NO.

1: INTRODUCTION, ORGAN SYSTEMS and THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

REVIEWER MADE by KIARA CUIZON from 10-ALLEN

●​ The human body is made up of different systems that coordinate with one another to perform
their functions well.
●​ If any part of these organ systems malfunctions, the body will become unbalanced.
●​ The instability caused by the malfunctioning of one system cannot be made stable by other
systems because each system has its own function in the body.
●​ You have studied in the past that human body systems are the combined functional units
composed of various organs that work in full coordination with one other.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
●​ Connects all body parts & transmits signals from one part to another
●​ A system of cells, tissues & organs that regulates the body’s response to internal and external
stimuli
●​ All parts have a specific role & it’s functions as an important part of the system

HEART
●​ The heart is a part of the circulatory system, while all the rest are parts of the nervous system.
LUNGS
●​ The lungs are a part of the respiratory system, while the rest are parts of the female reproductive
system.
SKULL
●​ The skull is a part of the skeletal system, while the rest are parts of the endocrine system.
INTESTINE
●​ The intestine is a part of the digestive system, while the rest are parts of the male reproductive
system.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

●​ The CNS serves as the main processing center for the entire nervous system.
●​ It consists of two main components, namely the:
BRAIN
●​ This is an organ located within the skull that functions as organizer and distributor of information
for the body, since it is known as the “CONTROL CENTER”. It has three main parts.

CEREBRUM
●​ The large, upper part of the brain that controls
activity and thought.
●​ It performs higher functions like interpreting
touch, vision, and hearing, as well as speech,
reasoning, emotions, learning, and fine control
of movement.
2 HALVES OF THE CEREBRUM
CORPUS CALLOSUM
●​ The middle between the Left & Right
Hemisphere
LEFT HEMISPHERE
●​ Controls the speech comprehension, arithmetic & writing
RIGHT HEMISPHERE
●​ Controls creativity, spatial activity, artistic & musical skills
CEREBELLUM
●​ The part under the cerebrum that controls posture, balance, and coordination.
BRAIN STEM
●​ The part that connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls automatic functions such as
breathing, digestion, heart rate, and blood pressure
SPINAL CORD
●​ This serves as a channel for signals between the brain and the rest of the body, and controls
simple musculoskeletal reflexes without input from the brain
●​ About 40-50 cm long
●​ Connects the brain and the body
●​ Composed of gray and white matter
●​ Transmits impulse all over the body to and from the brain
●​ Responsible for involuntary movement (ex. REFLEXES)
LOBES OF THE BRAIN
1.​ FRONTAL LOBE
●​ Personality, behavior, emotions Judgment, planning, problem-solving
●​ Speech: speaking and writing
●​ Body movement (motor strip)
●​ Intelligence, concentration, self-awareness
2.​ OCCIPITAL LOBE
●​ Interprets vision (color, light, movement)
3.​ PARIETAL LOBE
●​ Language, words, sense of touch, pain, temperature
●​ Interprets signals from vision, hearing, motor, sensory, and memory
●​ Spatial and visual perception
4.​ TEMPORAL LOBE
●​ Understanding language
●​ Memory
●​ Hearing
●​ Sequencing and organization
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
●​ The PNS connects the central nervous system to the organs and limbs.
●​ Carries impulses from the sensory nerves to the CNS and from the CNS to the motor nerves
●​ It has two main divisions:

SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

●​ This system is associated with the voluntary or
conscious control of body movements such as
MUSCULAR SYSTEM and EXTERNAL
SENSORY RECEPTORS
●​ has two main parts:
SPINAL NERVES
●​ The nerves that carry motor and sensory signals
between the spinal cord and the body.
CRANIAL NERVES
●​ The nerve fibers that carry information into and out of the brain stem.

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

●​ This system is associated with the involuntary or unconscious control of body movements
●​ This controls the muscles in the heart and the smooth muscles in the internal organs such as
(BLADDER, INTESTINES na the UTERUS)
●​ has two subdivisions:
SYMPATHETIC
●​ It is activated when the body is in a dynamic role or stress.
●​ Known as the ‘FIGHT or FLIGHT’ response
●​ Responsible for the acceleration of the heart rate, the construction of blood vessels and the rise
of blood pressure
●​ (e.g., increased heart rate and breathing, dilation of pupils, sweating, etc.)
PARASYMPATHETIC
●​ It maintains body functions and restores the body to normal or relaxed mode.
●​ Known as the ‘REST and DIGEST’ response
●​ Slows down the heart rate and increases the internal and gland activities

NO.2 THE NEURON and THE NERVE IMPULSE

REVIEWER MADE by KIARA CUIZON from 10-ALLEN

Question No. 1
●​ How will you differentiate the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS) in terms of their functions?
ANSWER:
●​ The Central Nervous System (CNS) serves as the main processing center for the entire nervous
system while the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) connects the central nervous system to the
organs and limbs by relaying information through the nerves.
Question No. 2
●​ What might happen to the human body if one part of the nervous system fails to carry out
its function properly?
ANSWER:
●​ All the other parts of the nervous system will not be able to carry out their corresponding
functions, and the other body systems will be affected as well.

NERVE CELLS
●​ The basic unit of the nervous system is the
nerve cell.
●​ Nerve cells are called neuron
 ●​ There are twelve to fourteen billions of neurons in one part of the brain alone.
CELL BODY
●​ A neuron has a cell body containing the nucleus.
●​ The Neurons are covered my the Myelin Sheath
●​ The Schwann cell is what produces the Myelin Sheath with an Axon Terminal at the end
●​ Projecting out from the cell body are root-like structures.
DENDRITES
●​ Dendrites carry impulses towards the cell body.
●​ They can also be called ‘THE RECEPTORS CITE OF NEURONS
●​ A cell may have as many as 200 dendrites carrying impulses toward the cell body.
●​ A single dendrite can be over one meter long.
AXONS
●​ Axons carry impulses away from the cell body.
●​ Axons pass impulses to the dendrites of other neurons or the cell body of muscle cells.
●​ Axons can be grouped together into cable-like bundles called nerves.
●​ The Nodes of Ranvier allow the generation of a fast electrical impulse around the axons
CONTROL OF BODY PROCESSES:

●​ Neurons are cells with the special ability to carry signals or impulses.
●​ Thoughts, emotions, learning, and many body functions are carried by nerve impulses in the
neurons.
NERVE IMPULSE
●​ Neurons are cells with the special ability to carry signals or impulses.
●​ Thoughts, emotions, learning, and many body functions are carried by nerve impulses in the
neurons. * signal moving along a neuron.
●​ A nerve impulse is a combination of an electrical charge and a chemical reaction.
●​ A nerve impulse is not a flow of electricity, but an electrochemical signal moving along a neuron.
●​ Imagine that you have a board with a row of switches. Quickly click each switch in the row on and
off.
●​ This will give you an idea of how a nerve impulse travels along a neuron.
●​ A nerve impulse cannot jump from one neuron to another.
●​ When a nerve impulse comes to the end of an axon, it causes the chemical, called
neurotransmitter, to be released.
●​ The chemical crosses the space between neurons called synapse and stimulates the nerve
impulse to start in the next dendrite.

CLASSIFICATIONS of NEURON
1.​ Sensory or Affective Neurons
●​ Carry the impulses from the sense of organs to the brain and the spinal cord
2.​ Motor or Effective Neurons
 ●​ Carry impulses from the brain and the spinal cord to the muscles
3.​ Associative Neurons
●​ Located in the CNS, analyze and interpret the data or impulses

NO.3 REACTION and HOW THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM WORKS CONTROL OF BODY
PROCESSES: THE NERVE AND IMPULSE
Made by KIARA CUIZON from 10-ALLEN

NERVE IMPULSE
●​ The nervous system is assisted by five sense
organs; the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin.
●​ These sense organs are constantly receiving
information from the environment and sending
messages to the brain.
●​ These senses aid in the survival of human beings.
●​ A stimulus (plural: stimuli) is any factor in the environment that may trigger a nerve impulse.
●​ A response is a reaction to a stimulus.
●​ A stimulus is received by the body and a response is made.
●​ An organism must be able to respond to a stimulus to survive.
●​ Messages do not travel in both directions along the same neuron.
●​ Only the axon of the neuron releases neurotransmitters that cross the space between neurons.
●​ Reaction time is the length of time between application of a stimulus and detection of a
response.

SOME QUESTIONS REGARDING ON AN ACTIVITY:

Answer to Question No. 6
●​ Explain why a message moving along nerve pathways takes time.
ANSWER:
●​ The message travels from one neuron to another until it reaches the brain.
●​ Then, the brain's response is also transmitted by another set of neurons.
Answer to Question No. 7
●​ Describe the nerve pathway that the message followed when you saw the ruler fall.
ANSWER:
●​ First, the eye sees the ruler, then sends a message to the brain. The brain sends a response
through the muscles in the hand. Finally, the muscles contract to allow the person to catch the
ruler.

KEY CONCEPTS
●​ Neurons have the special ability to carry signals or impulses.
●​ A nerve impulse is an electrochemical signal moving along a neuron.
●​ The space between neurons is called synapse.
●​ A stimulus is any factor in the environment that influences behavior.
●​ A response is a reaction to a condition or stimulus.
●​ An organism must be able to respond to a stimulus to survive.
●​ Reaction time is the length of time between application of a stimulus and detection of a response.
HOW THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM WORKS
●​ Your brain does not only control your thoughts, emotions, and movements but also numerous
things that you are less aware of such as your breathing, your heartbeat, and even the stress that
you feel.
●​ This system is like a network that relays messages back and forth from the brain to various parts
of the body.
●​ It transmits information through the spinal cord,
which extends from the brain down through the
back and consists of fine nerves that branch out
to every organ and body part.
●​ When a message reaches the brain from any
part of the body, the brain commands the body
to respond.
●​ You can think of your nervous system as a relay
team where one runner passes the object to
another runner.
●​ Relatively, you have nerve cells handing its
information to the next cell, which passes the
information to another cell.

●​ Finally, the information reaches into its destination and a reaction takes place. For instance, if you
hold a rose stem and accidentally prick your fingers, the nerves in your skin release a message of
pain to your brain.
●​ Your brain, in response to the signal, commands the muscles in your hand to pull away. This
split-second relay inside your body happens in a much shorter period than it took you to read
about it.

●​ Neurons are specially intended for information

processing and signaling. They relay and
receive messages (impulse) between the brain
and body, and within the brain and spinal cord.
●​ Motor neurons transmit impulses from the brain
to muscles, glands, or other neurons in the
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
●​ Sensory neurons transmit impulses from
sensory nerves (receptor cells) to the Central
Nervous System (CNS).

NO.4 STIMULUS and RESPONSE

ANSWERS FROM ACTIVITY:
Question No. 8
●​ How does the brain receive the information from the receptor?
ANSWER:
●​ The brain receives the information through the sensory neurons that transmit the message from
one neuron to another.
Question No. 9
●​ What does the brain do as soon as it receives the information?
ANSWER
●​ As soon as the brain receives the information, it processes the message and comes up with a
response to be sent through the neurons.
Question No. 10
●​ How is the message from the brain sent in response to the stimuli?
ANSWER
●​ The message from the brain is relayed by the motor neurons that transmit the message from one
neuron to another going to the effector.
Question No. 11
●​ How will you differentiate the sensory and motor neurons based on their functions?
ANSWER:
●​ The sensory neurons transmit impulses from the receptor to the brain while the motor neurons
transmit impulses from the brain to the effector.
Question No. 12
●​ Based on the simulation activity, explain how information travels in the nervous system.
ANSWER:
●​ Information travels in the nervous system through the neurons that transmit the impulse. The
sense organ receives the message, and the information is sent by the sensory neurons to the
brain. The brain then processes the information and sends a response through the motor neurons
to the organ, gland or muscle.
Question No. 13
●​ Why does the damage in the nervous system cause paralysis of the body?
ANSWER
●​ Any damage in the nervous system affects the function of other body parts, since messages are
not properly transmitted throughout the body.
Question No. 14
●​ What public health care programs in your locality are geared towards dealing with health
issues concerning the nervous system?
ANSWER:
●​ Answers may vary depending on the students' locality. Some examples of public health care
programs that deal with the nervous system are the National Mental Health Program, Epilepsy
Camp, Universal Health Care, Rabies Prevention and Control Program, and many others.

KEY CONCEPTS
●​ When a receptor such as an organ perceives a stimulus, the impulse is sent to the brain by the
sensory neurons, transmitting information from one nerve cell to another.
●​ As the message reaches the brain, it processes the information and commands an effector such
as a muscle or an organ to respond.
●​ The message coming from the brain is sent through the motor neurons.
 NO.5 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
MADE BY KIARA CUIZON from 10-ALLEN

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
-​ Composed of glands that secrete different types of hormones that affect almost every cell, organ
& function of pour body
-​ Essential in regulating growth & developments, metabolism, as well as reproductive system (e.g.,
temperature, hydration, and pH levels).
-​ Glands involved: Hypothalamus and pituitary gland.

REGULATING METABOLISM
-​ Converts food into energy
-​ This includes; Thyroid gland, Adrenal gland, & Pancreas

MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS
-​ Ensures internal balance of the body's systems

CONTROLLING GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT

-​ Influences physical growth, bone density & muscle mass
-​ This includes; Pituitary Gland & Thyroid Gland

REGULATING BLOOD & SUGAR LEVELS

-​ Maintains glucose & level in bloodstream from energy
-​ This includes; Pancreas (Insulin & Glucagon)

REGULATING REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS

-​ Menstrual cycles, Sexual development and Fertility
-​ This includes; Ovaries, Testes & Pituitary Gland

INFLUENCING MOOD or BEHAVIOR

-​ Affects emotions, Sleep patterns & Overall Mental Health
-​ This includes; Pineal Gland (Melatonin), Hypothalamus, and Adrenal Glands

ENDOCRINE GLANDS & THEIR HORMONES

PITUITARY GLAND
-​ LOCATION: Base of the brain
-​ HORMONES: Oxytocin, Vasopressin, Growth Hormone, Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH),
Luteinizing Hormone, Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
-​ PURPOSE: Stimulates Growth & Function of the other Glands

THYROID GLAND
-​ LOCATION: Below Voice Box
-​ HORMONES: Thyroxin & Calcitonin
-​ PURPOSE: Regulates body metabolism, and causes storage of calcium in bones

PARATHYROID GLAND
-​ LOCATION: In the Neck
-​ HORMONES: Parathyromone
-​ PURPOSE: Calcium Levels & Bone Growth
THYMUS GLAND
-​ LOCATION: In front of the heart
-​ HORMONES: Thymosin
-​ FUNCTION: Enables the body to produce certain antibodies

ADRENAL GLAND
-​ LOCATION: Top of the Kidney
-​ HORMONES: Adrenaline
-​ PURPOSE: Prepares for Action, Controls Heart Rate and Breathing in times of Emergency

PANCREAS
-​ LOCATION: In Between the Kidney
-​ HORMONES: Insulin
-​ PURPOSE: Regulates blood sugar levels

TESTES (MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM)

-​ LOCATION: Lower Abdomen
-​ HORMONES: Androgen & Testosterone
-​ PURPOSE: Control Maturation & Characteristics of a Male

OVARIES (FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM)

-​ LOCATION: Lower Abdomen
-​ HORMONES: Estrogen & Progesterone
-​ PURPOSE: Influence Female Traits & Reproductive Function

EFFECTS of HORMONES in the BODY

GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT
Growth Hormone (GH):
-​ Stimulates growth of bones, muscles, and tissues.
Thyroid Hormones (T3 and T4):
-​ Regulate metabolism, energy production, and growth.
Sex Hormones (Estrogen, Testosterone):
-​ Control puberty, sexual development, and reproduction.

METABOLISM AND ENERGY REGULATION

Insulin:
-​ Lowers blood glucose levels by promoting glucose uptake into cells.
Glucagon:
-​ Raises blood glucose levels by stimulating the liver to release stored glucose.
Cortisol:
-​ Increases blood sugar levels during stress and regulates metabolism.

REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS
Estrogen and Progesterone:
-​ Regulate the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sexual characteristics in females.
Testosterone:
-​ Influences sperm production, libido, and secondary sexual characteristics in males.
STRESS RESPONSE
Adrenaline (Epinephrine):
-​ Increases heart rate, blood pressure, and energy supply during the "fight-or-flight" response.
Cortisol:
-​ Helps manage long-term stress and maintains homeostasis.

WATER AND ELECTROLYTE BALANCE

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH):
-​ Regulates water retention by the kidneys.
Aldosterone:
-​ Controls sodium and potassium levels, impacting blood pressure and fluid balance.

MOOD AND BEHAVIOR

Serotonin and Dopamine (Neurotransmitters influenced by hormonal pathways):
-​ Regulate mood, emotion, and behavior.
Oxytocin:
-​ Promotes bonding, social behavior, and maternal instincts.

IMMUNE SYSTEM REGULATION

Thymosins:
-​ Influence the development of T-cells, critical for the immune response.
Cortisol:
-​ Suppresses inflammation and modulates immune activity.

APPETITE AND DIGESTION

Ghrelin:
-​ Stimulates hunger.
Leptin:
-​ Signals satiety and helps regulate energy balance.
Cholecystokinin (CCK):
-​ Aids in digestion and reduces appetite.

EFFECTS OF HORMONES IN THE BODY

SLEEP-WAKE CYCLE
Melatonin:
-​ Regulates sleep patterns and the circadian rhythm.
 NO.6 HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
MADE BY KIARA CUIZON FROM 10-ALLEN

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

WHAT DOES THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM DO?
●​ The male reproductive system is composed of several organs.
●​ It is responsible for producing sperm cells and hormones.
●​ A sperm cell is important to fertile an egg cell.
●​ Hormones are responsible for the development of adult male characteristics.

EXTERNAL PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

PENIS
●​ It is the external male organ with a tip called glans.
●​ It is covered with foreskin that may be removed through circumcision and acts as a conduit for
urine to leave the body.
SCROTUM
●​ It is a pair of pouch-like sacs that supports the testes.
●​ It also controls its temperature because it allows the body to produce sperm cells.
TESTICLES
●​ These are the glands that produce sperm cells and male sex hormones called testosterone.
●​ The testes protrude outside the body because the temperature inside the main body cavity is
warmer and not suitable for the development of sperm cells.

INTERNAL PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

EPIDIDYMIS
●​ It is a narrow-coiled tube that stores immature sperm cells until they mature and where they are
temporarily stored before their release.
URETHRA
●​ It is the passageway of both urine from the urinary bladder and semen from the glands.
SEMINAL VESICLES
●​ These are sac-like pouches attached to the vas deferens produces a sugar-rich fluid that provides
energy to sperm cells motility
VAS DEFERENS
●​ It is a long, muscular tube that serves as a passageway of the sperm cells released from the
testes.
●​ It also connects the testes to the seminal vesicle and urethra.
COWPER'S GLAND
●​ It is also called the “bulbourethral gland”, one of the two pea-sized organs found beneath the
prostate gland.
●​ It is responsible for releasing fluid that flushes out foreign matter and neutralizes the acidic urine
in the urethra.
PROSTATE GLAND
●​ It is a walnut-sized gland located between the bladder and the penis.
●​ It secretes fluid that nourishes and protects the sperm.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

WHAT DOES THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM DO?
●​ A unique characteristic of the female reproductive system is its ability to give temporary and safe
place for the developing human being.
 ●​ The system accommodates the entry of sperm cells and gives space for the developing baby.
●​ It has important parts with specific characteristics and functions.

PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

FALLOPIAN TUBE
●​ It is the external male organ with a tip called glans.
●​ It is covered with foreskin that may be removed through circumcision and acts as a conduit for
urine to leave the body.
UTERUS
●​ The uterus which is also called the womb is shaped-like an upside-down pear where the unborn
baby is developed.
●​ It has a soft, smooth, inner lining called uterine lining or endometrium.
OVARY
●​ The ovary produces egg cells and the sex hormones estrogen and progesterone.
●​ Females have two ovaries where matured egg cells are produced during ovulation.
VAGINA
●​ The vagina which is also called the birth canal, is a hollow, muscular tube that expands to the
baby to pass through during normal delivery.
CERVIX
●​ The cervix is a narrow opening between the uterus and vagina which enlarges to let the passage
of a fetus during birth.

THE ROLE OF HORMONES IN MALE AND FEMALE

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
HORMONES IN MALE REPRODUCTION
Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
●​ It is a hormone produced by the hypothalamus in the brain.
●​ It signals the pituitary gland to release two important hormones: luteinizing hormone (LH) and
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
●​ These hormones help regulate testosterone production and sperm development in the testes.
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
●​ It is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that helps regulate sperm production by
stimulating the testes to support the development of sperm cells in the seminiferous tubules.
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
●​ It is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates the testes to produce testosterone.
●​ Testosterone is essential for sperm production and the development of male secondary sexual
characteristics.
Androgens
●​ These are male sex hormones, primarily testosterone, that are produced mainly in the testes.
●​ They play a crucial role in the development of male reproductive organs, the production of sperm,
and secondary sexual characteristics like facial hair, deeper voice, and muscle growth.
Testosterone
●​ It is a hormone produced primarily in the testes in males.
●​ It plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues, such as the testes and
prostate, and promotes secondary sexual characteristics like increased muscle mass, deeper
voice, and facial hair. It also helps regulate sperm production and sex drive.
HORMONES IN FEMALE
REPRODUCTION
Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
●​ It is a hormone produced by the hypothalamus in the brain.
●​ It regulates the female reproductive system by signaling the pituitary gland to release two other
hormones, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which are essential
for ovulation and the menstrual cycle.
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
●​ It is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that helps regulate the menstrual cycle and
stimulates the growth and development of ovarian follicles, which contain eggs, in the female
reproductive system.
Luteinizing Hormone
●​ It is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that plays a key role in the female reproductive
system.
●​ It triggers ovulation (the release of an egg from the ovary) and helps maintain the production of
hormones like progesterone and estrogen, which are essential for regulating the menstrual cycle
and supporting pregnancy.
Estrogen
●​ It helps regulate the menstrual cycle, promotes the development of secondary sexual
characteristics (such as breast development), and supports the growth and maintenance of the
uterine lining to prepare for pregnancy.
Progesterone
●​ It is a hormone that plays a key role in regulating the menstrual cycle and supporting pregnancy.
●​ It helps prepare the uterus for a fertilized egg, maintains the uterine lining during pregnancy, and
prevents the release of additional eggs during pregnancy.
●​ It is produced primarily by the ovaries after ovulation and by the placenta during pregnancy.
 NO.7 THE FEEDBACK MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN REGULATING PROCESSES IN THE FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
MADE BY KIARA CUIZON FROM 10-ALLEN

THE FEEDBACK MECHANISM IN MENSTRUAL CYCLE (Female Reproductive System)

MENSTRUATION
●​ It is the monthly shedding of the lining of the uterus through the vagina.
●​ It is a natural process that occurs in people with a uterus as part of the reproductive cycle.
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
OVULATION
●​ release of an egg from the ovary into the fallopian tube
MENSTRUATION
●​ when blood and tissue from the uterus comes out from the vagina
OVARIAN CYCLE
●​ includes the events that occur in the ovary
UTERINE CYCLE
●​ events that occur in the uterus

PHASES OF THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

MENSTRUAL PHASE
●​ The uterus sheds its lining (endometrium), resulting in bleeding.
●​ This phase lasts 3-7 days on average.
FOLLICULAR PHASE
●​ Starts on the first day of menstruation and overlaps with the menstrual phase.
●​ The pituitary gland releases FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone), prompting the ovaries to mature
follicles.
●​ One follicle becomes dominant, and the uterine lining starts to thicken.
OVULATION PHASE
●​ Around day 14 (in a typical 28-day cycle), the ovary releases a mature egg.
●​ Triggered by a surge in LH (luteinizing hormone).
●​ The egg travels through the fallopian tube and is ready for fertilization.
LUTEAL PHASE
●​ The ruptured follicle forms the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone.
●​ Progesterone helps maintain the uterine lining.
●​ If fertilization doesn't occur, hormone levels drop, leading to the next menstrual phase.
●​ The fertilized egg will be implanted in the endometrium of the uterus.
●​ The endometrium will break down, leading to menstruation.

FEEDBACK MECHANISM
●​ It is a biological process where the result of a system influences its activity, either by enhancing or
suppressing it.
●​ It helps maintain balance and regulate processes in the body.
Negative Feedback Mechanism
●​ maintains hormonal balance by inhibiting the overproduction of hormones.
Process:
●​ High estrogen or progesterone levels inhibit the release of GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing
hormone) from the hypothalamus.
●​ This reduces the secretion of FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone)
from the pituitary gland.
Example:
●​ During the luteal phase, high progesterone levels i suppress FSH and LH to prevent the
maturation of new follicles.
Positive Feedback Mechanism
●​ amplifies a specific hormonal response.
Process:
●​ High estrogen levels during the late follicular phase stimulate the hypothalamus to release more
GnRH.
●​ This leads to a surge in LH, triggering ovulation (release of a mature egg).
Example:
●​ The LH surge caused by positive feedback leads to the i rupture of the dominant follicle.
FEEDBACK MECHANISM IN MENSTRUAL CYCLE
1.​ Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH) stimulates the ovaries to release estrogen. High Levels of
estrogen then prevent the further production of FSH. negative feedback
2.​ Estrogen also stimulates the release of Luteinizing hormones (LH) from the pituitary gland, which
in turn controls the production of progesterone. High Levels of progesterone then inhibit the
further release of LH.
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
1.​ An increase in FSH may also indicate a reduction of good quality eggs and embryos for
fertilization. A common reason for this is your age. Your fertility starts to decline and fewer eggs
mature in your ovaries. The quality of the eggs that remain is lower than during earlier years.
senerallzatior
2.​ An abnormally high level of LH during non-ovulation times in the menstrual cycle may mean you
are in menopause. It may also mean that you have a pituitary disorder or polycystic ovary
syndrome.

HOMEOSTASIS (Endocrine and Nervous)

●​ It involves various systems and feedback mechanisms working together to maintain equilibrium in
the body.
●​ It is the process by which living organisms maintain a stable internal environment despite
changes in the external environment.
●​ It ensures that conditions like temperature, pH, hydration, and nutrient levels remain within a
range suitable for survival and proper functioning.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
●​ It is a process where the body responds to a change by reversing it, bringing the system back
to its normal state.
●​ It maintains stability and prevents extreme changes.
Examples:
Body Temperature Regulation:
●​ If the body is too hot, sweating cools it down.
●​ If the body is too cold, shivering generates heat.
Blood Sugar Regulation:
●​ High blood sugar → Insulin is released to lower it.
●​ Low blood sugar → Glucagon is released to increase it.
●​ Blood Pressure: If blood pressure rises, the heart rate slows to lower it.
HOMEOSTASIS PROCESS:
1.​ Blood glucose rises
2.​ Pancreas will release insulin into the blood
3.​ Liver takes up glucose and stores into glycogen
4.​ Body cells take up glucose
5.​ Blood glucose declines

POSITIVE FEEDBACK
●​ It is a process where the body responds by amplifying the change, moving further away from
the normal state temporarily.
●​ It drives processes to completion in situations that require rapid or decisive action.
Examples:
Childbirth:
●​ The release of oxytocin causes stronger uterine contractions, which further stimulates more
oxytocin release until delivery.
Blood Clotting
●​ When a vessel is injured, platelets stick to the site and they release chemicals that attract more
platelets, amplifying the clotting process until the break is sealed.

FAILURE OF HOMEOSTASIS
●​ It occurs when the body is unable to maintain a stable internal environment, leading to
imbalances that can affect health and, in severe cases, result in disease or death.
Consequences of Homeostatic Failure
●​ Disruption in vital functions like breathing, circulation, or energy balance.
●​ Progression of diseases.
●​ Organ failure or death if the imbalance is severe or prolonged.
Prevention and Management
●​ Healthy Lifestyle: Balanced diet, regular exercise, and stress management.
●​ Medical Treatment: Monitoring and treating conditions like diabetes or hypertension.
●​ Adaptive Measures: Using aids like hydration in heat or warm clothing in cold to assist
homeostatic processes.
 NO.8 HEREDITY: Inheritance & Variation ●​ Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) (2
MADE BY KIARA CUIZON FROM 10-ALLEN hydrogen bonds).
●​ Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G) (3
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) hydrogen bonds).
●​ It is the molecule that carries the genetic ●​ This pairing creates the rungs of the
instructions essential for the DNA "ladder."
development, functioning, growth, and
reproduction of all known living
organisms and many viruses.
●​ It is often called the "blueprint of life"
because it contains the instructions
needed to build and maintain an
organism.
4.​ Backbone
Structure of DNA ●​ The backbone of DNA is made up of
1.​ Double Helix Deoxyribose (sugar) molecules
●​ DNA is a double-stranded molecule connected using phosphates.
twisted into a shape known as a double ●​ The sugar and phosphate groups form
helix. the sugar-phosphate backbone of each
●​ Each strand consists of a long chain of strand, providing structural support.
nucleotides.
2.​ Nucleotides
●​ DNA is made up of repeating units
called nucleotides, which consist of
three components:
●​ Phosphate Group: Gives DNA its
acidic properties.
●​ Deoxyribose Sugar: A five-carbon Function of DNA
sugar. 1.​ Genetic Information Storage
●​ Nitrogenous Base: One of four types: ●​ DNA stores the instructions for making
○​ Adenine (A) all the proteins required by an organism.
○​ Phosphate 2.​ Replication
○​ Thymine (T) ●​ DNA can copy itself (replicate) to ensure
○​ Cytosine (C) genetic information is passed to new
○​ Guanine (G) cells during cell division.
3.​ Gene Expression
●​ Specific segments of DNA (genes) are
transcribed into RNA and then
translated into proteins, which perform
various functions in the cell.
4.​ Heredity
●​ DNA is passed from parents to offspring,
carrying traits across generations.

3.​ Base Pairing Location of DNA

●​ Nitrogenous bases pair in a specific 1.​ In Eukaryotic Cells
way: ●​ Most DNA is located in the nucleus
(nuclear DNA).
 ●​ A small amount is found in mitochondria Structure of RNA
(mitochondrial DNA). 2.​ Nucleotides
2.​ In Prokaryotic Cells ●​ RNA is made up of smaller units called
●​ DNA is found in the cytoplasm in a nucleotides, each consisting of:
single circular chromosome. ●​ Phosphate Group
●​ Ribose Sugar: Unlike DNA's
deoxyribose, RNA contains ribose,
which has one additional hydroxyl (-OH)
group.
●​ Nitrogenous Bases:
○​ Adenine (A)
○​ Uracil (U) (replaces Thymine
found in DNA)
○​ Cytosine (C)
○​ Guanine (G)

Importance of DNA
●​ Storing and transmitting genetic
information.
●​ Dictating traits and characteristics of
organisms.
●​ Guiding the synthesis of proteins. 3. Base Pairing
●​ Errors or mutations in DNA can lead to ●​ When RNA forms internal loops or pairs
genetic disorders or diseases. with DNA, the bases pair as follows:
●​ Adenine (A) pairs with Uracil (U).
RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) ●​ Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G).
●​ It is a molecule that plays a critical role
in coding, decoding, regulation, and
expression of genes.
●​ Unlike DNA, RNA is typically
single-stranded and has a more diverse
set of functions in cells.

Structure of RNA
1.​ Single-stranded
●​ RNA is usually single-stranded, but it
can fold into complex shapes due to
internal base pairing. Types of RNA
1.​ Messenger RNA (mRNA)
●​ Brings information from the DNA in
the nucleus to the protein
manufacturing area, the cytoplasm.
●​ In the cytoplasm, the mRNA becomes
the template of information to make
proteins.
 2.​ Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
●​ The ribosomal RNA and ribosomal
proteins hold tightly into the mRNA
using its information to assemble the
amino acids in correct order.
3.​ Transfer RNA (tRNA)
●​ It supplies amino acids to the
ribosome to be assembled as protein.

Function of RNA
1.​ Protein Synthesis REPLICATION
●​ RNA translates the genetic information ●​ It is the biological process by which a
stored in DNA into proteins. cell duplicates its DNA, ensuring that
2.​ Gene Regulation each daughter cell receives an exact
●​ Some RNA molecules regulate which copy of the genetic material during cell
genes are expressed. division.
3.​ Catalytic Activity
●​ Certain RNA molecules, like ribozymes,
have enzymatic properties.
4.​ Genetic Material (in some viruses)
●​ RNA acts as the genetic material in
RNA viruses like the influenza virus,
HIV, and SARS-CoV-2. Step 1
●​ An enzyme called helicase breaks the
Importance of RNA bond between nitrogenous bases. The
●​ Essential for Life: RNA is vital for two strands of DNA split.
translating genetic instructions into Step 2
functional proteins. ●​ The bases attached to each strand then
●​ Versatile Molecule: RNA's diverse pair up with the free nucleotides found in
roles include structural, regulatory, and the cytoplasm.
catalytic functions. Step 3
●​ Evolutionary Insight: The RNA World ●​ The complementary nucleotides are
Hypothesis suggests that RNA may added to each strand by DNA
have been the first molecule capable of polymerase to form new strands.
both storing information and catalyzing ●​ Two new DNA molecules, each with a
reactions, predating DNA and proteins. parent strand and each with a new
strand are formed.
●​ The DNA replication is known as
semi-conservative replication, because
one of the old strands is conserved in
each new molecule.
TRANSCRIPTION TRANSLATION
●​ This is the process of synthesizing RNA ●​ This is the process by which the genetic
from a DNA template. code carried by mRNA (messenger
●​ This is the first step in gene expression, RNA) is used to synthesize proteins.
where the genetic information encoded ●​ It occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell and
in DNA is transcribed into a involves the ribosome, tRNA, and
complementary RNA molecule. various enzymatic factors.
●​ The sequence of nucleotides in DNA ●​ The process of converting the
directs the order of nucleotides in information in messenger RNA into a
messenger RNA in a process called sequence of amino acids that make a
transcription. protein is known as translation.
Three major types of RNA help build ●​ The role of transfer RNA (tRNA) is to
proteins: bring the amino acids in the cytoplasm
●​ mRNA, RNA, and ERNA. to the ribosomes to make proteins.
●​ The mRNA carries the information in
DNA to the ribosomes found in the Step 1
cytoplasm. ●​ As translation begins, mRNA binds to a
TRANSCRIPTION ribosome.
Step 1 ●​ Then, tRNA molecules, each carrying a
●​ Ribonucleic Acid polymerase enzyme specific amino acid, approach the
binds and opens the DNA molecule that ribosome.
will be transcribed. ●​ The tRNA anticodon pairs with the first
Step 2 mRNA (start) codon
●​ As the DNA molecule opens, the RNA arginine-uracil-guanine (AUG), to form
polymerase slides along the DNA strand the initiation complex.
and links free RNA nucleotides that pair ●​ The two molecules temporarily join
with the nitrogenous bases of the together.
complementary DNA strand. Step 2
●​ Hence, if the sequence of bases on the ●​ Usually, the first codon on mRNA is
DNA strand were CCG TTA CAT, the AUG, which codes for the amino acid
sequence of bases on the RNA strand methionine.
would be GGC AAU GUA. ●​ AUG signals the start of protein
Step 3 synthesis.
●​ When the process of base-pairing is ●​ Then, the ribosome slides along the
completed, the RNA molecule breaks mRNA to the next codon.
away as the DNA strands rejoin. The Step 3
RNA leaves the nucleus and goes to the ●​ A new tRNA molecule carrying an amino
cytoplasm. acid pairs with the second mRNA
codon.
Step 4
●​ When the first and second amino acids
are in place, an enzyme joins them by
forming a peptide bond between them.
Step 5
●​ As the process continues, a chain of
amino acids is formed until the ribosome
reaches a stop codon (e.g., UAA,
UAG,UGA) on the mRNA strand. The
polypeptide chain is released.
 NO.10 ECOSYSTEM: BIODIVERSITY Stability
MADE BY KIARA CUIZON FROM 10-ALLEN ●​ It can be described as the resilience to
withstand changes that may occur in
●​ Biodiversity refers to the diversity of the environment.
living organisms in different ●​ There are many changes that occur in
ecosystems. the environment which may be a result
●​ It includes three main components: of natural or human activities.
1.​ Genetic Diversity ●​ These changes may severely reduce
●​ Genetic diversity refers to the variation biodiversity and result to the instability of
of genes within a species. the environment
●​ This allows populations to adapt to
environmental changes and contributes The Ups and Downs of Population Growth
to the overall health and survival of the POPULATION
species. ●​ It is a group of organisms of the same
2.​ Species Richness species that live in a certain area.
●​ Species richness is the number of ECOLOGISTS
different species in a particular area. ●​ They regularly monitor the number of
●​ It is a key indicator of biodiversity and is organisms in many populations.
important for ecosystem function, Factors Affecting the Population Size
productivity and resilience. Birth Rate
3.​ Ecosystem Diversity ●​ The number of births per 1,000 people
●​ Ecosystem diversity refers to the in a given time period. (Natality)
diversity of ecosystems within a Death Rate
geographic location. ●​ The number of deaths per 1,000 people
●​ Different ecosystems, such as forests. in a given time period. (Mortality)
wetlands, and grasslands, provide
unique habitats and support a variety of Natality & Mortality
species. ●​ If the birth rate is greater than the
death rate, a population will grow.
The Importance of Biodiversity ●​ If the death rate is greater than the
1.​ Ecosystem stability and resilience. birth rate, the population will
2.​ Providing ecosystem services. decrease.
3.​ Guarantee sustainable resources. Population Growth
●​ It refers to the increase in the number
VALUE OF SPECIES of people in a particular area over
1.​ Direct Economic Value time.
●​ The species is considered to have direct ●​ It is influenced by factors such as birth
economic value if their products are rates. death rates, immigration. and
sources of food. medicine, clothing, emigration.
shelter. and energy.
2.​ Indirect Economic Value Factors of Population Growth
●​ A species has an indirect economic Population Density
value if there are benefits produced by ●​ It refers to the number of organisms
the organism without using them. per unit area.
3.​ Aesthetic Value ●​ If a population density is very high,
●​ A lot of species provide visual or there are a lot of organisms crowded
artistic enjoyment. into a certain area.
●​ like a forested landscape and the ●​ If a population density is low, there are
calming beauty of a natural park few organisms in an area.
Density-independent Limiting Factors Food Supply
●​ These factors affect a population ●​ Limited food resources can restrict
regardless of its size or density. population growth.
●​ They are usually environmental or Water Availability
natural disasters. ●​ Essential for survival: shortages can
1.​ Natural Disasters lower carrying capacity.
●​ Earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, and Space & Habitat
wildfires can reduce populations ●​ Overcrowding can lead to competition
suddenly. and stress.
2.​ Climate & Weather Predation & Disease
●​ Extreme temperatures, droughts, or ●​ High population density can lead to
seasonal changes can impact increased predator attacks and faster
populations. disease spread.
3.​ Human Activities Climate & Natural Disasters
●​ Deforestation, pollution, and habitat ●​ Changes in temperature, droughts, and
destruction affect populations, no matter storms alter available resources.
how large or small. Human Impact
●​ Deforestation, pollution, and
Density-dependent Limiting Factors urbanization can reduce carrying
●​ These factors increase in effect as capacity for wildlife.
the population density increases.
●​ They regulate population size by Types of Population Growth
limiting resources. increasing Exponential Growth
competition, or spreading diseases. ●​ There are plenty of resources
Competition available for all organisms, so more
●​ More individuals compete for food, births are recorded than deaths in
water, and space. organisms. J-shaped curve
Predation Logistic Growth
●​ As prey populations grow, predators ●​ The population expansion decreases
have more food, leading to increased as resources become scarce and it
predator populations. levels off when the carrying capacity of
Disease & Parasites the environment is reached. S-shaped
●​ Spread more easily in crowded curve
populations.
Waste Accumulation
●​ More waste leads to pollution and
poor health conditions.

Carrying Capacity
●​ It is the maximum number of
individuals in a population that an
environment can support sustainably
over time.
●​ It depends on the availability of
resources like food. water, shelter, and
space, as well as environmental
conditions.
 NO.11 BIODIVERSITY & EVOLUTION Examples:
MADE BY KIARA CUIZON FROM 10-ALLEN ●​ Fossilized leaves
●​ Soft-bodied organisms in shale
Sources of Evidence for Evolution
EVIDENCE FROM FOSSIL RECORDS
FOSSILS
●​ These are examples of evidence that
paleontologists use in studying
evolution. DETERMINING THE AGE OF FOSSILS
●​ Most fossils were commonly found in RELATIVE DATING
sedimentary rocks. ●​ It is a method used to determine the
●​ They are traces of organisms that age of the rocks by comparing them
lived in the past and were preserved with the rocks in the other layer.
by natural processes or catastrophic ●​ The younger sedimentary rock layer
events. is assumed to be found on top and the
●​ They can be remains of organisms older rock is found at the bottom layer.
which include bones, shells, teeth, and ●​ Fossils found at the bottom layer are
also feces embedded in rocks, peat, assumed to be older than those on the
resin, and ice. upper layer.
RADIOMETRIC DATING
PALEONTOLOGIST ●​ It is a technique used to determine the
●​ person who studies fossils absolute age of rocks, minerals, and
fossils by measuring the decay of
IMPRESSION radioactive isotopes.
●​ They form when an organism leaves ●​ This method provides an actual
a shallow imprint on soft sediment, numerical age, unlike relative dating,
which later hardens into rock. which only determines the order of
●​ Little or no organic material is preserved events.
- only the external shape or surface
details.
Examples:
●​ Leaf imprint in mudstone
●​ Dinosaur footprint in sediment

COMPRESSION
●​ They form when an organism is DETERMINING THE AGE OF FOSSILS
buried under sediment and How Does Radiometric Dating Work?
undergoes pressure, leaving a thin 1.​ Radioactive Isotopes & Decay
carbon residue. ●​ Some elements in rocks are radioactive,
●​ More organic material may be meaning they naturally decay into stable
preserved, providing more structural daughter isotopes over time.
and chemical details. ●​ This decay occurs at a constant rate,
known as the half-life (the time it takes
 for half of the radioactive parent GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
isotopes to decay). ●​ It is a system used by scientists to
●​ Scientists measure the ratio of parent to describe Earth's history, from its
daughter isotopes to calculate the age. formation 4.6 billion years ago to the
2.​ Half-life Concept present.
●​ The half-life of an isotope is the key to ●​ It helps date fossils and understand
determining age. evolutionary history.
Example: ●​ It provides evidence of mass extinctions
●​ Uranium-238 decays into Lead-206 with and climate changes.
a half-life of 4.5 billion years. ●​ It helps predict future geological
●​ If a rock has 50% uranium-238 and 50% changes based on past trends.
lead-206, it is 4.5 billion years old.
●​ If it has 25% uranium-238 and 75% Hint of Evolution from Comparative Anatomy
lead-206, it is 9 billion years old (2
half-lives).

DETERMINING THE AGE OF FOSSILS

CARBON DATING
●​ It is a method used to determine the
age of organic materials (wood,
bones, shells, charcoal) up to about
50,000 years old.
●​ It measures the decay of carbon-14 (C-
14), a radioactive isotope of carbon.
How Carbon Dating Works?
1.​ Absorption of Carbon-14
●​ Living organisms constantly absorb
carbon-14 from the atmosphere through
breathing and eating.
2.​ Death of the Organism
●​ When an organism dies, it stops
absorbing new C-14.
●​ The existing C-14 starts to decay at a
known rate.
●​ The amount of C-14 remaining helps
determine how long ago the organism EVIDENCE FROM EMBRYONIC
died. DEVELOPMENT
3.​ Half-life of Carbon-14 Similar Early Stages:
●​ The half-life of C-14 is 5,730 years, ●​ Many animals, including fish, frogs,
meaning: birds, and humans, start looking very
●​ After 5,730 years, half of the original similar to embryos.
C-14 has decayed. For example:
●​ After 11,460 years, only 25% of the ●​ in the early stages, human embryos
original C-14 remains. have tiny gill-like structures and a
●​ After 17,190 years, only 12.5% remains, tail-just like fish and reptiles.
and so on. Common Ancestors:
●​ The similarities in embryos suggest that
different species evolved from a
common ancestor.
 ●​ As the embryo develops, differences Theory of Acquired Characteristics
appear, leading to the unique ●​ Traits developed during an organism's
characteristics of each species. lifetime can be passed to its offspring.
EVIDENCE FROM EMBRYONIC Example:
DEVELOPMENT ●​ If a blacksmith develops strong arm
muscles from working, his children will
be born with stronger arms.

Why is Lamarck's Theory Incorrect?

●​ Modern genetics shows that acquired
traits cannot be passed down.
●​ Traits are inherited through genes, not
by need or use.
Example:
●​ If a person goes to the gym and builds
strong muscles, their children will not be
born with strong muscles.
Example of Embryo Similarities
Humans, Chickens, and Fish: Importance of Lamarck's Idea
●​ In early stages, all have a tail and gill ●​ He was one of the first scientists to
slits. suggest that species change over time
Mammals, Birds, and Reptiles: due to their environment.
●​ Their embryos develop in similar ways, ●​ His work influenced later scientists,
showing a shared evolutionary history. including Charles Darwin.

Theories of Evolution CHARLES DARWIN

JEAN BAPTISTE DE LAMARCK ●​ He is an English naturalist, proposed the
●​ He was the first evolutionist to believe theory of natural selection to explain
that organisms change over time. how species evolve over time.
●​ Using fossil records as a guide, ●​ His ideas were based on observations
Lamarck was able to develop three made during his voyage on the HMS
theories: Beagle, especially in the Galápagos
Theory of Need Islands.
●​ Organisms develop new traits because
they need them to survive. DARWINIAN THEORY
Example: Natural Selection
●​ Giraffes needed long necks to reach tall ●​ The theory states that all species share
trees, so they gradually developed a common ancestor and that new
longer necks. species are created through the
Theory of Use and Disuse inheritance of small variations that help
●​ Body parts that are used frequently organisms survive and reproduce.
become stronger and bigger.
●​ Body parts that are not used become
weaker and disappear over time.
Example:
●​ If a bird stops using its wings to fly, its
wings will become smaller over
generations.
 NO.9 MUTATION Changes in the Genetic Kinds of CHROMOSOMAL Mutation
Code TRANSLOCATION
MADE BY KIARA CUIZON FROM 10-ALLEN ●​ It is when a piece of one chromosome is
swapped with a piece from another
MUTATION chromosome.
●​ Mutations can occur in two different
types of cells: sex cells and body cells.
●​ Only mutations in sex cells pass on to
offspring.
●​ Mutations affect the sex cells of an
organism by changing the sequence of
nucleotides within a gene in a sperm or DELETION
an egg cell. ●​ It is a type of mutation involving the loss
●​ If these cells are fertilized, then the of genetic material.
mutated gene becomes a part of the
genetic makeup of the offspring.
●​ If mutation is severe, the resulting
protein may be nonfunctional, and the
embryo may not develop.
INVERSION
●​ It occurs when a section of DNA breaks
away from a chromosome during the
reproductive process and then
reattaches to the chromosome in a
reversed order.

MUTAGENS
●​ Mutation may be induced by factors
called mutagens.
●​ Mutagens are commonly in the form of
toxic chemicals, and harmful radiation. GENETIC Disorders
●​ Sometimes, mistakes occur in DNA CRI DU CHAT
replication, mitosis, and meiosis. ●​ It is caused by the deletion of part of the
short arm of chromosome 5.
TWO TYPES OF MUTATIONS IN GAMETE ●​ "Cri du chat" is French, and the
CELLS GENE MUTATIONS condition is so named because affected
●​ It refers to the permanent change in the babies make high-pitched cries that
DNA sequence that makes up a gene. sound like a cat.
CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS ●​ Affected individuals have wide-set eyes,
●​ It occurs at the chromosome level a small head and jaw, are moderately to
resulting in gene deletion, duplication, or severely mentally retarded, and very
rearrangement that may occur during short.
the cell cycle and meiosis.
DOWN'S SYNDROME HUMAN KARYOTYPING
●​ It is usually caused by an extra copy of ●​ It is the process of analyzing the
chromosome 21 (trisomy 21). number, size, shape, and arrangement
●​ Characteristics include decreased of chromosomes in a person's cells.
muscle tone, stockier build, ●​ It provides a visual representation of the
asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes and chromosomes, allowing scientists and
mild to moderate mental retardation. medical professionals to detect genetic
EDWARDS SYNDROME abnormalities and understand the
●​ It is the most common trisomy after chromosomal makeup of an individual.
Down's syndrome - trisomy of PROCESS OF KARYOTYPING
chromosome 18. ●​ A small sample of cells is collected (e.g.,
●​ Symptoms include mental and motor blood).
retardation and numerous congenital ●​ Scientists stop the cells during division,
anomalies causing serious health where the chromosomes are visible.
problems. ●​ They take a picture, arrange the
●​ About 99% die in infancy. chromosomes in pairs, and analyze for
●​ However, those who live past their first any abnormalities.
birthday, usually are quite healthy
thereafter. GENETIC ENGINEERING
●​ They have a characteristic hand ●​ It is a way scientists change the DNA of
appearance with clenched hands and living things to make them work better,
overlapping fingers. fix problems, or create new traits.
JACOBSEN SYNDROME ●​ It's like editing a recipe to improve it
●​ It is also called terminal 11q deletion -DNA is the "recipe" for how organisms
disorder. grow and function.
●​ It is a very rare disorder. Examples:
●​ Those affected have normal intelligence ●​ In humans: Fixing genes that cause
or mild mental retardation, with poor or diseases.
excessive language skills. ●​ In plants: Making crops that grow faster
●​ Most have a bleeding disorder called or resist pests.
Paris-Trousseau syndrome. ●​ In medicine: Creating bacteria that make
KLINEFELTER'S SYNDROME (XXY) insulin for diabetes treatment.
●​ Men with this condition are usually
sterile and tend to have longer arms and RECOMBINANT DNA (rDNA)
legs and to be taller than their peers. ●​ It is a DNA that is made by combining
●​ They are often shy and quiet and have a genes from different sources or
higher incidence of speech delay. organisms.
TURNER'S SYNDROME (X instead of XX or ●​ It's like cutting and pasting pieces of
XY) DNA to create something new.
●​ Female sexual characteristics are For example:
present but underdeveloped. ●​ Scientists take the human insulin gene
●​ They often have a short stature, low and insert it into bacteria.
hairline, abnormal eye features and ●​ The bacteria then produce insulin, which
bone development and a "caved-in" can be used as medicine for people with
appearance to the chest. diabetes.