Ap Review-Unit Iv 1750-1914
Ap Review-Unit Iv 1750-1914
QUESTIONS OF PERIODIZATION
Very important characteristics that distinguish 1750-1914 from previous eras in world history include:
• European dominance of long-distance trade - Whether by "unequal treaties" or colonization, sea-based
trade gave European countries control of all major trade circuits in the world.
• "Have" and "have not" countries created by Industrialization - The Industrial Revolution gave huge
economic and political advantages to countries where it occurs over countries that remained primarily
agricultural.
• Inequalities among regions increase due to imperialism - Industrialized countries set out to form
overseas empires, sometimes through colonization and other times by economic and/or political
domination.
• Political revolutions inspired by democracy and desire for independence - These revolutions continue
to the present, but "seed" revolutions that put new democratic forms of government in place occurred
during this era. The "nation" emerged as a new type of political organization.
The Industrial Revolution brought about such sweeping changes that it virtually transformed the world, even areas
in which industrialization did not occur. The concept seems simple: invent and perfect machinery to help make
human labor more efficient - but that's part of its importance. The change was so basic that it could not help but
affect all areas of people's lives in every part of the globe.
The Industrial Revolution began in England in the late 18th century, and spread during the 19th century to Belgium,
Germany, Northern France, the United States, and Japan. Almost all areas of the world felt the effects of the
Industrial Revolution because it divided the world into "have" and "have not" countries, with many of the latter being
controlled by the former. England's lead in the Industrial Revolution translated into economic prowess and political
power that allowed colonization of other lands, eventually building a worldwide British Empire.
WHY BRITAIN?
Economic growth in Britain was fueled by a number of factors:
• An Agricultural Revolution - Beginning in the early 1700s, wealthy landowners began to enlarge their farms
through enclosure, or fencing or hedging large blocks of land for experiments with new techniques of
farming. Farmers pushed out of their jobs by enclosure either became tenant farmers or they moved to
cities. Better nutrition boosted England's population, creating the first necessary component for the
Industrial Revolution: labor.
• A technological revolution - England also was the first to experience a technological revolution, a series of
inventions built on the principles of mass production, mechanization, and interchangeable parts.
• Natural resources - Britain had large and accessible supplies of coal and iron - two of the most important
raw materials used to produce the goods for the early Industrial Revolution. Also available was water power
to fuel the new machines, harbors for its merchant ships, and rivers for inland transportation.
• Economic strength - During the previous era, Britain had already built many of the economic practices and
structures necessary for economic expansion, as well as a middle class (the bourgeoisie) that had
experience with trading and manufacturing goods. Banks were well established, and they provided loans
for businessmen to invest in new machinery and expand their operations.
• Political stability - Britain's political development during this period was fairly stable, with no major internal
upheavals occurring. Although Britain took part in many wars during the 1700s, none of them took place on
British soil, and its citizens did not seriously question the government's authority.
NEW INVENTIONS
The earliest transformation of the Industrial Revolution was Britain's textile industry. In 1750 Britain already
exported wool, linen, and cotton cloth, and the profits of cloth merchants were boosted by speeding up the process
by which spinners and weavers made cloth. Wealthy textile merchants set up the machines in factories, and had
the workers come to these places to do their work. At first the factories were set up near rivers and streams for
water power, but other inventions later made this unnecessary. Before the late 1700s Britain's demand for cotton
was met by India, but they increasingly came to depend on the American south, where plantation production was
speeded by Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton gin, a machine that efficiently separated the cotton fiber from the
seed. By 1810 southern plantations used slave labor to produce 85 million pounds of cotton, up from 1.5 million in
1790.
TRANSPORTATION IMPROVEMENTS
Once the textile industry began its exponential growth, transportation of raw materials to factories and
manufactured goods to customers had to be worked out. New inventions in transportation spurred the Industrial
Revolution further. A key invention was the steam engine that was perfected by James Watt in the late 1790s.
Perhaps the most revolutionary use of steam energy was the railroad engine, which drove English industry after
1820. Railroads revolutionized life in Britain in several ways:
1) Railroads gave manufacturers a cheap way to transport materials and finished products.
2) The railroad boom created hundreds of thousands of new jobs for both railroad workers and miners.
3) The railroad industry spawned new industries and inventions and increased the productivity of others.
4) Railroads transported people, allowing them to work in cities far away from their homes and travel to resort areas
for leisure.
While migrants to the United States came to fill jobs in the developing industrial society, those who went to Latin
America mostly worked on agricultural plantations. About 4 million Italians came to Argentina in the 1880s and
1890s, and others went to Brazil, where the government paid the voyage over for Italian migrants who came to
work on coffee plantations after slavery was abolished. Others came from Asia, with more than 15,000 indentured
laborers from China working in sugarcane fields in Cuba during the 19th century. Chinese and Japanese laborers
came to Peru where they worked on cotton plantations, in mines, and on railroad lines.
WORKING CONDITIONS
Industrialization offered new opportunities to people with important skills, such as carpentry, metallurgy, and
machine operations. Some enterprising people became engineers or opened their own businesses, but for the vast
majority of those who left their farming roots to find their fortunes in the cities, life was full of disappointments. Most
industrial jobs were boring, repetitive, and poorly paid. Workdays were long with few breaks, and workers
performed one simple task over and over with little sense of accomplishment. Unlike even the poorest farmer or
craftsman, factory workers had no control over tools, jobs, or working hours. Factory workers could do very little
about their predicament until the latter part of the period, when labor unions formed and helped to provoke the
moral conscience of some middle class people.
Social class distinctions were reinforced by Social Darwinism, a philosophy by Englishman Herbert Spencer. He
argued that human society operates by a system of natural selection, whereby individuals and ways of life
automatically gravitate to their proper station. According to Social Darwinists, poverty was a "natural condition" for
inferior individuals.
A very different situation existed in France. No established nobility existed in the United States, so when
independence was achieved, the new nation had no old social and political structure to throw off. In contrast, the
Revolution in France was a civil war, a rising against the Ancien Regime, or the old kingdom that had risen over
centuries. The king, of course, had absolute power, but the nobility and clergy had many privileges that no one else
had. Social classes were divided into three estates: first was the clergy, second the nobility, and the Third Estate
was everyone else. Part of the problem was that the growing class of the bourgeoisie had no political privileges.
They read Enlightenment philosophes, they saw what happened in the American Revolution, and they resented
paying all the taxes. Many saw the old political and social structure as out of date and the nobles as silly and vain,
undeserving of the privileges they had.
Many problems converged to create the Revolution: the nobles' refusal to pay taxes, bourgeoisie resentment of the
king, Louis XVI's incompetence, and a series of bad harvests for the peasants. The bourgeoisie seized control of
the proceedings and declared the creation of the National Assembly, a legislative body that still exists in France
today. They wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, modeled after the American Declaration of
Independence, and they set about to write a Constitution for France.
The years after the revolution began were turbulent ones that saw the king beheaded and the government taken
over by the Jacobins, a radical group that sought equality through executing those that disagreed with the
government. The Reign of Terror lasted for about two years, with thousands of people guillotined and thousands
more fleeing the country. The Jacobin leaders themselves were eventually guillotined; the country teetered for
several years in disarray, and finally was swept up by Napoleon Bonaparte as he claimed French glory in battle.
Democracy did not come easily in France.
REFORM MOVEMENTS
The political values supported by revolutions were embraced by some who saw them as applying to all people,
including women and former slaves. Values of liberty, equality, and democracy had profound implications for
change within societies that had always accepted hierarchical social classes and gender roles. Reform movements
sprouted up as different people put different interpretations on what these new political and social values actually
meant.
Women's Rights
Advocates of women's rights were particularly active in Britain, France, and North America. Since gender roles did
not change in the immediate aftermath of revolution, social reformers pressed for women's rights in North America
and Europe. Americans like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony in the United States decided to
concentrate their efforts on suffrage, or the right to vote.
The Limits of the Abolitionist Movement
Although slavery was abolished in Europe and North America by the late 19th century, blacks did not realize
equality within the time period. Blacks all over the Americas tended to have the least desirable jobs, limited
educational opportunities, and lower social status than whites.
Conservative Reactions to Reform
During the late 1800s two systems of related political thought emerged among conservatives to justify inequalities:
• Scientific racism - This idea system became popular among conservative thinkers in industrialized
societies. It used scientific reasoning and evidence to prove its premise that blacks are physiologically and
mentally inferior to whites. Scientific racism, then, justified the inferior positions that blacks had in the
society and the economy.
• Social Darwinism - This philosophy justified not racial differences, but differences between the rich and
the poor. It used Darwin's theory of natural selection (living things that are better adapted to the
environment survive, others don't) to explain why some get rich and others remain poor. In the competition
for favored positions and bigger shares of wealth, the strong, intelligent, and motivated naturally defeat the
weak, less intelligent, and the lazy. So, people who get to the top deserve it, as do the people who remain
at the bottom
Marxism
Another reaction to the revolution in political thought was Marxism, The father of communism is generally
acknowledged to be Karl Marx, who saw capitalism -- or the free market -- as an economic system that exploited
workers and increased the gap between the rich and the poor. He believed that conditions in capitalist countries
would eventually become so bad that workers would join together in a Revolution of the Proletariat (workers), and
overcome the bourgeoisie, or owners of factories and other means of production. Marx envisioned a new world
after the revolution, one in which social class would disappear because ownership of private property would be
banned. According to Marx, communism encourages equality and cooperation, and without property to encourage
greed and strife, governments would be unnecessary. His theories took root in Europe, but never became the
philosophy behind European governments, but it eventually took new forms in early 20th century Russia and China.
NATIONALISM
The era 1750 to 1914 saw the creation of a new type of political organization - the nation - that survived even if the
rulers failed. Whereas nations' political boundaries were still often decided by military victory, the political entity was
much broader than control by one person or family. Nations were built on nationalism - the feeling of identity within
a common group of people. Of course, these feelings were not new in the history of the world. However, the force
of common identity became a basic building block for nations, political forms that still dominate world politics today.
Nationalism could be based on common geographical locations, language, religion, or customs, but it is much more
complex than that. The main idea is that people see themselves as "Americans" or "Italians" or "Japanese," despite
the fact that significant cultural variations may exist within the nation.
EURASIAN EMPIRES
The Russian and Ottoman Empires - two land-based powers in Eurasia - suffered the disadvantages of being
neighbors to the rising nations in Europe. Russia had its wins and losses during the era yet managed to retain its
power, but the Ottomans were in steep decline during most of the period and on the brink of destruction by 1914.
IMPERIALISM
Empire building is an old theme in world history. Motivations have been similar - to obtain natural resources, to
subdue enemies, to accrue wealth, to win power and glory - but until the rise of the west, most empires have
expanded to territories next to their borders. With the combination of sea power, centralized governments, and
industrialized economies, European nations set out to build empires all over the world -- driven by the need to
provide raw materials for their industrial capacity, and the types of goods exchanged were determined by that need.
TYPES OF IMPERIALISM
In the late 19th century Japan and the United States joined the European nations as an imperialist power. Types of
imperialism in the 1800s included:
• Colonial imperialism - This form of imperialism is virtual complete takeover of an area, with domination in all
areas: economic, political, and socio-cultural. The subjugated area existed to benefit the imperialist power,
and had almost no independence of action. In this era, almost all of Africa and southern and southeast Asia
were colonized.
• Economic imperialism - This form of imperialism allowed the area to operate as its own nation, but the
imperialist nation almost completely controlled its trade and other business. For example, it may impose
regulations that forbid trade with other nations, or imperialist companies may own or have exclusive rights
to its natural resources. During this era, China and most of Latin America were subjected to economic
imperialism.
• Political imperialism - Although a country may have had its own government with natives in top political
positions, it operated as the imperialist country told it to. The government was sometimes a relatively
permanent "puppet government," as happened in late Qing China, and other times the control was
temporary, as occurred in the Dominican Republic when the United States ran its government until it got
out of debt.
• Socio-cultural imperialism - The dominating country deliberately tried to change customs, religions and
languages in some of the countries. A good example was British India, where English was taught in
schools, Indian soldiers dressed British-style, and western trading rules were set up. Generally, the
imperialist countries assumed their cultures to be superior, and often times they saw themselves as
bringing about improvements in the society.
IMPERIALISM IN AFRICA
Between 1450 and 1750 Europeans traded with Africa, but they set up very few colonies. By 1850, only a few
colonies existed along African coastlines, such as Algeria (French), the Cape Colony (Great Britain,) and Angola
(Portugal). In the latter half of the 19th century, dramatic changes occurred, as Europeans began to explore Africa's
interior, and by 1914, virtually the entire continent was colonized by one or the other of the competing European
countries. The Berlin Conference of 1884-5, in an effort to avoid war, allowed European diplomats to draw lines on
maps and carve Africa into colonies. The result was a transformation of political and economic Africa, with virtually
all parts of the continent colonized by 1900.
IMPERIALISM IN INDIA
The British "Raj" - 1818-1857
India was under "company" rule for almost forty years, but they were not actually a British colony during that time
because the British East India Company was still private, even though the British government supported it.
However, the company administered governmental affairs and initiated social reform that reflected British values.
The contradictory roles they played eventually erupted in the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857. The Sepoys were Indian
Muslims and Hindus who served the British as soldiers in the army that defended the subcontinent. The rebellion
took the British by surprise, but they found out that the Indian fury could be traced to a new training technique that
the soldiers refused to follow. It required them to put a bullet shell in their mouths that had been greased in either
pork or beef fat, with the pork fat being highly offensive to the Muslims and the beef to the Hindu. The British
changed the practice, but it was too late because nationalism had reached India, too, and a movement for a country
based on Indian identity was beginning. The leaders of the movement would have to wait about 90 years, though,
to fulfill their dreams.
British Rule - 1857-1947
The Sepoy Rebellion showed the British government how serious the problems in India were, and they reacted by
removing the British East India Company from control and declaring India a British colony. British officials poured
into India to keep control of its valuable raw materials for industry and trade, particularly cotton and poppies for
opium. They expanded production, built factories in India, and constructed huge railroad and irrigation, and
telegraph systems.
Rising Indian Nationalism
With growing industrialization and British controlled trade, a middle class of Indian officials and managers began to
rise during the late 1800s. By and large, the British did not allow Indians to own companies or to hold top
government positions, but they did provide education for people to fill middle level and professional jobs. Some
Indians went to England for higher education, where they absorbed western political values of liberty, equality, and
justice, and they began to apply those values to their own situations. The Indian National Congress was formed in
1885, with the goals of promoting political unity and appointing more Indians into higher positions in the British Civil
Service. The Congress was controlled by Hindus, and in 1906 another nationalist group was established for
Muslims called the All-India Muslim League. Despite tensions between them, by 1914 both groups were demanding
Indian independence from the British.
IMPERIALISM IN CHINA
Problems of the Qing Dynasty began to mount during the early 19th century. As the Chinese dynastic cycle was
clearly going into decline, Europeans sensed the problems, and began to push for trading rights that China had
been reluctant to grant in earlier times.
The Opium Wars (1839-1842)
Trade was very much supervised by Chinese under the cohong system, with specially licensed Chinese firms
operating under government set prices. Trade with Europeans was also restricted by the fact that Europeans had
very little that the Chinese wanted to buy, even though the reverse was far from true. So the British East India
Company, using Turkish and Persian expertise) grew opium in India and shipped it to China. As a result, trade
boomed, especially once the Chinese developed addictions to the drug. The weak Qing government failed to act,
even after some Chinese officials began to support the trade by accepting bribes. The Opium Wars began after the
Qing refused to listen to British protests of the trade ban. Although the British did not take over the government,
they forced the Qing to sign a treaty allowing the trade.
The Unequal Treaties
The Treaty of Nanjing, signed by the Chinese after the Opium Wars, was oriented toward trade. The Chinese
agreed to allow the trade of opium and open other ports to exclusive trade with Britain. Beyond that, it gave the
British control of Hong Kong (near Guangzhou), and it released Korea, Vietnam, and Burma from Chinese control.
This was the first of many unequal treaties signed by Asians with European nations, and they eventually led to
"spheres of influence." By the early 20th century, virtually all of China was split into these areas, and the Qing
government was virtually powerless.
The Taiping Rebellion - 1850-1864
The Qing Dynasty was significantly weakened by the Taiping Rebellion, a revolt led by Hong Xiuquan. Hong was
an unusual leader, believing that he was the younger brother of Jesus, and advocating abolition of private property
and equality for women. The Chinese government finally ended the civil war, with a great deal of help from the
Europeans, but the cost to the country was about 20-30 million killed in this 14-year struggle.
Although it is difficult to see the Taiping Rebellion as nationalism, its leader's ideas were similar in many ways to
the radical political movements in the west. Chinese nationalism was more apparent in the 1900 Boxer Rebellion,
in which a group called the Boxers led an army against the Qing with the express purpose of recovering "China for
the Chinese." The group fed on their efforts to rid the country of European interests, and even though the rebellion
was unsuccessful, the Boxers laid the foundations for the 1911 Chinese Revolution that finally ended the Qing
Dynasty.
Japan
The Meiji Restoration took advantage of the fact that their geography made them less strategically important than
the Chinese, so that the Europeans and Americans tended to leave them alone. They were left to their own devices
- to create a remarkable state that built the foundations for Japan as a world power.
The Meiji (meaning "enlightened rule") claimed to have ended centuries of shogun-dominated governments that
made the emperor totally powerless. They mystified and revered the position of the emperor, who became a very
important symbol for Japanese unity. However, the new state did not give the emperor any real power, either.
Japanese nationalism was built on the mysticism of the emperor, anxiety over the foreign threat, and an amazing
transformation of Japan's military, economy, and government. The country was ruled by oligarchs, a small group of
leaders who together directed the state. They borrowed heavily from the west to industrialize their country and to
build a centralized, strong military. They gradually but systematically dissolved the daimyo and samurai classes,
and they placed a great deal of emphasis on building a strong education system.
The era from 1750-1914 was clearly one of growing European power and domination of the globe.
Industrialization created unprecedented wealth, and new western political ideas spawned strong,
centralized states that directed empires around the world. However, the new political ideas encouraged
nationalism, which on the one hand strengthened the industrialized countries, but on the other hand
caused the people that they dominated to resent their control. The potential for worldwide power and
riches also intensified the conflict and competition that had long existed among European states. In 1914
these conflicts came to the surface and erupted into a Great War that ushered in the new, very different era
of the 20th century.