Introduction

Part - 1
Photoelectric effect and wave theory of light:

• Light is an electromagnetic wave consisting of electric and

magnetic fields with continuous distribution of energy over

which the wave.

• According to the wave theory of light, the free electrons at the

surface of the metal (over which the beam of radiation falls)

absorb the radiant energy continuously.

• The greater the intensity of radiation, ( greater are the

amplitude of electric and magnetic fields). Consequently, the

greater the intensity, the greater should be the energy absorbed

by each electron.
• so, the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons on the

surface is then expected to increase with increase in intensity.

Also, no matter what the frequency of radiation is, a

sufficiently intense beam of radiation (over sufficient time)

should be able to impart enough energy to the electrons, so that

they exceed the minimum energy needed to escape from the

metal surface .

• A threshold frequency, therefore, should not exist.

• These expectations of the wave theory directly contradict

observations (i), (ii) and (iii).

• The absorption of energy by electron takes place continuously

over the entire wavefront of the radiation.

• Since a large number of electrons absorb energy, the energy

absorbed per electron per unit time turns out to be small.

• Explicit calculations estimate that it can take hours or more

for a single electron to pick up sufficient energy to overcome

the work function and come out of the metal.

• This conclusion is again in striking contrast to observation (iv)

that the photoelectric emission is instantaneous

Einstein’s photoelectric equation: Energy quantum of
.
radiation
• In 1905, Albert Einstein (1879-1955) proposed a radically new

theory of electromagnetic radiation to explain photoelectric

effect.

• In this theory, photoelectric emission does not take place by

continuous absorption of energy from radiation.

• Radiation energy is built up of discrete units– the so called

quanta of energy of radiation.

• Each quantum of radiant energy has energy h , where h is

Planck’s constant and the frequency of light.

• In photoelectric effect, an electron absorbs a quantum of energy

of radiation. If this quantum of energy absorbed exceeds the

minimum energy needed for the electron to escape from the metal

surface (work function 0), The electron is emitted with maximum

kinetic energy

• More tightly bound electrons will merge with kinetic energies

less than the maximum value. Note that the intensity of light of

a given frequency is determined by the number of photons

incident per second.

• However, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectrons is determined by the energy of each photon.
• Einstein’s photoelectric equation observations:
• Kmax depends linearly on , and is independent of intensity of
radiation.
• Photoelectric effect arises from the absorption of a single
quantum of radiation by a single electron. The intensity of
radiation (that is proportional to the number of energy quanta
per unit area per unit time) is irrelevant to this basic process.
• Since Kmax must be non-negative, implies that
photoelectric emission is possible only if

• The above equa. that the greater the work function 0 , the
higher the minimum or threshold frequency 0 needed to emit
photoelectrons.
• Thus, there exists a threshold frequency for the

metal surface, below which no photoelectric emission is possible,

no matter how intense the incident radiation may be or how long

it falls on the surface.

• The greater the number of energy quanta available, the

greater is the number of electrons absorbing the energy quanta

and greater, therefore, is the number of electrons coming out of

the metal (for > 0). For photoelectric current is

proportional to intensity.
• In photoelectric effect is the instantaneous process. Thus,

whatever may be the intensity Low intensity does not mean

delay in emission, Intensity only determines how many

electrons are able to participate in the elementary process

(absorption of a light quantum by a single electron) and,

therefore, the photoelectric current.

• This is an important result. It predicts that the V0 versus

curve is a straight line with slope = (h/e), independent of the
nature of the material.
• During 1906-1916, Millikan performed a series of experiments on

photoelectric effect. He measured the slope of the straight line

obtained for sodium, Using the known value of e, he determined

the value of Planck’s constant h.

• This value was close to the value of Planck’s constant (= 6.626 ×

1034J s) determined in an entirely different context.

• In this way, in 1916, Millikan proved the validity of Einstein’s

photoelectric equation, instead of disproving it.

Particle nature of light: the photon

• Photoelectric effect: Light in interaction with matter behaved

as if it was made of quanta or packets of energy, each of energy

Einstein arrived at the important result, that the light

quantum can also be associated with momentum (h /c).

• The light quantum can be associated with a particle. This

particle was later named photon.
• The particle-like behaviour of light was further confirmed,
• In 1924, by the experiment of A.H. Compton (1892-1962) on
scattering of X-rays from electrons.
• In 1921, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for
his contribution to theoretical physics and the photoelectric
effect.
• In 1923, Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for
his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the
photoelectric effect.

Summarise the photon picture of electromagnetic radiation:

(i) In interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as

if it is made up of particles called photons.

(ii) Each photon has energy E = ( ) and momentum p = h /c),

and speed c, the speed of light.

(iii) All photons of light of a particular frequency , or
wavelength , have the same energy E and
momentum p (= h/c= h/ ), whatever the intensity of radiation
may be.
• By increasing the intensity of light of given wavelength, there
is only an increase in the number of photons per second.

• Thus, photon energy is independent of intensity of radiation.

(iv) Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by
electric and magnetic fields.
(v) In a photon-particle collision (such as photon-electron
collision), the total energy and total momentum are conserved.
However, the number of photons may not be conserved in a
collision. The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be
created.
Wave nature of matter:
The dual nature of light- wave-particle

The wave nature of light shows up in the phenomena of

interference, diffraction and polarisation.

On the other hand, in photoelectric effect and Compton effect

which involve energy and momentum transfer, radiation behaves

as if it is made up of a bunch of particles – the photons.

In 1924, the French physicist Louis Victor de Broglie

(pronounced as de Broy) (1892-1987) put forward the bold

hypothesis that moving particles of matter should display wave-

like properties under suitable conditions.

De Broglie proposed that the wave length associated with a

particle of momentum p is given as

(1)

where m is the mass of the particle and v its speed.

This is known as the de Broglie relation and the wavelength of

the matter wave is called de Broglie wavelength.

The dual aspect of matter is evident in the de Broglie relation. On

the left hand side of Eq (1). is the attribute of a wave while on the

right hand side the momentum p is a typical attribute of a

particle. Planck’s constant h relates the two attributes.

whose validity can be tested only by experiment.

whose validity can be tested only by experiment.
For a photon,
Therefore

from Eq.(1), is smaller for a heavier particle (large m) or

more energetic particle (large v).
For example, the de Broglie wavelength of a ball of mass 0.12 kg
moving with a speed of 20 m s–1 is easily calculated
• This wavelength is so small that it is beyond any measurement.

This is the reason why macroscopic objects in our daily life do

not show wavelike properties.

• On the other hand, in the sub-atomic domain, the wave

character of particles is significant and measurable.

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