do you mean by data Model? Explain different types of data models by giving suitable
examples.
Solution:A data model is a conceptual representation of the data structures that are used to organize and store
data in a database system. It defines the way data is stored, accessed, and managed in a database and serves as a
blueprint for designing databases. Data models provide a high-level abstraction that helps in understanding and
visualizing the relationships between different elements in a database.
There are several types of data models, and they can be broadly categorized into three main classes:
 Hierarchical Data Model: - Description: In a hierarchical data model, data is organized in a tree-like
structure with a top-down hierarchy. Each parent node can have multiple child nodes, but each child
node has only one parent.
- Example: The Information Management System (IMS) is an example of a database system that uses a
hierarchical data model. In this model, data is represented in a tree structure where each node has a parent-child
relationship.
 Network Data Model: - Description: The network data model is an extension of the hierarchical model
but allows more complex relationships between nodes. In this model, a record can have multiple parent
and child records, forming a network-like structure.
- Example: Integrated Data Store (IDS) is an example of a database system that uses a network data model. In
this model, records are connected in a network, and relationships can be established between multiple records.
 Relational Data Model:- Description: The relational data model organizes data into tables, where each
table consists of rows and columns. Relationships between tables are established through keys, and it
follows the principles of set theory.
- Example: Consider a simple database for a library. You might have a "Books" table with columns such as
book_id, title, author_id, and a separate "Authors" table with columns like author_id and author_name. The
relationship between these tables is established through the author_id.
 Entity-Relationship (ER) Model: - Description: The ER model is a conceptual model that represents
entities and the relationships between them. It is often used during the initial phases of database design
to capture the essential elements and their relationships.
 - Example: In an ER diagram for a university database, you might have entities like "Student," "Course," and
"Instructor," with relationships such as "Enrolls In" between Student and Course, and "Teaches" between
Instructor and Course.
 Object-Oriented Data Model: - Description: The object-oriented data model represents data as objects,
similar to those in object-oriented programming. It includes concepts like encapsulation, inheritance,
and polymorphism.
- Example: In an object-oriented database, you might have classes such as "Customer" and "Order," where each
instance of a class represents an object. Relationships between objects can be modeled using attributes and
methods.
 Document Data Model:- Description: In the document data model, data is represented as documents,
typically in JSON or BSON format. Each document contains key-value pairs, and collections of
documents can be organized.
- Example: MongoDB is a NoSQL database that uses a document data model. In MongoDB, data is stored as
JSON-like documents, and collections of documents are used to organize related data.
These data models provide different ways of organizing and structuring data in a database, and the choice of a
particular model depends on the requirements of the application and the nature of the data being stored. Each
model has its strengths and weaknesses, and the selection of a model is a critical decision in the database design
process.
SET-II
4. Explain the concept of database recovery management. Discuss the different levels of backup used
for recovering data.
Solution: Database recovery management is a crucial aspect of database management systems (DBMS) that
involves ensuring the integrity and consistency of data in the face of various failures, such as hardware failures,
software crashes, or human errors. The goal of recovery management is to restore the database to a consistent
state after a failure has occurred. This process typically involves techniques such as backups, logging, and
check pointing.
Key components of database recovery management include:
 Transaction Logging: A transaction log is a record of all the modifications made to the database during
the execution of transactions. In the event of a failure, the transaction log is used to undo or redo
transactions to bring the database back to a consistent state.
 Checkpoints: Periodic checkpoints are established to save a consistent state of the database to stable
storage. This process involves writing the modified data and log information to disk, allowing the
system to restart from a known, consistent point after a failure.
 Rollback and Roll forward Operations: If a transaction is not committed at the time of failure, it needs to
be rolled back to maintain consistency. For committed transactions, the system may need to roll
forward, applying changes from the transaction log to restore the database to a consistent state.
 Recovery Algorithms: DBMS employs recovery algorithms that determine how to use the transaction
log to recover the database after a failure. Algorithms include redoing committed transactions to apply
changes and undoing uncommitted or inconsistent transactions.
Levels of Backup:Database backups are essential for recovery management. Backups create a copy of the
database at a specific point in time, allowing for restoration in case of data loss or corruption. Different levels
of backups provide varying levels of granularity and flexibility in the recovery process:
 Full Backup:
- Description: A full backup involves copying the entire database at a specific point in time.
- Advantages: Simple and straightforward. Allows for a complete restoration of the database.
 - Disadvantages: Consumes more storage space and may be time-consuming for large databases.
- Use Case: Periodic full backups, such as weekly or monthly, for comprehensive recovery.
 Incremental Backup:
- Description: Incremental backups capture changes made since the last backup, whether it's a full or
incremental backup.
- Advantages: Requires less storage space compared to full backups. Faster than full backups.
- Disadvantages: Multiple incremental backups may be needed for a complete restoration.
- Use Case: Daily or more frequent backups to capture changes since the last backup.
 Differential Backup:
- Description: Differential backups capture changes made since the last full backup.
- Advantages: Faster than full backups and requires less storage than incremental backups.
- Disadvantages: May take more space than incremental backups over time.
- Use Case: Daily backups to capture changes since the last full backup.
 Transaction Log Backup:
- Description: Transaction log backups capture changes recorded in the transaction log since the last backup.
- Advantages: Provides point-in-time recovery. Requires less storage than full or incremental backups.
- Disadvantages: Cannot be used as a standalone backup; requires a previous full or incremental backup.
- Use Case: Frequent backups for minimizing data loss in case of a failure.
The choice of backup strategy depends on factors such as the size of the database, the acceptable downtime for
recovery, and the storage constraints. Often, a combination of these backup types is used to balance the trade-
offs between storage space, recovery time, and granularity of restoration. Regular testing of the backup and
recovery procedures is also crucial to ensure their effectiveness in real-world scenarios.
5. A)What is a persistent programming language? How can it be differentiated with embedded
SQL? Illustrate
Solution:A persistent programming language is a language that has built-in support for managing persistent
data, often by integrating with databases. In a persistent programming language, developers can work with data
in a way that transcends the typical transient nature of program execution. Persistent programming languages
streamline the interaction with databases by providing language constructs or libraries that allow for seamless
storage and retrieval of data.
These languages often incorporate features such as Object-Relational Mapping (ORM) frameworks, allowing
developers to interact with databases using the programming language's syntax and constructs. Examples of
persistent programming languages include Java (with frameworks like Hibernate), Python (with libraries like
SQLAlchemy), and C# (with Entity Framework).
Differentiation from Embedded SQL:
 Integration with the Programming Language:
- Persistent Programming Languages: Integration with the programming language is seamless. Developers
can work with persistent data using native language constructs, and the interaction with the database is often
abstracted through ORM frameworks.
 - Embedded SQL: In embedded SQL, SQL statements are inserted directly into the source code of a host
programming language. This integration is less seamless, as developers need to switch between the host
language and SQL, and the SQL statements may appear as strings within the code.
 Abstraction Level:
- Persistent Programming Languages: These languages often provide higher-level abstractions for working
with databases, such as ORM. Developers can work with objects and classes in the programming language that
map to database entities, making the code more intuitive and less reliant on explicit SQL.
- Embedded SQL: Developers need to write SQL statements explicitly, which may involve handling the
mapping between the database and programmatic structures more manually. This can lead to lower-level
interactions with the database.
 Syntax:
- Persistent Programming Languages: The syntax for working with databases is often more closely aligned
with the syntax of the host language. This makes the code more readable and maintains consistency with the
overall coding style.
- Embedded SQL: SQL statements have their syntax, which might differ significantly from the host
programming language. This can result in a mix of two different syntax styles within the same code.
 Object-Relational Mapping (ORM):
- Persistent Programming Languages: Many persistent programming languages incorporate ORM frameworks
that automate the mapping between database structures and programmatic objects. This abstraction simplifies
database interactions and allows developers to work with entities as objects.
- Embedded SQL: While developers can manually perform object-relational mapping, it is not as automatic or
seamless. The mapping between database entities and programmatic objects may require explicit code for
translation.
Illustrative Example: Let's consider a simple example in Python to illustrate the difference:
# Persistent Programming Language (using SQLAlchemy ORM)
from sqlalchemy import create_engine, Column, Integer, String, Sequence
from sqlalchemy.ext.declarative import declarative_base
from sqlalchemy.orm import sessionmaker
Base = declarative_base()
class Person(Base):
__tablename__ = 'people'
id = Column(Integer, Sequence('user_id_seq'), primary_key=True)
name = Column(String(50))
# Connect to an in-memory SQLite database
engine = create_engine('sqlite:///:memory:')
Base.metadata.create_all(engine)
# Create a new person
new_person = Person(name='John Doe')
# Add the person to the database
Session = sessionmaker(bind=engine)
session = Session()
session.add(new_person)
session.commit()
In this example, SQLAlchemy is a persistent programming tool that allows you to interact with a database using
Python code. The code defines a `Person` class representing a database entity, and the interaction with the
database is seamlessly integrated into the Python code.
Contrast this with embedded SQL, where you might have SQL statements directly in the code:
# Embedded SQL
import sqlite3
# Connect to an in-memory SQLite database
conn = sqlite3.connect(':memory:')
cursor = conn.cursor()
# Execute SQL statements
cursor.execute('CREATE TABLE people (id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, name TEXT)')
cursor.execute('INSERT INTO people (name) VALUES (?)', ('John Doe',))
# Commit changes
conn.commit()
In this embedded SQL example, SQL statements are explicitly written within the Python code, and there's a
clear separation between the SQL syntax and Python syntax. The interaction with the database is less abstracted
compared to the SQLAlchemy example.
5. B)Explain the functions and components of DDBMS.
Solution: A Distributed Database Management System (DDBMS) is a database management system that
manages a distributed database, which is a database that is spread across multiple locations or sites. DDBMS is
designed to provide efficient and transparent access to distributed data while ensuring data consistency,
reliability, and security. Here are the key functions and components of a Distributed Database Management
System:
Functions of DDBMS:
 Data Distribution and Transparency:
- Function: DDBMS handles the distribution of data across multiple sites transparently to users and
applications.
- Objective: Provide a unified view of the distributed database to users, hiding the details of where the data is
stored or how it is distributed.
 Transaction Management:
- Function: Ensures that distributed transactions, which involve multiple operations on different sites, are
executed atomically, consistently, and reliably.
- Objective: Maintain the integrity of the database despite failures and ensure that transactions are either fully
completed or fully rolled back.
  Concurrency Control:
- Function: Manages concurrent access to distributed data by multiple transactions to prevent conflicts and
ensure consistency.
- Objective: Ensure that transactions do not interfere with each other and that the database remains in a
consistent state.
 Distributed Query Processing and Optimization:
- Function: Processes queries that involve data from multiple sites efficiently and optimizes query execution
plans.
- Objective: Minimize data transfer between sites and improve query performance by selecting optimal
execution plans.
 Replication Management:
- Function: Handles the replication of data across multiple sites for improved availability, fault tolerance, and
load balancing.
- Objective: Ensure that replicated copies of data are consistent and up-to-date, and manage the distribution of
read and write operations.
 Distributed Catalog Management:
- Function: Manages metadata and data dictionaries across distributed locations.
- Objective: Provides a centralized repository for storing information about the distributed database's schema,
data locations, and access permissions.
 Deadlock Detection and Resolution:
- Function: Identifies and resolves deadlocks that may occur in distributed transactions.
- Objective: Prevents transactions from being blocked indefinitely and ensures the system can recover from
deadlock situations.
 . Security and Authorization:
- Function: Manages access control and authentication to ensure that only authorized users can access specific
data.
- Objective: Enforce security policies and protect sensitive information in the distributed environment.
Components of DDBMS:
 Distributed Database:- Component: The collection of interconnected databases located at different sites,
forming a distributed data repository.
 Site:- Component: A physical or logical location where a portion of the distributed database is stored.
 Transaction Manager:- Component: Manages the execution of distributed transactions, ensuring
atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability (ACID properties).
 Concurrency Control Manager:- Component: Manages concurrent access to data to prevent conflicts and
ensure consistency.
 Query Processor and Optimizer:- Component: Processes and optimizes distributed queries to minimize
data transfer and improve performance.
 Distributed Catalog:- Component: Stores metadata about the distributed database, including schema
information, data locations, and access permissions.
 Replication Manager:- Component: Manages the replication of data across multiple sites, ensuring
consistency and coordinating read and write operations.
  Communication Manager:- Component: Handles communication between different components and
sites, facilitating the exchange of messages and data.
 Deadlock Detector and Resolver:- Component: Identifies and resolves deadlocks in distributed
transactions to maintain system availability.
 Security and Authorization Manager:- Component: Enforces access control policies, authenticates users,
and ensures the security of the distributed database.
 Recovery Manager:- Component: Manages the recovery process in case of failures, ensuring that the
database can be restored to a consistent state.
In summary, a Distributed Database Management System (DDBMS) performs various functions to ensure
efficient and transparent access to distributed data while maintaining data integrity, consistency, and security.
Its components work together to manage transactions, handle concurrency, optimize queries, and coordinate the
distributed nature of the database.
6. A)What are the different types of partitioning techniques? Describe in detail.
Solution: Partitioning is a database design technique that divides a large table into smaller, more manageable
pieces called partitions. Each partition is a subset of the table's data and can be managed and accessed
independently. Partitioning can improve query performance, simplify data management, and provide other
benefits. There are several types of partitioning techniques, each with its own characteristics. Here are some
common types:
 Range Partitioning:- Description: In range partitioning, data is partitioned based on a specified range of
values. For example, you might partition a sales table by date ranges, such as one partition for each
month or year.
- Benefits: Effective for time-series data, allows for efficient data archival and purging, and can optimize
range-based queries.
 List Partitioning:- Description: List partitioning involves dividing the data based on discrete values
specified for each partition. For example, you might partition a customer table based on the region, with
different partitions for customers in North, South, East, and West regions.
- Benefits: Suitable for scenarios where data naturally falls into predefined categories, making it easy to
manage and query specific subsets.
 Hash Partitioning:- Description: Hash partitioning uses a hash function to distribute rows across
partitions based on the values in one or more columns. The goal is to evenly distribute data to achieve a
balanced workload across partitions.
- Benefits: Ensures uniform distribution of data, helpful for scenarios where there isn't a natural range or list
for partitioning.
 Composite Partitioning:- Description: Composite partitioning involves using a combination of two or
more partitioning methods. For example, you might use range partitioning first and then further divide
each range using hash partitioning.
- Benefits: Offers flexibility and can be tailored to specific data distribution patterns, providing a more
customized approach.
 Subpartitioning:- Description: Subpartitioning is the process of dividing each partition into
subpartitions. This is often used in combination with range or list partitioning. For instance, a range-
partitioned table might have subpartitions for each range based on a secondary criterion.
- Benefits: Allows for even finer control over data organization, useful when more granular partitioning is
needed within each primary partition.
  Interval Partitioning:- Description: Interval partitioning is a feature where the database automatically
creates new partitions based on a specified interval, such as by date or range. This is useful for
managing time-series data without needing manual intervention.
- Benefits: Simplifies the management of time-based data by automatically creating new partitions as time
progresses.
 Reference Partitioning:- Description: Reference partitioning involves creating a reference relationship
between two tables, where the parent table's partitioning scheme determines the partitioning of the child
table. This is often used in scenarios where there's a parent-child relationship between tables.
- Benefits: Maintains consistency between related tables and simplifies the management of partitioning
schemes.
 Round-Robin Partitioning:- Description: In round-robin partitioning, data is evenly distributed across
partitions in a circular or round-robin fashion. This technique is simple and ensures an equal distribution
of data without considering specific values.
- Benefits: Straightforward to implement and helps in distributing the load evenly across partitions.
 Caching or Reference Partitioning:- Description: This involves partitioning a table based on whether it
is often used in conjunction with another table. Tables that are frequently joined may be placed in the
same partition.
- Benefits: Can improve performance by reducing the need for inter-partition joins.
The choice of partitioning technique depends on the specific characteristics of the data and the requirements of
the application. It's common to use a combination of these techniques to achieve the desired partitioning
strategy for a particular database.
6. B)What is the difference between temporal and multimedia database?
Solution: Temporal databases and multimedia databases are two different types of specialized databases that
cater to specific data management needs. Let's explore the key differences between temporal databases and
multimedia databases:
Temporal Database:
1. Focus:- Temporal Database: A temporal database is designed to handle data that changes over time. It allows
for the storage and management of time-varying data, keeping track of historical changes and providing
temporal querying capabilities.
2. Data Representation:- Temporal Database: Temporal databases include timestamps or valid time intervals
associated with data to capture when information is valid. There are two main types of temporal databases:
valid time databases, which store when facts are true in the real world, and transaction time databases, which
track when facts are stored in the database.
3. Queries and Operations:- Temporal Database: Temporal databases support temporal queries, allowing users
to retrieve data as it existed at a specific point in time or over a certain time range. They often include temporal
operators and functions to facilitate temporal querying.
4. Use Cases:- Temporal Database: Temporal databases are commonly used in applications where historical
data and changes over time are critical. Examples include financial systems, medical records, and any domain
where tracking the evolution of data is essential.
Multimedia Database:
1. Focus:- Multimedia Database: A multimedia database is designed to store and manage multimedia data,
which includes various types of media such as images, audio, video, and other non-textual forms.
2. Data Representation:- Multimedia Database: Multimedia databases store diverse types of media and often
include metadata to describe the content. The database may use different data models to represent various
multimedia elements.
3. Queries and Operations:- Multimedia Database: Multimedia databases support queries and operations
specific to multimedia content. This may include searching for images based on visual features, retrieving
videos based on content analysis, or accessing audio content based on audio features.
4. Use Cases:- Multimedia Database: Multimedia databases are used in applications where managing and
retrieving multimedia content is crucial. Examples include digital libraries, media archives, content
management systems, and applications involving image and video analysis.
Key Differences:
 Nature of Data:
- Temporal Database: Primarily deals with time-varying data and historical changes over time.
- Multimedia Database: Deals with various types of multimedia content, including images, audio, video, and
other non-textual data.
 Data Representation:
- Temporal Database: Incorporates timestamps or valid time intervals to represent when data is valid or when
changes occurred.
- Multimedia Database: Utilizes different data models to represent multimedia elements, often accompanied
by metadata.
 Querying Focus:
- Temporal Database: Focuses on temporal queries, allowing users to retrieve data based on time-related
criteria.
- Multimedia Database: Focuses on multimedia-specific queries, enabling retrieval based on visual, audio, or
other multimedia characteristics.
 Use Cases:
- Temporal Database: Commonly used in applications requiring the management of historical data, such as
financial systems or medical records.
- Multimedia Database: Applied in scenarios where handling and querying multimedia content are essential,
such as digital libraries, media archives, and content analysis applications.
In summary, while temporal databases deal with time-varying data and historical changes, multimedia
databases focus on managing and retrieving diverse types of multimedia content. Each type of database is
tailored to specific data management needs within its respective domain.