Thermodynamics 2 second year M.SC. mohammed Q.

Alomary

Fourth week

Isentropic flow

Constant entropy flow is called isentropic flow. From a consideration of the second
law of thermodynamics, a reversible flow maintains a constant value of entropy. In
the theory of stream tubes, isentropic flow is the basis for compressible flow. The
well-known incompressible flow does not apply if 𝑀 ≪ 1 is violated. Theron is
called the Mach-number.
𝑢
𝑀=
𝑎

It is the relation between the flow-velocity u (fluid or object) and the speed of sound
a in the surrounding medium. In a caloric ideal gas the speed of sound depends on
the absolute temperature T (K), the adiabatic exponent and the specific gas constant
R (J/(kg K))

𝑎 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇

In this case, all thermodynamic properties (temperature, pressure, density and speed
of sound) can be expressed with explicit formulas, which are functions of the Mach
number! In the following all thermodynamic properties are related to their properties
at rest (u=0). From the energy equation for a frictionless, adiabatic flow you will get
that the enthalpy at rest ht is always the same regardless of an isentropic or non-
isentropic state change.

𝑢2
+ ℎ = ℎ𝑡
2

In fact, ℎ = 𝐶𝑝 ∗ 𝑇 the temperature is it as well. In contrary, the pressure depends

on how the gas is brought to rest. The pressure at rest is only obtained if the state

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Thermodynamics 2 second year M.SC. mohammed Q. Alomary

change is isentropic. If the entropy changes the pressure at rest changes as well, e.g.
when passing a shock.

Isentropic flow through nozzles

The final point to be made regarding the isentropic flow of an ideal gas through a
nozzle involves the effect of varying the back pressure (the pressure outside the
nozzle exit) on the mass rate of flow. Consider first a convergent nozzle as shown in
Fig. 1, which also shows the pressure ratio P/P0 along the length of the nozzle. The
conditions upstream are the stagnation conditions, which are assumed to be constant.
The pressure at the exit plane of the nozzle is designated P E, and the back pressure
PB. Let us consider how the mass rate of flow and the exit plane pressure PE /P0 vary
as the back pressure PB is decreased. These quantities are plotted in Fig.1. When PB
/P0 _ 1, there is of course no flow, and PE /P0 _ 1 as designated by point a. Next let
the back pressure PB be lowered to that designated by point b, so that PB/P0 is greater
than the critical-pressure ratio. The mass rate of flow has a certain value and P E _
PB. The exit Mach number is less than 1. Next let the back pressure be lowered to
the critical pressure, designated by point c. The Mach number at the exit is now unity,
and PE is equal to PB. When PB is decreased below the critical pressure, designated
by point d, there is no further increase in the mass rate of flow, and P E remains
constant at a value equal to the Mass critical pressure, and the exit Mach number is
unity.

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Thermodynamics 2 second year M.SC. mohammed Q. Alomary

Fig.1 rate of flow and exit pressure as a function of back pressure for a convergent
nozzle.
The drop in pressure from PE to PB takes place outside the nozzle exit. Under these
conditions the nozzle is said to be choked, which means that for given stagnation
conditions the nozzle is passing the maximum possible mass flow. Consider next a
convergent-divergent nozzle in a similar arrangement, Fig. 3.2. Point a designates
the conditions when PB _ P0 and there is no flow. When PB is decreased to the
pressure indicated by point b, so that PB/P0 is less than 1 but considerably greater
than the critical-pressure ratio, the velocity increases in the convergent section, but
M < 1 at the throat. Therefore, the diverging section acts as a subsonic diffuser in
which the pressure increases and velocity decreases. Point c designates the back
pressure at which M = 1 at the throat, but the diverging section acts as a subsonic
diffuser (with M = 1 at the inlet) in which the pressure increases and velocity
decreases. Point d designates one other back pressure that permits isentropic flow,
and in this case the diverging section acts as a supersonic nozzle, with a decrease in
pressure and an increase in velocity. Between the back pressures designated by
points c and d, an isentropic solution is not possible, and shock waves will be present.
This matter is discussed in the section that follows. When the back pressure is

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Thermodynamics 2 second year M.SC. mohammed Q. Alomary

decreased below that designated by point d, the exit-plane pressure PE remains

constant, and the drop in pressure from PE to PB takes place outside the nozzle. This
is designated by point e.

Fig.2 Nozzle pressure ratio as a function of back pressure for a reversible,

Convergent-divergent nozzle.
In the light of this example, we can conclude the discussion concerning the flow
through a convergent-divergent nozzle. Fig. 2 is repeated here as Fig.3 for
convenience, except that points f, g, and h have been added. Consider point d. We
have already noted that with this back pressure the exit plane pressure PE is just equal
to the back pressure PB, and isentropic flow is maintained in the nozzle. Let the back
pressure be raised to that designated by point f.

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Thermodynamics 2 second year M.SC. mohammed Q. Alomary

Fig. 3 Nozzle pressure ratio as a function of back pressure for a convergent–

divergent nozzle.

The exit-plane pressure PE is not influenced by this increase in back pressure, and
the increase in pressure from PE to PB takes place outside the nozzle. Let the back
pressure be raised to that designated by point g, which is just sufficient to cause a
normal shock to stand in the exit plane of the nozzle. The exit-plane pressure PE
(downstream of the shock) is equal to the back pressure P B, and M < 1 downstream
of the normal shock, the diverging part of the nozzle that is downstream of the shock
acts as a subsonic diffuser. As the back pressure is increased from h to c the shock
moves further upstream and disappears at the nozzle throat where the back pressure
corresponds to c. This is reasonable since there are no supersonic velocities involved
when the back pressure corresponds to c, and hence no shock waves are possible.

Shock wave

A shock wave is a type of propagating disturbance. Like an ordinary wave, it carries

energy and can propagate through a medium (solid, liquid, gas or plasma) or in some
cases in the absence of a material medium, through a field such as an electromagnetic
field. Shock waves are characterized by an abrupt, nearly discontinuous change in
the characteristics of the medium. Across a shock there is always an extremely rapid
rise in pressure, temperature and density of the flow. In supersonic flows, expansion
is achieved through an expansion fan. A shock wave travels through most media at
a higher speed than an ordinary wave.

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Thermodynamics 2 second year M.SC. mohammed Q. Alomary

Normal Shocks

In some range of back pressure, the fluid that achieved a sonic velocity at the throat
of a converging-diverging nozzle and is accelerating to supersonic velocities in the
diverging section experiences a normal shock, which causes a sudden rise in pressure
and temperature and a sudden drop in velocity to subsonic levels. Flow through the
shock is highly irreversible, and thus it cannot be approximated as isentropic. The
properties of an ideal gas with constant specific heats before (subscript x) and after
(subscript y) a shock is related by

Fig. 4 Control volume for flow across a normal shock wave.

We assume steady flow with no heat and work interactions, and no potential energy
changes. We have the following Conservation of mass:

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Thermodynamics 2 second year M.SC. mohammed Q. Alomary

Fig. 5 (a) Laval nozzle (convergent-divergent nozzle); (b) Pressure distribution

through a convergent-divergent nozzle with flow of compressible fluid.

Example: Steam is usually accelerated in the nozzle of a turbine before it strikes the
turbine blades. Steam enters an adiabatic nozzle at 7 MPa and 500°C with a velocity
of 70 m/s and exits at 5 MPa and 450°C. Assuming the surroundings to be at 25°C,
determine the exit velocity of the steam

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Thermodynamics 2 second year M.SC. mohammed Q. Alomary

Example: Steam enters a nozzle at 400°C and 800 kPa with a velocity of 10 m/s,
and leaves at 300°C and 200 kPa while losing heat at a rate of 25 kW. For an inlet
area of 800 cm2, determine the velocity and the volume flow rate of the steam at the
nozzle exit.

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Thermodynamics 2 second year M.SC. mohammed Q. Alomary

H.W.1: Air at 1 MPa and 600°C enters a

converging nozzle, shown below, with a velocity
of 150 m/s. Determine the mass flow rate through
the nozzle for a nozzle throat area of 50 cm2 when
the back pressure is (a) 0.7 MPa and (b) 0.4 MPa.

H.W.2 : Air enters a converging–diverging nozzle,

shown in Fig. 17–28, at 1.0 MPa and 800 K with
negligible velocity. The flow is steady, one-
dimensional, and isentropic with k 5 1.4. For an exit
Mach number of Ma 5 2 and a throat area of 20 cm2,
determine (a) the throat conditions, (b) the exit plane
conditions, including the exit area, and (c) the mass flow rate through the nozzle.