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39 views36 pagesZNote For Theory A Level
The document covers various aspects of data representation, including number systems, binary and floating-point representations, and error checking methods. It explains how different number bases (decimal, binary, hexadecimal) work, the significance of bits and bytes, and the differences between fixed and floating-point numbers. Additionally, it discusses character encoding systems like ASCII and Unicode, as well as the digital representation of images and sound.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
39 views36 pagesZNote For Theory A Level
The document covers various aspects of data representation, including number systems, binary and floating-point representations, and error checking methods. It explains how different number bases (decimal, binary, hexadecimal) work, the significance of bits and bytes, and the differences between fixed and floating-point numbers. Additionally, it discusses character encoding systems like ASCII and Unicode, as well as the digital representation of images and sound.
Uploaded by
Adenekan Therhophic OrlanshilayCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 36
AQAA LEVEL
Prepared for Adenekan fer persnal Use or ces er
1, Data Representation
1.1. Number Systems
+ Natural Numbers: base 10 numbers used for everyday
counting, Postve integers for Dto=
* Uses: counter n processor, identi location of data
ina structure, score variables, counting
N= (0,1,2,34...)
+ Integer Numbers: whole numbers (no fractional part)
that can be posite or negative
Z=(...-3,-%—1)0)1,2,3,4...)
+ Rational Numbers: canbe expressed fractionally, as
quotients). Quotient can equal 1 (5/5=1 soll integers
are rational
+ Denominator cannot be 0
Q = (1/3,1/2,3/4...)
+ rational Numbers values after decimal place do not
repeat. Cannot be represented as 2 ratio between two
integers.
"Programmer needs to decide how many decimal
places to use
+ Egv2orm
+ Real Numbers: any postve or negative number, with or
withouta factional part. Fractional part canbe any
length, allowing any level of precsion/accuraty
+ Refines possible reaorld quantities
+ Usesi measurements, CNC, time, robotics, data
control systems
+ Ordinal Numbers: number used to identily postion
telatve to other numbers
+ Cardinal Numbers: a number that defines the sizeof
something
+ Well Ordered Set: group of related numbers with 8
defined order
1.2. Number Bases
“Number base! defines how many digits are used to
represent a number.
+ Decimal: uses 10 digi (0 + ) and increases by powers
of 10
‘Uses: humans for counting
+ Base 10:
+ Binary: uses 2 digs (0 and 1)
‘+ Uses: computers, because electronic gates can only
be open or closed
+ Base2:#
+ Hexadecimal: used 16 digits (0+ F)
‘+ Why: shorthand for binary, as 2 hex digits can
represent a byte. Requires less digits than binary,
takes up less screen space, easier for humans to
Understand than binary strings
‘Uses: HTML hex colour codes, MAC addresses,
‘memory dumps, error messages
Base 16: ft.
+ Binary -> Decimal using binary columns, add up all
values that have a1 underneath.
+ Decimal —- Binary using binary columns, see if value will
fit under most significant colurnn, then repeat with
remainder and next colurnn. Or, start with the least
significant column and divide by 2 each time. If
remainder is 0, then 0 is placed inthe column.
+ Decimal -> Hex convert to binary, split into nibbles, then
tur each nibble into hex, and push values together.
‘+ Hex — Decimal take each hex value, turnit into binary,
then push the nibbles of binary together. Turn binary
into decimal
1.3. Units of Information
+ Bit: the fundamental unit of information, that is either 0
ort
+ Oisoff, and 1 is on
inary Digit
+ Byte: a group of 8 bits
‘+ 2n values represented with n bits: where nis the
umber of bits used, 2n is the number of possible
‘combinations
‘+ Eg. 2°=B, so with 3 bts, there are 8 combinations
‘Units: binary increments in 102, Decimal units
Increment in 1000
‘+ Inthe past, kilobyte has been used to mean kiblbyte
(1024 bits)
W/\W/\W/ZNOTES.ORG ces er
1.4. Binary Number System
Unsigned Binary
‘+ Binary that only represents positive whole numbers
‘+ Minimum value (for n bits) = 0
‘+ Maximum value (for n bits) = 2n-1
+ eg. maximum number in 8 bits = (241) = 255
igned binary: binary that represents a positive or
negative whole number
‘+ Adding unsigned binary: add the two numbers together
inbinary
+ Carrying a t: where the answer of 1+1 = 10, or 14141
1
‘+ Multiplying unsigned binary: multiply the binary by the
first digit ofthe second number. Repeat forthe next
ligt, shifting the answer along by 1. Then add che
resultant numbers together for the answer.
‘Two's Complement (Signed Binary)
‘+ Amethod that can be used to represent negative
Integers, where the most significant bits negative.
Converting to denary
‘+ An B-bittwo's complement number has -128 as the most
significant bit,
+ Write out denary equivalents (with sufficient columns
(Goubles each time) for the length ofthe binary
string)
+ Enter binary string in eg. 10071700)
+ Add up values (eg. = 100)
Converting from denary
W/\W/\W/ZNOTES.ORG
+ Flipthe bits and add 1
‘+ Write out the positive binary equivalent
+ eg, +102 = 01100110
pall bits
‘+ Perform binary addktion with 1 to get the answer
‘+ Computers can only add binary, soto perform the
calculation 20-13 = 20 + (-13)
+ 20=a0010100
213211110011
+ The answer can be checked by converting the final
answer into denary
‘+ Inthis case there is an overflow bit. tis handled
separately to the calculation
+ Calculate range: using bts, 256 numbers can be
represented (-128 to 127)
+ Arbitrary number of
represented
+ Unsigned binary: 2n- (as 0is representable)
+ Two's complement range
“+ Minimum representable value = (-2n-1),
‘+ Maximum representable value (2n-1-1)
2n numbers can be
Fractional Parts
Fixed point
‘+ Representing a fractional part using a fixed decimal
point. After the point, aigits become fractions
‘= Smallest representable number using 8-it fixed
point is 0900.0001 = 1/16 = 0.0625, 256 combinations
‘an be produced
‘+ Negative numbers can be made by making the MSB.
negative
+ eg (8) +4424 H+ O15
Floating point ces er
‘+ Representation of number where the decimalbinary
point moves, Uses two's complement
‘+ Mantissa: represents the significant digits (actual
value)
+ Exponent: represents the power to which a number
is raised to (how many places the points to move)
‘+ Floating point to decimal: 00001100 0011
+ Work out the exponent. Ifitis negative, the point in
the mantissa moves to the left. f positive, move to
the right.
+ 0011 = 43
|0}*+J0-]0-101111]0/0]
lolololojelti11ojoy
© Add colurnn headings to the mantissa and work out the
value. Any columns after the point are fractional.
005+0.25=0.75
+ Decimal to floating point: -10.5
+ Write out positive fixed point representation
oFlip the its and add 1 to get number into two's
complement
‘© Normalise the number by moving the point so that it starts
in 10 (fora positive number: 01)
Itfeloltsolti1 10104
O Fillin mantissa and exponent (number of places the point
moved)
It fort foiss4 ojo} [1poyoy
1.5. Binary Errors
W/\W/\W/ZNOTES.ORG
+ Rounding errors: it's not possible to represent every
decimal number, because fractions are being used -the
representation of some numbers may be inaccurate.
+ eg, 0.95 = 19/20, The binary progression of fractions.
allows us to get close, but never exact.
‘+ Some numbers (0.110) can never be accurately
represented.
‘+ Absolute rounding errors: the difference between the
value intended to be stored, and the actual value that
can be stores
+ Eg, 6.95 (target value) - 6.9375 (actual) = 0.0125
+ Relative rounding errors: percentage difference
between actual result and the expected result
‘relative error= (absolute valuey/(number intended to
be stored)
+ Ee, 0.0125/6.95 *1
Underftow and Overftow
18%
+ Will use erroneous results or a program crash. Can be
dealt with using flags
+ Underflow: when a number is too small o be
represented with the number of bits alocated
‘+ Example: representing 1/32 s impossible using &-bit
fixed point numbers - smallest that can be
represented is 1/16
+ Overflow: when a number is too bi
with the number of bits allocated
to be represented
‘+ Example: adding 00000001 (1) and 01171111 (127),
would praduce 10000000 (128), but in two's
complement, the answer would be 128
1.6. Floating Point vs. Fixed Point ces er
+ Range
+ Floating point can represent a wider range of
numbers with same number of bits as fixed point
+ Precision
+ Fixed point’s absolute error does not change
between numbers, so retains precision
+ Precision can vary wit floating point, asthe binary
point does not have a fixed position
+ Speed of calculation
+ Fixed point quicker to process, asthe binary point
does not need to be moved for each number
Normalisation of Floating Point
‘+ Normalisation adjusts numbers onto a common scale
that represents them as accurately as possible relative to
the number of bits available
Ensures that there is only one way to represent a
number
+ Positive normalised: must start with 0.1
‘+ Negative normalised: must start wi
1,7. Coding Systems
Character Form of Decimal
ch character has a character code, which is its
representation in binary
‘+ Decimal numbers can be represented either with a
character code or in pure binary
‘+ Character Code: used just to represent a number,
where the actual value is nat crucial lke ina phone
umber
‘+ Pure Binary: used to represent a number when
ns need to be performed, and the decimal
‘number will equal the binary value
ASCII and Unicode
+ ASCII: American Standard Code far Information
Incerchange. Introduced as a standard binary coding
system for characters and numbers
‘Standard: 7-bit code gives 128 permutations
+ Extended: #-bit code gives 256 permutations
‘+ Umitations: 256 characters not enough, no multi-
lingual support, web use requires universal coding
system, new programs need wider character range
+ Unicode: standard binary coding system that has
surpassed ASCII since it allows for more permutations
land hence more characters/languages. ASCII was
‘absorbed into Unicode, so all original codes remain the
same
‘+ UTF-16: 16-bit code allows characters for 20+
countries, special characters and emojs
‘Vitalin the age of international communication so
that data does not arive corrupted
1.8. Error Checking and Correction
+ Parity Bits: an adaltional bie added onto a binary string
‘to make total number of 1s/9s even or odd. Ina byte, 7
bits are sent + the adcitional parity bit
‘+ Even Parity: parity bit added to make total number
of 1s an even number. Checked on receiving end
+ Odd Parity: party bit added to make total number of
‘1s an odd number. Checked on receiving end
‘+ Majority Voting: each bit in a binary code Is sent a set
number of times, and then checking i the binary digit is
the same each time.
‘+ 10 sent as [4] = 11110000
+ Aninvalid transmission of 10 as [4] could be:
soro001
+ Checksums: isthe result ofa cryptographic hash
function ran on a piece of data to return a value. If the
value returned is equal to the value provided by the
‘source data, then transmission was successful
+ Check Digits: digit is added on the end of binary data to
check itis accurate, Modulo-11 is a common way to
calculate a check digit
‘Eg, 23045 is sent as 230456, so check digit is added,
and then ‘modded’ until the value reaches 0. If
calculation performed on receiving end does not
match, and error message is created
W/\W/\W/ZNOTES.ORG ces er
1.9, Encoding with
Bit Patterns
‘+ Abit pattern can represent
+ Binary digit/signed binary digit
+ Character code
+ Phxel ofa picture
+ Note in a sound field
+ Length of a tine
+ Volume of a note
‘+ Astring of binary represents an electrical signal that is
ether high or ow. The electrical signal fist needs to be
turned into a digital signal, which can then be interpreted
into the appropriate form of data
Analogue and Digital
+ Analogue: uses continuously values which produces @
continuously changing waveform
‘+ Digital discrete (discontinuous) values to represent
values
‘+ ADC: an analogue to digital converter turns real world
continuously changing waveforms into a digital signals
for computers
+ Samples analogue signals at set time values and
records amplitude
+ Quantization rounds amplitude up or down so value
fits in bit resolution
+ Required so that computers can interpret the
analogue signals that sensors produce
‘+ DAC: turns a digital signal into an analogue waveform
real world devices can use
‘+ Required to turn a digital audio signal into an
analogue signal for speakers
1.10, Images
W/\W/\W/ZNOTES.ORG
Bitmapped Graphics
+ Pixel: the smallest picture element of an image
+ Pixel Grid: a bitmap image 's made up of a grid of many
pixels. Each pixel is assigned a binary value that controls
its colour
‘+ Resolution: an image's size. Can be represented by
Phxels/Dots Per Inch, which Is how many plxels/dats
there are in each square inch
resolution — width x height(inpizele)
pizelsnumber = width x height x dotsperinch
+ Colour Depth: depends on the numberof bts/bytes
assigned to represent a pixels colour. Representing a
pixel with a byte (8 bts) gives 256 possible colours (2°=
256)
+ Storage * resolution x colour depth
‘+ Metadata: bitmap graphic contains file information in a
header such as; width, height, colour depth, camera,
location, date and time.
+ Storage requirement
pixels
olour depth x number of
Vector Graphics.
+ Representation: made up of objects and coordinates so
graphic is mathematcally controlled
‘© The properties for each object in the graphic are
stored in a lst
+ Wicth of ine
+ start/end coordinate points
+ Colour
+ Allows the graphic to be recreated at any size and
editing ofthe file
+ Object Properties: objects such as shapes and lines,
hhave x and y starting coordinates and a direction of path,
Each path chen has values for stroke colour, shape,
curve, thickness, fill olour,
1.11. Sound
Digital Representation of Sound ces er
‘+ Analogue sound waves must be sampled to turn them
Inco digital waves, Since analogue signals vary
continuously, readings must be taken at fixed intervals
‘+ Sample resolution: how many intervals of amplitude
are recorded
‘+ Sampling rate: number of samples taken per second
‘+ Nyquist’s Theorem: sampling rate should be at least
double the highest frequency desired
' Ensures complete coverage of peaks and troughs in
the analogue signal - allowing faithful sound
reproduction
+ Since the upper frequency for humans is 20,000H,
the analogue frequency must be sampled at
40,0002
filesize = frequency x bitdepth x duration
‘+ Frequency is the frequency ofthe sample rate
MIDI
W/\W/\W/ZNOTES.ORG
+ Purpose: protocol for recording and playing back music,
‘or controling devices. Instead of direct sound
representation, i transmits data to control how sounds
are produced
+ Event messages: control the properties ofa sound in a
file - recorded in binary to communicate between a MIDI
device and the processor
+ When to play/stop arnote
+ Note lengthvvalume/velocity/pitch
‘+ Effects to apply to notes
+ Timing notes to play with other sounds/notes or with
other MIDI devices
+ Advantages
‘Smaller file size than a pure sound fle - load faster
Fully editable - each note/instrument can be changed
Supports a huge range of instruments
High quality and authentic sound/instrument
reproduction
1.12, Data Compression ces er
+ Data compression reduces the number of bits required
to represent data, so the fle takes up less space
‘+ Images and video are often compressed as they take
up a lot of storage, but text files can also be
‘+ Lossless: data can be accurately and exactly reproduced.
No data s lost
‘+ Run Length Encoding: sequences of the same
repeated data are stored as a single data value and a
count
‘+ Works on binary, pixel and character levels
+ Eg BBBBAAC = BA A2C1
+ Dictionary Encoding: stores language patterns and
‘commonly used phrases in a dictionary, that are then
referenced
+ Tokens are assigned to common text snippets,
and then included in the compressed data
+ Needed far program code, text files, where data
loss's disastrous
+ Lossy: data degradation occurs. Produces smaller file
than lossless, but data is lost, quality normally OK
+ Sound: percept
ing removes frequencies
Which are less audible to humans, and less crucial
+ Pictures: grouping of lke colours together in blocks,
so less colour data must be stored
+ Video: interframe compression keeps stationary
pbxels the same, just continues to show them, while
only refreshing pixels that have moved,
Temporal/Spatial redundancy keeps blocks of pixels.
that are the same betweeniwithin a frame
+ Used on pictures, video and sound where data
retention is nat crucial. Cannot return to original
1.13. Encryption
W/\W/\W/ZNOTES.ORG
2. Fundamentals of Computer
Systems
2.1, Hardware and Software
Relationship
‘+ Hardware and software work together to create a
‘computer system. Without either, they would be useless
‘+ Hardware: physical components of a computer system
+ Software: any executable program (set of instructions)
‘on a computer system
Classification of Software
++ Application Software: programs to perform user
specific tasks that are not related to the computer's
‘operation
+ Email, word processing, calculations etc.
‘+ System Software: programs to set up and run the
‘computer. Many aspects are invisible to the user.
Supports the application software
‘System Software
+ Operating Systems: a collection of software that links
together the hardware and applications to hide the true
complexity of a computer system from the user and
other software ina virtual machine
Hardware ces er
+ Utility Programs: maintain or enhance the computer's
‘operation, computer can however run without them
+ eg: Anti-Virus, Defragmentation, Back-Up software
“+ Libraries: a collection of frequently used routines that
can be called by other programs. in Windows, DLL files
are used and loaded as required
‘+ Contain functions such as saving and displaying text
+ Translators: convert programs into executable machine
code that the computer can understand
‘Assembler, Compiler and Interpreter
2.2. Programming Languages
W/\W/\W/ZNOTES.ORG
+ Low level languages
‘+ Machine Code
+ Lowest level of code, 0s and 15. Written in binary,
based on CPUs instruction set Every language is
translated to Machine Code
‘+ Characteristics: high risk of input errors, hard to
find errors, not portable co different
architectures, long,
+ Uses: where fast execution or direct processor
access s needed
+ Assembly Code: one-to-one relationship with
‘machine code, uses abbreviated codes for
Instructions
+ Characteristics: not portable, one-to-one
relationship, quick execution, compact due to
‘optimisation, high level manipulation of processor
registers
+ Uses: realtime applications (vital fast response),
device drivers, embedded systems (direct
hardware manipulation)
‘+ High level languages
‘+ Procedural (Imperative): computer follows a list of
Instructions, every time
+ Characteristics: process focussed, subroutines,
fopen data sharing
+ Uses: fist HLLs, CLis, basic programs
‘+ Object-Orientated: instructions held in objects, runs
once object has been interacted with
+ Characteristics: encapsulates data, uses classes,
bottom up design, functions
+ Uses: all modern GUI programs
‘+ Event Driven: program flow is determined by events
(user input, sensors, messages.)
+ Characteristics: ime driven, event/trigger
functions, subroutines
+ Uses: GUls, user-input based action
‘+ Declarative: describes what the program should
‘accomplish, rather than how
+ Characteristics: non-destructive assignment,
rnon-
Ser eciver MAC acreses
‘Senderecive adresses
Protea are
‘Packet and sequence numbers
p{ Bosriee2 bes
Data or parodies
Seneca rer ang ratio
‘+ Router: network device that forwards data packers
between computer networks to the correct destination
based on an address
+ Uses the Network Translation Table
+ Gateway: a piece of hardware that can convert between
‘wo protocols when data Is passed between networks
that use different protocols by stripping off packet
header data and replacing it with new header
Information for the new format
‘+ Routing: finds the optimum route between sender and
receiver, where there are many possible routes. Router is
sed to send data to next network node - it knows
where to send data from header info
‘At each stage, data packets are sent to next router in
the path, with reference to routing table
+ Routing table: stores information on possible routes
the data packet may take to next node. Identifies
next step
+ Uniform Resource Locator: full address used to find
files on the Internet
omen “San ES men
https:/Awen.exampleurl.com/infofaboutus. htm!
ili iliac aia aa
= onanare
U\WIWZNOTES.ORG
+ Fully Qualified Domain Name: when the domain name
‘and host server indication are combined
‘wu, + bbc.co.uk = www. bbe.co.uk
‘+ Domain name: identifies organisations or groups on the
Internet. Eg. bbc.co.uk
‘+ bbe: organisation name
+ co: ncicated itis a company. gov, org are others.
+ suk: UK registered, .es is Spain, .nzis New Zealand
+ Organisation: hierarchical system. Roat zone
‘managed by IANA, with oversight from ICANN. ICANN
‘manages registration and assignment of TLOs
1, DNS root zone
2.Top Level Domain
3, Second Level Domain
4, Third Level Domain
‘+ IP address: unique 32-bit number that identifies network
devices
+ Domain service: when a domainname is assigned, itis
mapped to an IP address. A Domain Name Server (DNS)
stores the link
‘= User's device requests IP address from DNS server,
and itis returned, Then browser establishes
connection with P address
‘+ Hundreds of DNS servers around the world are
connected, so that if one doesn't have the mapping, it
routes the request to another that might have
‘+ Humans type in domain names because they are
easier to remember chan IP addresses
+ Internet registries: are organisations that manage and
allocate domain names and IP addresses. Internet
Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers has
department called Internet Assigned Numbers Authority,
‘who manage 5 Regional internet Registries ces er
6.4. TCP/IP 6.5. Wireless Networking
+ Asuite of protocols for sending information around the
Internet or a network
e} ec ees
OMI
@ Deena es
anya 9 225 nes Fdctan oun Ah etre Th ures
‘Sitotueatarsesna necro enon are steties nea ce as el
Ce 6.6. Security
ce
‘+ RTS/CTS: overcomes problem of hidden nodes that
CSMA/CA cannot find. If idle channel, ‘Request To Send”
‘message sent. I server idle, ‘Clear To Send’ message is
sent, If CTS not received, data not sent
‘+ [SSID: Service Set Identifier I a locally unique 32-
character code that acts as a network identifier allowing
a data frame to be transmitted, Included in the header of
each data packet
Is required for security, But doesnt affect security
Standard method of ensuring right device connects to
right network ISSID: Service Set Identifier isa locally
Unique 32-character code that acts as a network
identifier alowing 2 data frame to be transmitted.
Included in the header of each data packet
Is required for security, But doesn’t affect security
Standard method of ensuring right device connects to
right network
YWWZNOTES.ORG ‘Siotectr sean ne baybyccnsan arg ssesiaaon oa ces er
‘+ Asymmetric encryption: uses two related keys per
session, Both a sender and a receiver have both keys.
‘Mathematically related keys, but near impossible to work
‘out private key from public key, due to 1024-bits used
+ Computer A has private and public key. Public key
‘an be seen by anyone
Computer B also has both keys
A encrypts data using B's public key
Data sent to B
B decrypts the data using B's private key, that only B
knows
Bb
UWI ZNOTES.ORG
+ Digital certificates: a way of proving encrypted message
is from a trusted source. Used to authenticate a service
is genuine
‘+ Important for sharing public keys in asymmet
encryption
‘+ Contain organisation name, domain name, server
name, and a Certification Authority serial number
+ Certification Authority: trusted organisation that
issues digital certificates and signatures
+ Digital signatures: uses mathematical functions and
public/private key method to ensure sender authenticity
‘+ Hash created from message by applying public
hashing algorithm
Hash encrypted using private key A
Hash added to message as igital signature’
B uses public key Ato decrypthash
Hash put through the same publicly known algorithm
and result is compared to orginal
‘+ Iftwo hashes are the same; authenticated. Else, it
cannot be authenticated
6.7. Malware: ce as el
6.8, Standard Application Protocols
W/\W/\W/ZNOTES.ORG
6.9. IP Addresses
+ Aunique number, split into a network identifier and host
identifier, that identifies devices on a network
+ Domain name (IP proxy): transferred to a domain name
server, which converts ito an IP address. Ifthe DNS.
cannot find the IP address, itis transferred to another
server with the same top-level domain
+ Subnet masking: splits the IP address into a subnet
identifier and specific computer identifier. Performs an
AND operation between IP and masks:
+ 255.000 (Class A)
+ 255,255.00 (Class 8)
+ 255.255.2550 (Class C)
IF the two computers are on the sare subné
the result of the subnet mask should be equal
‘+ Remaining parts of the address define how many
devices can be on the network. In this case, 255
then
‘IP standards: original vé does not provide enough
permutations for each device on the Internet, so v6 was
Introduces with vastly more combinations and uses hex.
allowing fora greater range withing each group of
numbers. AllIP concepts apply to both
+ IPva: xy.z.n~ each letter is @ number 0 to 255, 32-bit
address, 4 groups of 8 bits
“IPG: FEFF.FFFF-FFEF.FEFP-FEFE:FFPE-EFFESFFEF, 128-bit
address, with 8 groups of 16 bits
‘+ Non-routable: only for internal use
+ 172A6xxt0 172.31.xx
+ 192,168xx
‘+ Endings: 0 Network Identifiers Address, 255
Network Broadcast Address, 1 Gateway
‘+ Routable: all others are public
‘+ Must be unique and registered (ata cost)
‘+ Routers know the difference; non-routable addresses
are directed internally
6.10. DHCP ces er
‘+ Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol: a set of rules
that issues unique IP addresses on a LAN, as devices
connect to it
‘+ Stati: IP address remains the same
‘+ Dynamic: IP address is automaticaly allocated for the
session (by 2 program upon logging on), but might be
reserved/reused for later use
+ Very effcient for busy networks as an admin doesn't
have to manually assign IP addresses to each device
+ Dedicated server: manages alist of assignable IP
addresses and gives them to devices. A device may
receive the next item in thelist, or thelr last used one
6.11. Network Address Translation
(NAT)
‘+ Matches up private IP addresses with public ones.
+ Allows duplicate IP addresses across Internet
+ Increases security as private IP is not transmitted
across Internet
‘+ Works by logging connections and mappings between
Private IPs and port numbers, and corresponding public
IPs, Entries are added toa translation table, where look
Ups are performed
+ Process
+ Device on internal network sends request packet to
server with internal IP and port number
+ Router replaces private IP with public IP and adds Its
‘own port number (unique only for a certain amount
of time)
+ Router adds mapping data into translation table
+ Data sent back from server is received by router -
looks up port number in translation table to work out
Which device sent original request
+ If there is no match between port number and
translation table, packet is dropped asit may be a
hacking attempt (or nota valid response)
+ Public P replaced by private P and port numbers for
device who requested data
+ Reply packet delivered to request device. Internal IP
land port numbers are never made public on the
‘external network
6.12. Port Forwarding
W/\W/\W/ZNOTES.ORG
+ Application of NAT that allows computers on the internet
to connect to a service within a private network (with
rnon-routable IP), by routing data through additional
ports
+ Port: logical connection that uniquely identifies
programs and services, used by them to exchange
information
+ Process: client uses router's public IP address to initiate
Routers programmed so requests and packets sent to
specific ports are then forwarded to the device with the
correct IP address on the neswork
‘+ Applications: remote desktop connections
6.13. Client-Server Model
+ Client sends request message to server, and server
responds to request by replying with a response
message to client
‘+ Websocket protocol: an API establishing full-duplex
‘socket connection between browser and server over
‘TCP. Persistent connection that allows both parties to
send data atthe same time
‘Routed through port 80
+ Sent in packets called messages, with very litle
header data, so data transfer Is fast
‘+ API: subroutines that allow one program to interface
with another
+ Enables accessing data from 3rd party
+ Hides system complexity from program
+ Extends functionality
+ Adds security by acting as a gate keeper
‘+ CRUD: acronym to describe the 4 main processes with
databases. Without these, a database will ot be
complete. Have a one-to-one SQL relationship ces er
‘+ REST (Representational State Transfer): methodology
for implementing networked database, uses HTTP to
carry out CRUD functions.
+ Client requests from server
+ Service requested isthe database defined in the URL,
Which contains the query
+ APLrun from server and accessed by bowser to
coordinate
+ HTML files used to ensure data is displayed in correct
format on client side
+ Requests and data are transferred using HTTP
+ JSON or XML used to return query.
‘+ RESTful principles
+ Database connected to browser using REST relies on
HTTP request methods
+ REST allows JavaScript to talkto server through HTTP
‘+ REST API created and run on server, browser
JavaScript calls APL
++ JSON or XML can be used to transmit data
+ JavaScript references by HTML file
+ JSON vs XML
ro ie
Panna ,
6.14. Thin vs. Thick Client Computing
UWI ZNOTES.ORG
+ Thin: a powerful server with lots of resources is accessed
by 2 lower-performance computer. The server runs the
software and the machine acts asa terminal
‘+ Terminal: low-powered device with no hard-disk that
displays the software running on the server
+ Thick: individual computers have more resources and
Performance, so software is ran from the client end, The
server doesn't need to be as powerful, and performs
roles such as: authentication, file storage, backups and
antivirus
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7. Fundamentals of
Databases
7.1. Conceptual Data Models
‘+ Entities in a database can have relationships:
* Oneto-one
+ One-to-many
‘+ Many-to-many (should be avoided)
Cone Ae associated wth one &
a 8
ne As associated wth one or more 8's
eo Oe
Cone or more A's ae abzocisted with ane or more Be
a 8
7.2. Relational Databases ce as el
‘+The concept of database creation that uses tables of
related data with relationships between the data. Data in
different tables is inked together to express
relationships that exist between data in ables
‘+ Entity: an object about which data willbe stored
‘+ Attribute: a piece of data or characteristic stored about
each instance of an entity
+ Primary Key: an attribute that can be used to uniquely
Identify each record within the table
+ Composite Primary Key: combination of two attributes
to produce a primary key
‘+ Foreign Key: an attribute that links to the primary key in
another tab, used to link tables together
73. Database Design and Normalisation
+ Use of normalisation
+ Remove data duplication
+ Eliminate data inconsistency
‘+ Ist Normal Form: atomic data test
‘+ 2nd Normal Form: no partial key dependencies
‘+ 3rd Normal Form: no non-key dependencies
+ Alldata must be atomic: no repeating
groups/attibutes
+ Nopartial dependencies, where a non-key atribute
depends on part, but not all of the primary key
+ Norion-key dependencies where a non-key attribute
depends on another non-key atribute
7.4, Structured Query Language (SQL)
‘+ Data types in SQL
in epee
Date Do Mont erm
+ SQL operators
+ Define a table
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CREATE ATEASE
CREATE TABE
‘
CColumnNane DATATYPE NULL/NOT NULL,
)
+ Define keys
PRIMARY KEY (Field)
FOREIGN KEY (Feld) REFERENCES (field)
+ Alter table
ALTER TABLE